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- Herausgeber: Booksell-Verlag
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
In "Plato: Complete Works," readers are presented with a comprehensive anthology that encapsulates the breadth of Plato's philosophical discourse. This volume includes dialogues such as "The Republic," "Phaedrus," and "Symposium," showcasing his inventive use of Socratic method and dialectical form. The literary style blends dramatic narrative with rigorous philosophical inquiry, offering insights into ethics, politics, education, and metaphysics, all reflective of the tumultuous socio-political landscape of ancient Athens. Plato's works serve not only as foundational texts in Western philosophy but also as profound meditations on the nature of truth and the ideal society. Plato (c. 427-347 BCE) was a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle, shaping the trajectory of Western thought. His unique historical context'—an Athenian citizen during the Peloponnesian War'—shaped his views on democracy and governance. Influenced by Socratic ideals and the quest for absolute truth, Plato endeavored to capture profound philosophical concepts through dialogue, allowing readers to engage critically with the material. "Plato: Complete Works" is essential for anyone wishing to grapple with the foundational ideas that continue to influence contemporary philosophy. This collection invites both scholars and casual readers to delve deep into the mind of one of history's greatest thinkers, fostering an appreciation for the complexities and implications of his work. In this enriched edition, we have carefully created added value for your reading experience: - A comprehensive Introduction outlines these selected works' unifying features, themes, or stylistic evolutions. - The Author Biography highlights personal milestones and literary influences that shape the entire body of writing. - A Historical Context section situates the works in their broader era—social currents, cultural trends, and key events that underpin their creation. - A concise Synopsis (Selection) offers an accessible overview of the included texts, helping readers navigate plotlines and main ideas without revealing critical twists. - A unified Analysis examines recurring motifs and stylistic hallmarks across the collection, tying the stories together while spotlighting the different work's strengths. - Reflection questions inspire deeper contemplation of the author's overarching message, inviting readers to draw connections among different texts and relate them to modern contexts. - Lastly, our hand‐picked Memorable Quotes distill pivotal lines and turning points, serving as touchstones for the collection's central themes.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Plato: Complete Works
Table of Contents
Introduction
The collection titled 'The Complete Works of Plato' serves as an exhaustive compilation of one of the most enduring and influential bodies of philosophical thought in Western history. This definitive anthology encapsulates the breadth of Plato's contributions to philosophy, ethics, politics, and metaphysics, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of his ideas, arguments, and dialogues. By consolidating these works into a single volume, we aim to provide easy access to the full spectrum of Platonic thought, making it available for both academic study and personal reflection. This collection invites readers to engage deeply with the themes that underpin much of Western philosophy.
Within this collection, readers will find a rich tapestry of textual forms that showcase Plato's intellectual versatility. The anthology encompasses dialogues, which are conversational explorations of philosophical concepts; essays that offer direct engagement with topics such as justice and virtue; letters addressing political and personal matters; and his contributions to poetic thought. The inclusion of both early works that lay the groundwork for his later philosophies and the later works that reflect his mature insights provides a comprehensive view of his evolving thought processes and his profound impact on the philosophical canon.
A unifying theme throughout this anthology is the quest for knowledge and understanding, often illustrated through the Socratic method that Plato famously employs in his dialogues. Key motifs such as the theory of forms, the nature of reality, ethics, and the ideal state recur throughout his works, creating an interconnected landscape of ideas that invites critical reflection. Stylistically, Plato’s writing transcends mere philosophical exposition; it engages the reader in a dynamic intellectual exchange, combining rhetoric with profound inquiry. The elegance of his dialectical approach showcases the seamless interplay between philosophy and literature, enriching both fields.
The significance of Plato's works lies not only in their philosophical content but also in their stylistic and rhetorical excellence. His dialogues challenge readers to think critically and engage actively with the text, making them not merely passive consumers of information. Each dialogue stands as a testament to the importance of dialogue—both literally and metaphorically—highlighting the communal nature of philosophical investigation. The accessibility and complexity of his works have ensured their continued relevance, serving as essential texts in philosophical discourse across centuries and cultures, inviting generations to re-examine their ideas.
Plato’s early works engage with the Socratic method, presenting philosophical inquiry through dialogues that prompt readers to question their assumptions. These formative texts not only introduce fundamental concepts but also model the importance of questioning and dialogue in the pursuit of wisdom. Within this collection, the early works lay the foundation for understanding Plato's later philosophical developments, urging readers to reflect on how ideas evolve through discourse. The themes of ethical behavior and the nature of seeker's knowledge resonate throughout, highlighting the importance of self-examination.
As we move into the middle works, Plato expands his philosophical terrain, addressing more complex issues related to politics, metaphysics, and the nature of the soul. This section includes seminal texts such as 'The Republic,' wherein Plato details his vision of an ideal society governed by philosopher-kings. Here, readers will confront intricate discussions on justice, the role of education, and the nature of the good life. The profound exploration of these themes in the middle works solidifies Plato's reputation as a foundational thinker in political philosophy, grappling with questions that remain deeply relevant today.
The late works of Plato reflect a maturation of thought, introducing increasingly abstract philosophical concepts, such as the theory of forms and the relationship between the material and the immaterial. These works delve deep into metaphysical inquiries, demonstrating Plato’s intricate understanding of existence and reality. In this collection, readers will encounter profound reflections on the divine, the nature of knowledge, and the purpose of life, inviting them to contemplate the complexities of human existence. The philosophical inquiries found in the late works contribute significantly to ongoing debates in metaphysics and epistemology.
Unique to this assembly are the pseudonymous works, which provide insight into Platonic thought that may not fit neatly within the established canon. These lesser-known texts and fragments explore a variety of themes, enriching the reader's understanding of Plato's overarching philosophical inquiries. By including these works, this collection acknowledges the diversity of Plato's thought, enabling readers to engage with philosophical ideas that reflect alternative perspectives and less conventional arguments. These pieces challenge readers to consider the breadth of Plato's inquiry beyond his most renowned dialogues.
Additional items included in this collection offer a well-rounded view of Plato’s contributions, featuring works that are often overlooked yet integral to understanding his philosophical landscape. These pieces may include letters, fragments, or scholarly correspondences that provide context and depth to the themes explored in his more famous works. The inclusion of such materials underscores the dynamic nature of philosophical exploration, allowing readers to appreciate the development of ideas through various forms of expression. This breadth of material fosters a comprehensive engagement with Plato's thought.
