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- Herausgeber: Booksell-Verlag
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Plato: The Complete Works is a comprehensive compilation of the dialogues and writings of one of the most significant philosophers in Western thought. Featuring seminal texts such as The Republic, Phaedrus, and Symposium, this collection showcases Plato's exploration of justice, beauty, love, and the nature of reality through a blend of Socratic dialogue and philosophical inquiry. The literary style is marked by its dialectical method, which encourages readers to engage deeply with complex ideas while highlighting the historical context of Ancient Greece during a time of political turmoil and intellectual flourishing. Plato, a student of Socrates and mentor to Aristotle, was profoundly influenced by the Athenian society in which he lived. His experiences, particularly the trial and death of Socrates, shaped his philosophical outlook, leading him to address the moral and ethical implications of governance and education. His works are not merely philosophical treatises but reflections on the human condition, power dynamics, and the role of the philosopher in society. This compilation is an essential resource for anyone keen to delve into the foundations of Western philosophy. Whether you are a student, scholar, or simply an inquisitive reader, Plato: The Complete Works invites you to engage with the profound questions that continue to resonate through centuries, making it a pivotal contribution to both philosophical and literary studies. In this enriched edition, we have carefully created added value for your reading experience: - A comprehensive Introduction outlines these selected works' unifying features, themes, or stylistic evolutions. - The Author Biography highlights personal milestones and literary influences that shape the entire body of writing. - A Historical Context section situates the works in their broader era—social currents, cultural trends, and key events that underpin their creation. - A concise Synopsis (Selection) offers an accessible overview of the included texts, helping readers navigate plotlines and main ideas without revealing critical twists. - A unified Analysis examines recurring motifs and stylistic hallmarks across the collection, tying the stories together while spotlighting the different work's strengths. - Reflection questions inspire deeper contemplation of the author's overarching message, inviting readers to draw connections among different texts and relate them to modern contexts. - Lastly, our hand‐picked Memorable Quotes distill pivotal lines and turning points, serving as touchstones for the collection's central themes.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Plato: The Complete Works
Table of Contents
Introduction
This collection, 'Plato: The Complete Works,' aims to present the full range of philosophical inquiries undertaken by one of Western civilization's most influential thinkers. Encompassing various dialogues, letters, and explorations of metaphysics, ethics, and politics, this assemblage serves as both a historical record and a continuous dialogue with Plato's ideas. The organization into coherent sections allows readers to engage with the evolution of his thoughts, illustrating Plato's profound impact on philosophy, education, and the broader spectrum of human understanding. Whether as a scholar, student, or casual reader, one will find that this collection compels exploration and reflection.
The 'Complete Works' includes an array of text types integral to Plato’s oeuvre, ensuring a comprehensive representation of his philosophical contributions. Readers will find early dialogues, often rich in Socratic questioning, as well as mature works that delve deeper into metaphysical and epistemological themes. Additionally, this compilation features his middle and late works, wherein Plato explores the essence of reality and the ideal state. It also includes pseudonymous writings, which expand the dialogue beyond his direct authorship and allow insights into his philosophical milieu, inviting varied interpretations and discussions.
Throughout his works, certain themes consistently resonate, such as the pursuit of truth, the nature of justice, and the intricacies of human virtue. Beyond these thematic cornerstones, Plato's stylistic hallmarks, such as the use of dialogue as a means for exploration, remain notable. His adept ability to combine narrative techniques with logical argumentation contributes to the eloquence and enduring relevance of his texts. The dialectical method, used extensively by Plato, allows for a nuanced exploration of ideas that invites readers to engage in critical thought, making his works timeless in their appeal and significance.
The philosophical inquiries present in this collection invite contemplation and deep reflection, encouraging readers to engage with their underlying questions. By presenting Plato’s works in a systematic manner, the collection provides an invaluable resource that reinforces the interconnectedness of his ideas. Each section serves not merely as a standalone piece but as part of a greater philosophical journey, inviting readers to traverse the paths of reasoning along which Plato guided his audience. This journey offers insights not just into philosophical doctrines but into the very fabric of human existence and thought.