Readers will discover that one of the distinguishing elements of Plato's work is his commitment to dialectical reasoning, which encourages deep engagement with philosophical concepts. This method calls for active participation, prompting readers not merely to absorb ideas but to challenge, question, and engage in the exploration of truth. Each dialogue serves as an invitation to consider multiple perspectives, fostering a spirit of inquiry fundamental to philosophical practice. Through this collection, the reader is encouraged to embark on their own intellectual journey, echoing the philosophical explorations laid out by Plato.
Throughout the collection, one encounters the intricacies of human psychology depicted through Plato's nuanced character explorations. His dialogues often feature diverse characters representing various viewpoints, allowing readers to see the philosophical inquiry through multiple lenses. This engagement with character not only enlivens the dialectical method but also highlights the interpersonal nature of philosophical exploration. By integrating character studies within his philosophical dialogues, Plato offers a humanized approach to complex ideas, making the texts relatable and inviting an emotional connection to the philosophical discourse.
The relationship between the individual and society is yet another salient theme that emerges across the works of Plato. Throughout these texts, readers will grapple with fundamental questions regarding the individual's role within the state and the ethical obligations they owe to one another. Plato's exploration of justice, virtue, and the ideal state remains significant as these themes resonate in contemporary discussions about governance, civic duty, and social responsibility. By reflecting on Plato’s insights, readers can discern the timeless relevance of his thought to modern societal challenges.
Moreover, the concept of the philosopher as a seeker of truth is recurrent in many of Plato’s dialogues, inviting readers to consider the nature and value of philosophical inquiry. Through the characters of Socrates and others, Plato conveys the idea that the true philosopher is one who relentlessly seeks wisdom and knowledge. This portrayal serves as an enduring model of the educator and the learner alike, encouraging intellectual curiosity and the constant pursuit of understanding. The reader is invited to emulate this search, engaging deeply with the philosophical inquiries presented.
In embracing this collection, readers maintain a critical opportunity to examine the dialogues in their historical context while also applying their timeless insights to contemporary issues. Plato's ability to transcend time and place is remarkable; the ethical dilemmas, political philosophies, and metaphysical questions he addresses remain relevant today. This anthology posits that understanding Plato's works is crucial not only for grasping the foundations of Western philosophy but also for fostering informed discussions about the ethical and political complexities of the modern world.
As the reader navigates through the individual sections of this collection, they will find a myriad of philosophical questions that span across disciplines. The themes of love, education, truth, and justice interconnect across various works, providing a fertile ground for interdisciplinary dialogue. This collection offers an overview of not only Plato’s philosophical inquiries but also their implications for literature, politics, ethics, and other domains. Engaging with these themes invites readers to consider how Plato’s thought intersects with diverse fields of human inquiry.
The significance of 'The Complete Works of Plato' extends beyond the realm of scholarship; it beckons intellectual exploration and personal reflection. By engaging with Plato’s ideas, readers are encouraged to confront their views on essential philosophical questions. The dialogues serve as an engaging platform for philosophical inquiry, prompting discussions that challenge assumptions and cultivate critical thinking. This collection promises an immersive experience that fosters dialogue and reflection, highlighting the importance of philosophical engagement in everyday life.
In closing, we invite readers to delve into each section of 'The Complete Works of Plato,' appreciating the rich philosophical heritage it provides. Whether you are a seasoned scholar or a curious newcomer, this comprehensive anthology invites you to explore Plato's vast intellectual landscape, engaging with the profound questions that define the human experience. Each work in this collection offers a unique lens through which to understand the world, encouraging the reader to contemplate, discuss, and ultimately seek wisdom. Your journey into Plato's philosophical inquiries awaits.
Author Biography
Introduction
Plato was an Athenian philosopher of the late 5th and mid-4th centuries BCE whose dialogues helped define Western philosophy. A student of Socrates and later the teacher of Aristotle, he founded the Academy in Athens, an enduring center of inquiry. His works, written as dramatic conversations, examine ethics, knowledge, metaphysics, politics, and education. Major dialogues include the Republic, Symposium, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Timaeus, Gorgias, Meno, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, and the Laws. Through ideas such as the theory of Forms and the ideal of philosopher-rulers, Plato shaped subsequent debates about reason, justice, and the structure of a good society.
Education and Literary Influences
Plato grew up in a prominent Athenian milieu that valued music, poetry, gymnastics, and civic training. As a young man he encountered Socrates, whose questioning method and moral seriousness redirected Plato’s ambitions from public life toward philosophy. Socrates’ example—his relentless pursuit of definitions and his indifference to wealth and reputation—became the primary catalyst for Plato’s intellectual development. After Socrates’ trial and execution, Plato turned to writing dialogues in which Socrates often appears as the leading voice. The use of Socrates allowed Plato to explore inquiry as a lived practice, while maintaining a measured distance between author and argument.
Plato’s thought also reflects wider currents in Greek philosophy. He engaged with the Eleatics (notably Parmenides) on unity and change, and with Heraclitean ideas about flux. Mathematical themes associated with Pythagorean traditions influenced his emphasis on proportion, harmony, and the educational value of arithmetic and geometry. Ancient reports suggest he encountered Pythagorean thinkers in southern Italy; while specific itineraries are debated, the imprint of such ideas is evident in works like the Timaeus. He was familiar with sophistic rhetoric and sought to distinguish dialectic—reasoned inquiry oriented toward truth—from persuasive technique aimed merely at victory.
Literary Career
Plato’s earliest dialogues are often styled “Socratic,” featuring concise exchanges that test definitions and commonly end in aporia, or puzzlement. Works such as the Apology, Crito, Euthyphro, Laches, Protagoras, and Gorgias present Socrates examining piety, courage, virtue, and rhetoric. The Apology gives a compelling portrait of Socrates’ defense of philosophical life. In these texts, Plato refines the elenchus—cross-examination that exposes contradictions—while dramatizing the ethical stakes of inquiry. The literary craft is deliberate: setting, character, and irony shape the arguments, making philosophy not merely systematic speech but a staged, dialogical search for clarity.
In middle-period dialogues, Plato advances positive doctrines. The Meno explores whether virtue can be taught and introduces recollection. The Phaedo offers arguments about the soul and the pursuit of wisdom. The Symposium and Phaedrus analyze love, beauty, and rhetoric, while the Republic presents an ambitious account of justice, education, and the soul’s structure. Across these works, the theory of Forms—stable, intelligible realities—grounds knowledge and value. The Good stands as the highest principle, illuminating truth and being. This phase exhibits richer myths and extended arguments, indicating Plato’s growing confidence in constructing comprehensive philosophical architectures.