Furthermore, the structure of this collection illustrates the lifecycle of Plato's philosophical development, from his early portrayals of Socratic dialogues to the sophisticated arguments found in his later letters and treatises. As readers progress through the sections—Early, Middle, and Late Works—they will witness a profound maturation of thought, enriched by the historical and intellectual contexts of Plato's time. Such a framework provides a deep appreciation for the philosophical lineage that has shaped Western thought and encourages further inquiry into the cardinal questions that have persisted throughout human history.
The 'Early Works' section captures Plato's foundational dialogues, wherein crucial ethical and epistemological questions emerge through Socratic exchanges. In these texts, readers can identify nascent ideas that will later evolve into more complex theories in his subsequent works. The engagement with characters like Socrates not only imparts philosophical wisdom but also invites readers to participate in the dialectical method that defines much of Plato's legacy. The collection serves as an entry point for readers to experience the transformative power of questioning as a means of philosophical exploration.
In the 'Middle Works,' the introduction of Plato’s Theory of Forms marks a significant pivot in his thought. This collection highlights pivotal dialogues such as 'The Republic,' where he examines concepts of justice and the ideal society. Here, Plato's bold philosophical assertions provoke thought about morality, governance, and human existence. Readers are encouraged to consider not merely the theoretical frameworks presented but also their implications in contemporary contexts. Through this section, one can appreciate Plato's enduring relevance, as these discussions remain central to ongoing debates in philosophy, politics, and ethics.
The 'Late Works' illustrate a culmination of Plato’s philosophical journey, expressing a cohesive vision of his metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Dialogues such as 'Timaeus,' alongside the 'Laws,' encourage deeper contemplation about the interplay between the ideal and the practical realms. These later texts reveal Plato's attempts to reconcile his earlier ideals with the complexities of concrete governance and societal structures. Readers will find engaging discussions that challenge them to think critically about their values and the role of philosophy in shaping societal norms. As such, this section represents the maturation of his thought.
The inclusion of 'Pseudonymous Works' within this collection enables a broader discussion of the philosophical landscape during Plato's time. These texts highlight the methodologies and themes that parallel Plato's thought, inviting readers to engage with philosophical questions from diverse perspectives. Such works emphasize the dialogues occurring among contemporaneous thinkers, enriching the understanding of Plato's contributions and showcasing the collaborative nature of philosophical inquiry. The nuanced understanding gained from these texts deepens the reader's appreciation for the intertextuality integral to the development of philosophical ideas.
Each work in this compilation, while reflecting the unique voice of Plato, also serves as a testament to the dialogues and debates that shaped his era. The 'Additional Items' section presents supplementary materials, including letters and essays that illuminate Plato’s thoughts beyond his dialogues. These writings offer further context for his philosophical positions and reveal facets of his personal convictions. Thus, they form a rich tapestry that encapsulates the motivations and intellectual endeavors that drove Plato throughout his life, enhancing the reader’s understanding of his character and philosophy.
As readers traverse this comprehensive collection, an invitation extends to introspectively explore how Plato's principles resonate with contemporary issues. The dialogues prompt considerations of ethics, politics, education, and the nature of reality, making them relevant across ages. Plato’s legacy challenges each reader to contemplate their understanding of truth and virtue, encouraging a thoughtful synthesis of his ideas within personal and societal contexts. As they engage with the texts, readers will discover the ways these ancient arguments echo in modern philosophical discourse, illustrating their timelessness.
Moreover, 'Plato: The Complete Works' not only serves academic pursuits; it is also an exploration of the human experience itself. Each work reflects the historical, social, and ethical dilemmas of Plato’s time while simultaneously addressing universal themes that resonate throughout history. The dialectical style invites readers into a collaborative intellectual space, further revealing the richness of discourse as a cornerstone of philosophy. This collection, therefore, extends beyond mere academic study, illuminating the intrinsic value of inquiry and dialogue in the quest for understanding.
The aesthetic quality of Plato's prose is deserving of attention. His ability to weave narrative with argument makes the philosophical inquiries accessible without sacrificing depth. This accessibility paves the way for ongoing engagement and re-examination of ideas that might otherwise remain obscured. The dialogues spark curiosity and critical thought, inviting readers to recognize that wisdom is not merely found within their pages but is an active pursuit. Thus, the intricacies of Plato's style not only embody intellectual rigor but also offer a profound literary experience.