Plato’s writing fuses rigorous argument with literary artistry. He employs myths to complement reasoning—the allegory of the cave and the myth of Er in the Republic, and the charioteer image in the Phaedrus. These narratives function as cognitive aids, guiding readers from opinion toward understanding. Dialogue form allows multiple perspectives to collide, preserving philosophical humility while probing fundamental questions. Plato is attentive to language, often interrogating how naming and speaking relate to knowing, as in Cratylus. He also scrutinizes education’s role in shaping character, treating music, poetry, and mathematics as formative instruments of the soul.
Late dialogues display heightened methodological self-awareness and technical precision. The Theaetetus investigates knowledge without arriving at a final definition, while the Sophist and Statesman refine dialectical division and examine being, non-being, and rule. The Philebus assesses the roles of pleasure and intellect in the good life. The Timaeus presents a cosmological account linking intelligibility and mathematical order, paired with the Critias’ unfinished narrative. The Laws, likely a final major work, designs institutions and legal frameworks for a second-best city, adopting a more pragmatic tone and relying less on the character of Socrates than earlier compositions.
Plato’s professional milestone was the establishment of the Academy in early 4th-century BCE Athens. It fostered collaborative study in philosophy, mathematics, and related sciences, and attracted figures such as Aristotle, Speusippus, and Xenocrates. The Academy offered sustained training in dialectic and mathematical disciplines, reflecting Plato’s conviction that rigorous education prepares the mind for philosophical insight. His dialogues circulated widely and elicited both admiration and critique in classical Greece. While some ancient readers contested particular doctrines, his dramatic and argumentative innovations secured him enduring authority. The Academy’s continuity beyond his lifetime further consolidated his standing as a canonical author.
Beliefs and Advocacy
Plato’s core commitments center on the supremacy of reason, the educability of the soul, and the existence of intelligible realities that ground knowledge and ethics. He posits Forms as stable objects of understanding and identifies the Good as the ultimate source of intelligibility and value. He examines the psyche’s structure—reason, spirit, and appetite—and argues that justice involves their proper ordering. Methodologically, he privileges dialectic: disciplined dialogue that ascends from hypotheses to first principles. His works advocate lifelong inquiry, moral self-examination, and an education integrating poetry, music, gymnastics, and mathematics under the guidance of philosophical understanding.
Politically, Plato critiques unexamined democracy and tyranny alike, urging institutions that cultivate virtue. In the Republic, he defends rule by those trained to love truth and justice, proposing a demanding educational path for guardians. He recommends regulating cultural forms in civic education, aiming to harmonize character with the common good. The Laws adopts a more legalistic strategy, emphasizing structured legislation and civic religion to stabilize a second-best city. Ancient reports describe Plato’s efforts to advise rulers in Sicily; letters attributed to him discuss these episodes, though their authenticity is debated. Throughout, he advocates philosophic reform rather than factional partisanship.
Final Years & Legacy
In his later years, Plato continued teaching at the Academy and turned to comprehensive legislative design in the Laws. The dialogue’s dialogical voice shifts from Socrates to other interlocutors, signaling a new emphasis on practical institutional questions. After his death in the mid-4th century BCE, leadership of the Academy passed to Speusippus, with subsequent scholarchs sustaining the school’s Platonic orientation while developing it in diverse directions. Ancient sources place his death in Athens. His immediate legacy included generations of students trained in dialectic and a corpus of dialogues that became standard texts for philosophical education.
Plato’s long-term impact is vast. In late antiquity, Platonism was reinterpreted by Neoplatonists such as Plotinus, shaping philosophical theology. His ideas influenced medieval thought in Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions, often through Neoplatonic intermediaries. Renaissance humanists revived and translated his dialogues, reinvigorating debates on beauty, love, and political order. Modern philosophy, political theory, and the sciences continue to engage his methods and problems, from definitions of knowledge to the relation between mathematics and reality. His dialogues remain central in curricula worldwide, valued for their literary brilliance and their inexhaustible invitation to examine life through reasoned conversation.
Historical Context
Plato was born in Athens around 428 BCE into a time of political vitality and conflict. The city-state’s democratic experiment reached its zenith just before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) against Sparta. The war’s toll—culminating in Athens’ temporary loss of empire—shaped Plato’s lifelong concerns with governance, ethics and the place of wisdom in public life.
The oligarchic regime known as the Thirty Tyrants seized power in 404 BCE, and five years later the trial and execution of Socrates in 399 BCE left a deep impression on the young Plato. Questions of justice, the ideal constitution and individual responsibility became enduring themes in his dialogues, from the early defenses of Socrates’ conduct to the more elaborate political visions articulated in works such as Republic.
In his thirties Plato traveled to southern Italy and, according to tradition, to Sicily, where he encountered Pythagorean communities. These encounters—whether they involved their mathematics, their emphasis on harmony or their way of life—introduced him to ideas beyond the Athenian schools of thought, enriching the blend of mysticism and rational inquiry that appears in his middle and later writings.
Around 387 BCE he established a school in Athens known as the Academy, which became one of the first institutions devoted to systematic philosophical study in the Greek world. There he outlined an educational program centered on dialectic, aiming to prepare leaders versed in virtue and knowledge—a blueprint reflected in his portraits of the “philosopher-king” and of legal institutions governed by wisdom rather than mere opinion.
Plato’s early dialogues often set Socratic questioning against the claims of contemporary educators known as sophists, who taught persuasive speaking for pay. In contrast, he insisted that ethical and political life must rest on truths discerned by rigorous inquiry rather than on rhetorical success alone.
Responding to currents of skepticism and to radical critics of civic conventions, including thinkers later called Cynics, he developed his theory of Forms—a hierarchy of unchanging realities accessible to reason. In these middle dialogues he argued that genuine knowledge differs fundamentally from the shifting beliefs of everyday experience.
Throughout his work, the Socratic method of question and answer remains central, demonstrating Plato’s conviction that dialogue and critical examination are the surest paths to understanding virtue, justice and the structure of reality.
While rooted in Athens’ intellectual culture—where drama and poetry flourished—his writings also offer a pointed critique of art’s emotional influence. In Republic he famously limits dramatic spectacle in a well-ordered city, favoring a model in which literature and music support moral education rather than stir unexamined passions.
Political upheavals of his lifetime—from democratic reform to oligarchic rule—led Plato to propose alternative constitutions in Republic and Laws. His aim was to reconcile popular participation with competent leadership, laying a foundation for later reflections in political philosophy.
Pre-Socratic thinkers such as Heraclitus and Parmenides likewise inform his thought. Their debates over flux and permanence echo in his distinction between the sensible world and the eternal Forms that underpin it.
Elements of traditional religion also surface in dialogues like Timaeus, where cosmology and the divine intertwine. Plato there seeks a synthesis of inherited mythic frameworks with philosophical explanations of the universe’s order.
After his death, around 348 BCE, his work continued to shape Hellenistic schools and, centuries later, the Neoplatonists who integrated his ideas with spiritual concerns. During the Roman era his dialogues were copied and taught alongside other classics, and in the medieval period Byzantine scholars and, through Arabic translations, Islamic thinkers preserved and commented upon his legacy.
The European Renaissance witnessed a revival of Platonic studies, as humanists recovered texts and debated their implications for theology and science. In the seventeenth century, figures such as Descartes and Newton engaged Platonic themes—particularly the contrast between sensory experience and rational insight—in their own inquiries into nature’s laws.
In the modern era philosophers from the Enlightenment to existentialism and pragmatism have revisited Platonic ideals, testing them against emerging views of individual freedom and empirical knowledge. His emphasis on critical dialogue, the search for unifying principles and the interplay of ethics and politics continues to inform contemporary education, where debate and reflective inquiry remain central to the pursuit of wisdom.
In sum, Plato’s dialogues arose from—and responded to—the complex social, cultural and intellectual currents of classical Athens. Their systematic exploration of knowledge, reality and the good life has endured across millennia, offering a lasting framework for questions that remain vital in our own time.
Synopsis (Selection)
Preface to the First Edition
A reflection on the purpose and importance of Plato's works, emphasizing their relevance to philosophy and education.
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
An introduction to the subsequent editions that highlights the evolving interpretation of Plato's texts and their enduring significance.
Early Works
A collection of dialogues featuring Socratic interactions that explore themes of virtue, justice, and knowledge—key works include 'The Apology', 'Crito', and 'Euthyphro', where Socrates faces charges of impiety and corruption of youth.
Middle Works
Key dialogues in this phase, including 'The Republic', 'Phaedrus', and 'Symposium', explore the nature of justice, ideal societal structures, and concepts of love and beauty, culminating in the allegory of the cave as a metaphor for enlightenment.
Late Works
These writings, such as 'Theaetetus', 'Timaeus', and 'Laws', delve into epistemology, cosmology, and the practical application of philosophy in governance, presenting a more structured view of knowledge and the ideal state.
Pseudonymous Works
A collection attributed to Plato but likely composed by others; these works reflect themes of ethics and politics, echoing Platonic ideas while differing in style and perspective.
Additional Items
An assortment of supplementary materials, including letters that provide personal insights into Plato's philosophy and teachings, as well as fragments and lesser-known dialogues that contribute to a broader understanding of his thought.
The Complete Works of Plato
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
Early Works
Middle Works
Late Works
Pseudonymous Works
Additional Items
Preface to the First Edition
The Text which has been mostly followed in this Translation of Plato is the latest 8vo. edition of Stallbaum; the principal deviations are noted at the bottom of the page.
I have to acknowledge many obligations to old friends and pupils. These are:—Mr. John Purves, Fellow of Balliol College, with whom I have revised about half of the entire Translation; the Rev. Professor Campbell, of St. Andrews, who has helped me in the revision of several parts of the work, especially of the Theaetetus, Sophist, and Politicus; Mr. Robinson Ellis, Fellow of Trinity College, and Mr. Alfred Robinson, Fellow of New College, who read with me the Cratylus and the Gorgias; Mr. Paravicini, Student of Christ Church, who assisted me in the Symposium; Mr. Raper, Fellow of Queen's College, Mr. Monro, Fellow of Oriel College, and Mr. Shadwell, Student of Christ Church, who gave me similar assistance in the Laws. Dr. Greenhill, of Hastings, has also kindly sent me remarks on the physiological part of the Timaeus, which I have inserted as corrections under the head of errata at the end of the Introduction. The degree of accuracy which I have been enabled to attain is in great measure due to these gentlemen, and I heartily thank them for the pains and time which they have bestowed on my work.
I have further to explain how far I have received help from other labourers in the same field. The books which I have found of most use are Steinhart and Muller's German Translation of Plato with Introductions; Zeller's 'Philosophie der Griechen,' and 'Platonische Studien;' Susemihl's 'Genetische Entwickelung der Paltonischen Philosophie;' Hermann's 'Geschichte der Platonischen Philosophie;' Bonitz, 'Platonische Studien;' Stallbaum's Notes and Introductions; Professor Campbell's editions of the 'Theaetetus,' the 'Sophist,' and the 'Politicus;' Professor Thompson's 'Phaedrus;' Th. Martin's 'Etudes sur le Timee;' Mr. Poste's edition and translation of the 'Philebus;' the Translation of the 'Republic,' by Messrs. Davies and Vaughan, and the Translation of the 'Gorgias,' by Mr. Cope.
I have also derived much assistance from the great work of Mr. Grote, which contains excellent analyses of the Dialogues, and is rich in original thoughts and observations. I agree with him in rejecting as futile the attempt of Schleiermacher and others to arrange the Dialogues of Plato into a harmonious whole. Any such arrangement appears to me not only to be unsupported by evidence, but to involve an anachronism in the history of philosophy. There is a common spirit in the writings of Plato, but not a unity of design in the whole, nor perhaps a perfect unity in any single Dialogue. The hypothesis of a general plan which is worked out in the successive Dialogues is an after-thought of the critics who have attributed a system to writings belonging to an age when system had not as yet taken possession of philosophy.
If Mr. Grote should do me the honour to read any portion of this work he will probably remark that I have endeavoured to approach Plato from a point of view which is opposed to his own. The aim of the Introductions in these volumes has been to represent Plato as the father of Idealism, who is not to be measured by the standard of utilitarianism or any other modern philosophical system. He is the poet or maker of ideas, satisfying the wants of his own age, providing the instruments of thought for future generations. He is no dreamer, but a great philosophical genius struggling with the unequal conditions of light and knowledge under which he is living. He may be illustrated by the writings of moderns, but he must be interpreted by his own, and by his place in the history of philosophy. We are not concerned to determine what is the residuum of truth which remains for ourselves. His truth may not be our truth, and nevertheless may have an extraordinary value and interest for us.
I cannot agree with Mr. Grote in admitting as genuine all the writings commonly attributed to Plato in antiquity, any more than with Schaarschmidt and some other German critics who reject nearly half of them. The German critics, to whom I refer, proceed chiefly on grounds of internal evidence; they appear to me to lay too much stress on the variety of doctrine and style, which must be equally acknowledged as a fact, even in the Dialogues regarded by Schaarschmidt as genuine, e.g. in the Phaedrus, or Symposium, when compared with the Laws. He who admits works so different in style and matter to have been the composition of the same author, need have no difficulty in admitting the Sophist or the Politicus. (The negative argument adduced by the same school of critics, which is based on the silence of Aristotle, is not worthy of much consideration. For why should Aristotle, because he has quoted several Dialogues of Plato, have quoted them all? Something must be allowed to chance, and to the nature of the subjects treated of in them.) On the other hand, Mr. Grote trusts mainly to the Alexandrian Canon. But I hardly think that we are justified in attributing much weight to the authority of the Alexandrian librarians in an age when there was no regular publication of books, and every temptation to forge them; and in which the writings of a school were naturally attributed to the founder of the school. And even without intentional fraud, there was an inclination to believe rather than to enquire. Would Mr. Grote accept as genuine all the writings which he finds in the lists of learned ancients attributed to Hippocrates, to Xenophon, to Aristotle? The Alexandrian Canon of the Platonic writings is deprived of credit by the admission of the Epistles, which are not only unworthy of Plato, and in several passages plagiarized from him, but flagrantly at variance with historical fact. It will be seen also that I do not agree with Mr. Grote's views about the Sophists; nor with the low estimate which he has formed of Plato's Laws; nor with his opinion respecting Plato's doctrine of the rotation of the earth. But I 'am not going to lay hands on my father Parmenides' (Soph.), who will, I hope, forgive me for differing from him on these points. I cannot close this Preface without expressing my deep respect for his noble and gentle character, and the great services which he has rendered to Greek Literature.
Balliol College, January, 1871.
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
In publishing a Second Edition (1875) of the Dialogues of Plato in English, I had to acknowledge the assistance of several friends: of the Rev. G.G. Bradley, Master of University College, now Dean of Westminster, who sent me some valuable remarks on the Phaedo; of Dr. Greenhill, who had again revised a portion of the Timaeus; of Mr. R.L. Nettleship, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, to whom I was indebted for an excellent criticism of the Parmenides; and, above all, of the Rev. Professor Campbell of St. Andrews, and Mr. Paravicini, late Student of Christ Church and Tutor of Balliol College, with whom I had read over the greater part of the translation. I was also indebted to Mr. Evelyn Abbott, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, for a complete and accurate index.
In this, the Third Edition, I am under very great obligations to Mr. Matthew Knight, who has not only favoured me with valuable suggestions throughout the work, but has largely extended the Index (from 61 to 175 pages) and translated the Eryxias and Second Alcibiades; and to Mr Frank Fletcher, of Balliol College, my Secretary. I am also considerably indebted to Mr. J.W. Mackail, late Fellow of Balliol College, who read over the Republic in the Second Edition and noted several inaccuracies.
In both editions the Introductions to the Dialogues have been enlarged, and essays on subjects having an affinity to the Platonic Dialogues have been introduced into several of them. The analyses have been corrected, and innumerable alterations have been made in the Text. There have been added also, in the Third Edition, headings to the pages and a marginal analysis to the text of each dialogue.
At the end of a long task, the translator may without impropriety point out the difficulties which he has had to encounter. These have been far greater than he would have anticipated; nor is he at all sanguine that he has succeeded in overcoming them. Experience has made him feel that a translation, like a picture, is dependent for its effect on very minute touches; and that it is a work of infinite pains, to be returned to in many moods and viewed in different lights.
I. An English translation ought to be idiomatic and interesting, not only to the scholar, but to the unlearned reader. Its object should not simply be to render the words of one language into the words of another or to preserve the construction and order of the original;—this is the ambition of a schoolboy, who wishes to show that he has made a good use of his Dictionary and Grammar; but is quite unworthy of the translator, who seeks to produce on his reader an impression similar or nearly similar to that produced by the original. To him the feeling should be more important than the exact word. He should remember Dryden's quaint admonition not to 'lacquey by the side of his author, but to mount up behind him.' (Dedication to the Aeneis.) He must carry in his mind a comprehensive view of the whole work, of what has preceded and of what is to follow,—as well as of the meaning of particular passages. His version should be based, in the first instance, on an intimate knowledge of the text; but the precise order and arrangement of the words may be left to fade out of sight, when the translation begins to take shape. He must form a general idea of the two languages, and reduce the one to the terms of the other. His work should be rhythmical and varied, the right admixture of words and syllables, and even of letters, should be carefully attended to; above all, it should be equable in style. There must also be quantity, which is necessary in prose as well as in verse: clauses, sentences, paragraphs, must be in due proportion. Metre and even rhyme may be rarely admitted; though neither is a legitimate element of prose writing, they may help to lighten a cumbrous expression (Symp.). The translation should retain as far as possible the characteristic qualities of the ancient writer—his freedom, grace, simplicity, stateliness, weight, precision; or the best part of him will be lost to the English reader. It should read as an original work, and should also be the most faithful transcript which can be made of the language from which the translation is taken, consistently with the first requirement of all, that it be English. Further, the translation being English, it should also be perfectly intelligible in itself without reference to the Greek, the English being really the more lucid and exact of the two languages. In some respects it may be maintained that ordinary English writing, such as the newspaper article, is superior to Plato: at any rate it is couched in language which is very rarely obscure. On the other hand, the greatest writers of Greece, Thucydides, Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Pindar, Demosthenes, are generally those which are found to be most difficult and to diverge most widely from the English idiom. The translator will often have to convert the more abstract Greek into the more concrete English, or vice versa, and he ought not to force upon one language the character of another. In some cases, where the order is confused, the expression feeble, the emphasis misplaced, or the sense somewhat faulty, he will not strive in his rendering to reproduce these characteristics, but will re-write the passage as his author would have written it at first, had he not been 'nodding'; and he will not hesitate to supply anything which, owing to the genius of the language or some accident of composition, is omitted in the Greek, but is necessary to make the English clear and consecutive.
It is difficult to harmonize all these conflicting elements. In a translation of Plato what may be termed the interests of the Greek and English are often at war with one another. In framing the English sentence we are insensibly diverted from the exact meaning of the Greek; when we return to the Greek we are apt to cramp and overlay the English. We substitute, we compromise, we give and take, we add a little here and leave out a little there. The translator may sometimes be allowed to sacrifice minute accuracy for the sake of clearness and sense. But he is not therefore at liberty to omit words and turns of expression which the English language is quite capable of supplying. He must be patient and self-controlled; he must not be easily run away with. Let him never allow the attraction of a favourite expression, or a sonorous cadence, to overpower his better judgment, or think much of an ornament which is out of keeping with the general character of his work. He must ever be casting his eyes upwards from the copy to the original, and down again from the original to the copy (Rep.). His calling is not held in much honour by the world of scholars; yet he himself may be excused for thinking it a kind of glory to have lived so many years in the companionship of one of the greatest of human intelligences, and in some degree, more perhaps than others, to have had the privilege of understanding him (Sir Joshua Reynolds' Lectures: Disc. xv.).
There are fundamental differences in Greek and English, of which some may be managed while others remain intractable. (1). The structure of the Greek language is partly adversative and alternative, and partly inferential; that is to say, the members of a sentence are either opposed to one another, or one of them expresses the cause or effect or condition or reason of another. The two tendencies may be called the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the language; and the opposition or inference is often much more one of words than of ideas. But modern languages have rubbed off this adversative and inferential form: they have fewer links of connection, there is less mortar in the interstices, and they are content to place sentences side by side, leaving their relation to one another to be gathered from their position or from the context. The difficulty of preserving the effect of the Greek is increased by the want of adversative and inferential particles in English, and by the nice sense of tautology which characterizes all modern languages. We cannot have two 'buts' or two 'fors' in the same sentence where the Greek repeats (Greek). There is a similar want of particles expressing the various gradations of objective and subjective thought—(Greek) and the like, which are so thickly scattered over the Greek page. Further, we can only realize to a very imperfect degree the common distinction between (Greek), and the combination of the two suggests a subtle shade of negation which cannot be expressed in English. And while English is more dependent than Greek upon the apposition of clauses and sentences, yet there is a difficulty in using this form of construction owing to the want of case endings. For the same reason there cannot be an equal variety in the order of words or an equal nicety of emphasis in English as in Greek.
(2) The formation of the sentence and of the paragraph greatly differs in Greek and English. The lines by which they are divided are generally much more marked in modern languages than in ancient. Both sentences and paragraphs are more precise and definite—they do not run into one another. They are also more regularly developed from within. The sentence marks another step in an argument or a narrative or a statement; in reading a paragraph we silently turn over the page and arrive at some new view or aspect of the subject. Whereas in Plato we are not always certain where a sentence begins and ends; and paragraphs are few and far between. The language is distributed in a different way, and less articulated than in English. For it was long before the true use of the period was attained by the classical writers both in poetry or prose; it was (Greek). The balance of sentences and the introduction of paragraphs at suitable intervals must not be neglected if the harmony of the English language is to be preserved. And still a caution has to be added on the other side, that we must avoid giving it a numerical or mechanical character.
(3) This, however, is not one of the greatest difficulties of the translator; much greater is that which arises from the restriction of the use of the genders. Men and women in English are masculine and feminine, and there is a similar distinction of sex in the words denoting animals; but all things else, whether outward objects or abstract ideas, are relegated to the class of neuters. Hardly in some flight of poetry do we ever endue any of them with the characteristics of a sentient being, and then only by speaking of them in the feminine gender. The virtues may be pictured in female forms, but they are not so described in language; a ship is humorously supposed to be the sailor's bride; more doubtful are the personifications of church and country as females. Now the genius of the Greek language is the opposite of this. The same tendency to personification which is seen in the Greek mythology is common also in the language; and genders are attributed to things as well as persons according to their various degrees of strength and weakness; or from fanciful resemblances to the male or female form, or some analogy too subtle to be discovered. When the gender of any object was once fixed, a similar gender was naturally assigned to similar objects, or to words of similar formation. This use of genders in the denotation of objects or ideas not only affects the words to which genders are attributed, but the words with which they are construed or connected, and passes into the general character of the style. Hence arises a difficulty in translating Greek into English which cannot altogether be overcome. Shall we speak of the soul and its qualities, of virtue, power, wisdom, and the like, as feminine or neuter? The usage of the English language does not admit of the former, and yet the life and beauty of the style are impaired by the latter. Often the translator will have recourse to the repetition of the word, or to the ambiguous 'they,' 'their,' etc.; for fear of spoiling the effect of the sentence by introducing 'it.' Collective nouns in Greek and English create a similar but lesser awkwardness.
(4) To use of relation is far more extended in Greek than in English. Partly the greater variety of genders and cases makes the connexion of relative and antecedent less ambiguous: partly also the greater number of demonstrative and relative pronouns, and the use of the article, make the correlation of ideas simpler and more natural. The Greek appears to have had an ear or intelligence for a long and complicated sentence which is rarely to be found in modern nations; and in order to bring the Greek down to the level of the modern, we must break up the long sentence into two or more short ones. Neither is the same precision required in Greek as in Latin or English, nor in earlier Greek as in later; there was nothing shocking to the contemporary of Thucydides and Plato in anacolutha and repetitions. In such cases the genius of the English language requires that the translation should be more intelligible than the Greek. The want of more distinctions between the demonstrative pronouns is also greatly felt. Two genitives dependent on one another, unless familiarised by idiom, have an awkward effect in English. Frequently the noun has to take the place of the pronoun. 'This' and 'that' are found repeating themselves to weariness in the rough draft of a translation. As in the previous case, while the feeling of the modern language is more opposed to tautology, there is also a greater difficulty in avoiding it.
(5) Though no precise rule can be laid down about the repetition of words, there seems to be a kind of impertinence in presenting to the reader the same thought in the same words, repeated twice over in the same passage without any new aspect or modification of it. And the evasion of tautology—that is, the substitution of one word of precisely the same meaning for another—is resented by us equally with the repetition of words. Yet on the other hand the least difference of meaning or the least change of form from a substantive to an adjective, or from a participle to a verb, will often remedy the unpleasant effect. Rarely and only for the sake of emphasis or clearness can we allow an important word to be used twice over in two successive sentences or even in the same paragraph. The particles and pronouns, as they are of most frequent occurrence, are also the most troublesome. Strictly speaking, except a few of the commonest of them, 'and,' 'the,' etc., they ought not to occur twice in the same sentence. But the Greek has no such precise rules; and hence any literal translation of a Greek author is full of tautology. The tendency of modern languages is to become more correct as well as more perspicuous than ancient. And, therefore, while the English translator is limited in the power of expressing relation or connexion, by the law of his own language increased precision and also increased clearness are required of him. The familiar use of logic, and the progress of science, have in these two respects raised the standard. But modern languages, while they have become more exacting in their demands, are in many ways not so well furnished with powers of expression as the ancient classical ones.
Such are a few of the difficulties which have to be overcome in the work of translation; and we are far from having exhausted the list. (6) The excellence of a translation will consist, not merely in the faithful rendering of words, or in the composition of a sentence only, or yet of a single paragraph, but in the colour and style of the whole work. Equability of tone is best attained by the exclusive use of familiar and idiomatic words. But great care must be taken; for an idiomatic phrase, if an exception to the general style, is of itself a disturbing element. No word, however expressive and exact, should be employed, which makes the reader stop to think, or unduly attracts attention by difficulty and peculiarity, or disturbs the effect of the surrounding language. In general the style of one author is not appropriate to another; as in society, so in letters, we expect every man to have 'a good coat of his own,' and not to dress himself out in the rags of another. (a) Archaic expressions are therefore to be avoided. Equivalents may be occasionally drawn from Shakspere, who is the common property of us all; but they must be used sparingly. For, like some other men of genius of the Elizabethan and Jacobean age, he outdid the capabilities of the language, and many of the expressions which he introduced have been laid aside and have dropped out of use. (b) A similar principle should be observed in the employment of Scripture. Having a greater force and beauty than other language, and a religious association, it disturbs the even flow of the style. It may be used to reproduce in the translation the quaint effect of some antique phrase in the original, but rarely; and when adopted, it should have a certain freshness and a suitable 'entourage.' It is strange to observe that the most effective use of Scripture phraseology arises out of the application of it in a sense not intended by the author. (c) Another caution: metaphors differ in different languages, and the translator will often be compelled to substitute one for another, or to paraphrase them, not giving word for word, but diffusing over several words the more concentrated thought of the original. The Greek of Plato often goes beyond the English in its imagery: compare Laws, (Greek); Rep.; etc. Or again the modern word, which in substance is the nearest equivalent to the Greek, may be found to include associations alien to Greek life: e.g. (Greek), 'jurymen,' (Greek), 'the bourgeoisie.' (d) The translator has also to provide expressions for philosophical terms of very indefinite meaning in the more definite language of modern philosophy. And he must not allow discordant elements to enter into the work. For example, in translating Plato, it would equally be an anachronism to intrude on him the feeling and spirit of the Jewish or Christian Scriptures or the technical terms of the Hegelian or Darwinian philosophy.
(7) As no two words are precise equivalents (just as no two leaves of the forest are exactly similar), it is a mistaken attempt at precision always to translate the same Greek word by the same English word. There is no reason why in the New Testament (Greek) should always be rendered 'righteousness,' or (Greek) 'covenant.' In such cases the translator may be allowed to employ two words—sometimes when the two meanings occur in the same passage, varying them by an 'or'—e.g. (Greek), 'science' or 'knowledge,' (Greek), 'idea' or 'class,' (Greek), 'temperance' or 'prudence,'—at the point where the change of meaning occurs. If translations are intended not for the Greek scholar but for the general reader, their worst fault will be that they sacrifice the general effect and meaning to the over-precise rendering of words and forms of speech.
(8) There is no kind of literature in English which corresponds to the Greek Dialogue; nor is the English language easily adapted to it. The rapidity and abruptness of question and answer, the constant repetition of (Greek), etc., which Cicero avoided in Latin (de Amicit), the frequent occurrence of expletives, would, if reproduced in a translation, give offence to the reader. Greek has a freer and more frequent use of the Interrogative, and is of a more passionate and emotional character, and therefore lends itself with greater readiness to the dialogue form. Most of the so-called English Dialogues are but poor imitations of Plato, which fall very far short of the original. The breath of conversation, the subtle adjustment of question and answer, the lively play of fancy, the power of drawing characters, are wanting in them. But the Platonic dialogue is a drama as well as a dialogue, of which Socrates is the central figure, and there are lesser performers as well:—the insolence of Thrasymachus, the anger of Callicles and Anytus, the patronizing style of Protagoras, the self-consciousness of Prodicus and Hippias, are all part of the entertainment. To reproduce this living image the same sort of effort is required as in translating poetry. The language, too, is of a finer quality; the mere prose English is slow in lending itself to the form of question and answer, and so the ease of conversation is lost, and at the same time the dialectical precision with which the steps of the argument are drawn out is apt to be impaired.
II. In the Introductions to the Dialogues there have been added some essays on modern philosophy, and on political and social life. The chief subjects discussed in these are Utility, Communism, the Kantian and Hegelian philosophies, Psychology, and the Origin of Language. (There have been added also in the Third Edition remarks on other subjects. A list of the most important of these additions is given at the end of this Preface.)
Ancient and modern philosophy throw a light upon one another: but they should be compared, not confounded. Although the connexion between them is sometimes accidental, it is often real. The same questions are discussed by them under different conditions of language and civilization; but in some cases a mere word has survived, while nothing or hardly anything of the pre-Socratic, Platonic, or Aristotelian meaning is retained. There are other questions familiar to the moderns, which have no place in ancient philosophy. The world has grown older in two thousand years, and has enlarged its stock of ideas and methods of reasoning. Yet the germ of modern thought is found in ancient, and we may claim to have inherited, notwithstanding many accidents of time and place, the spirit of Greek philosophy. There is, however, no continuous growth of the one into the other, but a new beginning, partly artificial, partly arising out of the questionings of the mind itself, and also receiving a stimulus from the study of ancient writings.
Considering the great and fundamental differences which exist in ancient and modern philosophy, it seems best that we should at first study them separately, and seek for the interpretation of either, especially of the ancient, from itself only, comparing the same author with himself and with his contemporaries, and with the general state of thought and feeling prevalent in his age. Afterwards comes the remoter light which they cast on one another. We begin to feel that the ancients had the same thoughts as ourselves, the same difficulties which characterize all periods of transition, almost the same opposition between science and religion. Although we cannot maintain that ancient and modern philosophy are one and continuous (as has been affirmed with more truth respecting ancient and modern history), for they are separated by an interval of a thousand years, yet they seem to recur in a sort of cycle, and we are surprised to find that the new is ever old, and that the teaching of the past has still a meaning for us.
III. In the preface to the first edition I expressed a strong opinion at variance with Mr. Grote's, that the so-called Epistles of Plato were spurious. His friend and editor, Professor Bain, thinks that I ought to give the reasons why I differ from so eminent an authority. Reserving the fuller discussion of the question for another place, I will shortly defend my opinion by the following arguments:—
(a) Because almost all epistles purporting to be of the classical age of Greek literature are forgeries. (Compare Bentley's Works (Dyce's Edition).) Of all documents this class are the least likely to be preserved and the most likely to be invented. The ancient world swarmed with them; the great libraries stimulated the demand for them; and at a time when there was no regular publication of books, they easily crept into the world.
(b) When one epistle out of a number is spurious, the remainder of the series cannot be admitted to be genuine, unless there be some independent ground for thinking them so: when all but one are spurious, overwhelming evidence is required of the genuineness of the one: when they are all similar in style or motive, like witnesses who agree in the same tale, they stand or fall together. But no one, not even Mr. Grote, would maintain that all the Epistles of Plato are genuine, and very few critics think that more than one of them is so. And they are clearly all written from the same motive, whether serious or only literary. Nor is there an example in Greek antiquity of a series of Epistles, continuous and yet coinciding with a succession of events extending over a great number of years.
The external probability therefore against them is enormous, and the internal probability is not less: for they are trivial and unmeaning, devoid of delicacy and subtlety, wanting in a single fine expression. And even if this be matter of dispute, there can be no dispute that there are found in them many plagiarisms, inappropriately borrowed, which is a common note of forgery. They imitate Plato, who never imitates either himself or any one else; reminiscences of the Republic and the Laws are continually recurring in them; they are too like him and also too unlike him, to be genuine (see especially Karsten, Commentio Critica de Platonis quae feruntur Epistolis). They are full of egotism, self-assertion, affectation, faults which of all writers Plato was most careful to avoid, and into which he was least likely to fall. They abound in obscurities, irrelevancies, solecisms, pleonasms, inconsistencies, awkwardnesses of construction, wrong uses of words. They also contain historical blunders, such as the statement respecting Hipparinus and Nysaeus, the nephews of Dion, who are said to 'have been well inclined to philosophy, and well able to dispose the mind of their brother Dionysius in the same course,' at a time when they could not have been more than six or seven years of age— also foolish allusions, such as the comparison of the Athenian empire to the empire of Darius, which show a spirit very different from that of Plato; and mistakes of fact, as e.g. about the Thirty Tyrants, whom the writer of the letters seems to have confused with certain inferior magistrates, making them in all fifty-one. These palpable errors and absurdities are absolutely irreconcileable with their genuineness. And as they appear to have a common parentage, the more they are studied, the more they will be found to furnish evidence against themselves. The Seventh, which is thought to be the most important of these Epistles, has affinities with the Third and the Eighth, and is quite as impossible and inconsistent as the rest. It is therefore involved in the same condemnation.—The final conclusion is that neither the Seventh nor any other of them, when carefully analyzed, can be imagined to have proceeded from the hand or mind of Plato. The other testimonies to the voyages of Plato to Sicily and the court of Dionysius are all of them later by several centuries than the events to which they refer. No extant writer mentions them older than Cicero and Cornelius Nepos. It does not seem impossible that so attractive a theme as the meeting of a philosopher and a tyrant, once imagined by the genius of a Sophist, may have passed into a romance which became famous in Hellas and the world. It may have created one of the mists of history, like the Trojan war or the legend of Arthur, which we are unable to penetrate. In the age of Cicero, and still more in that of Diogenes Laertius and Appuleius, many other legends had gathered around the personality of Plato,—more voyages, more journeys to visit tyrants and Pythagorean philosophers. But if, as we agree with Karsten in supposing, they are the forgery of some rhetorician or sophist, we cannot agree with him in also supposing that they are of any historical value, the rather as there is no early independent testimony by which they are supported or with which they can be compared.
IV. There is another subject to which I must briefly call attention, lest I should seem to have overlooked it. Dr. Henry Jackson, of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a series of articles which he has contributed to the Journal of Philology, has put forward an entirely new explanation of the Platonic 'Ideas.' He supposes that in the mind of Plato they took, at different times in his life, two essentially different forms:—an earlier one which is found chiefly in the Republic and the Phaedo, and a later, which appears in the Theaetetus, Philebus, Sophist, Politicus, Parmenides, Timaeus. In the first stage of his philosophy Plato attributed Ideas to all things, at any rate to all things which have classes or common notions: these he supposed to exist only by participation in them. In the later Dialogues he no longer included in them manufactured articles and ideas of relation, but restricted them to 'types of nature,' and having become convinced that the many cannot be parts of the one, for the idea of participation in them he substituted imitation of them. To quote Dr. Jackson's own expressions,—'whereas in the period of the Republic and the Phaedo, it was proposed to pass through ontology to the sciences, in the period of the Parmenides and the Philebus, it is proposed to pass through the sciences to ontology': or, as he repeats in nearly the same words,— 'whereas in the Republic and in the Phaedo he had dreamt of passing through ontology to the sciences, he is now content to pass through the sciences to ontology.'
This theory is supposed to be based on Aristotle's Metaphysics, a passage containing an account of the ideas, which hitherto scholars have found impossible to reconcile with the statements of Plato himself. The preparations for the new departure are discovered in the Parmenides and in the Theaetetus; and it is said to be expressed under a different form by the (Greek) and the (Greek) of the Philebus. The (Greek) of the Philebus is the principle which gives form and measure to the (Greek); and in the 'Later Theory' is held to be the (Greek) or (Greek) which converts the Infinite or Indefinite into ideas. They are neither (Greek) nor (Greek), but belong to the (Greek) which partakes of both.
With great respect for the learning and ability of Dr. Jackson, I find myself unable to agree in this newly fashioned doctrine of the Ideas, which he ascribes to Plato. I have not the space to go into the question fully; but I will briefly state some objections which are, I think, fatal to it.