Plato’s emphasis on education, particularly through his Allegory of the Cave, resonates deeply with contemporary discussions about enlightenment, knowledge, and the nature of reality. This allegory exemplifies the transformative power of philosophy—encouraging readers to not only question the familiar but also to seek deeper truths beyond appearances. By including such foundational texts in this collection, readers are reminded of the importance of philosophical engagement in a world that often prioritizes superficial understandings. The works in this collection cultivate a mindset attentive to the discernment of deeper meanings.
The plurality of perspectives emerging from Plato's dialogues encourages dynamic engagement with philosophical thought. Through characters that embody diverse views, readers are prompted to grapple with contradictions and complexities inherent in human nature and societal constructs. This multiplicity allows for robust discussions that acknowledge rather than erase the intricacies of thought. By immersing themselves in this collection, readers gain insight into the dialectical process that is at the heart of philosophical inquiry, urging them to embrace uncertainty and complexity as essential to wisdom.
As you delve into 'Plato: The Complete Works,' you are offered a chance to partake in an intellectual engagement that spans millennia. Through the rich array of dialogues and supplementary texts, this collection seeks not only to preserve Plato’s insights but also to underscore the ongoing relevance of his work. Each page unveils a journey through philosophical terrains, inviting readers to reflect on their beliefs, question assumptions, and engage deeply with the ideas presented. The dialogue between the ancient and the modern is vibrant within these texts, and readers are poised to bridge that gap with their exploration.
In conclusion, this complete collection of Plato’s works stands as an invitation not merely to read but to engage with one of history's central figures in philosophy. Whether one approaches it as a seasoned scholar or a curious newcomer, the dialogues invite reflection, debate, and intellectual growth. Readers are encouraged to explore all sections of this collection fully, allowing themselves to be drawn into the rich philosophical terrain that Plato so masterfully mapped. By embracing this journey, readers can unlock the enduring wisdom that has shaped our understanding of ethics, existence, and the quest for knowledge.
Author Biography
Introduction
Plato was an Athenian philosopher of the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE whose dialogues shaped the foundations of Western philosophy. A student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, he explored ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, politics, and aesthetics with unmatched literary craft. His major works include Apology, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, Protagoras, Meno, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Phaedrus, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Parmenides, Philebus, Timaeus, Critias, and Laws. He founded the Academy, an enduring institution dedicated to philosophical and scientific inquiry. Through the theory of Forms, the ideal of philosopher-rulers, and rigorous dialectic, Plato set agendas that continue to organize philosophical debate.
Education and Literary Influences
Plato was born in or near Athens in the late 5th century BCE and received the education typical of a well-placed Athenian: training in music, poetry, gymnastics, and increasingly, mathematics and dialectic. His intellectual formation changed decisively under Socrates, whose probing conversations modeled a life of examined belief. The trial and execution of Socrates, in the last years of the Peloponnesian War’s aftermath, deeply marked Plato’s understanding of civic life and philosophical responsibility. The encounter with Socratic method—questioning assumptions, testing definitions, and seeking rational accounts—set the template for Plato’s own inquiries and for the dramatic form of his writings.
Literary Career
Plato’s earliest dialogues, often called Socratic, place Socrates at center stage and examine ethical questions through refutation and open-ended inquiry. Works such as Apology, Euthyphro, Crito, Laches, Lysis, Charmides, Protagoras, and Gorgias display a spare style and the elenchus, a method of testing interlocutors’ claims. They probe virtue, piety, courage, and the nature of rhetoric. Public recognition grew as these dialogues circulated, offering readers both a memorial to Socrates and a new model of philosophical prose. By dramatizing conversation rather than asserting doctrines, Plato established a literary form that invited participation and critical scrutiny.
Beliefs and Advocacy
At the core of Plato’s philosophy stands the conviction that stable, intelligible realities—the Forms—ground knowledge and value. Through dialectic, the philosopher turns the soul from opinion toward understanding, culminating (in the Republic) in an orientation to the Good as the source of being and intelligibility. Plato analyzes the human soul as having rational, spirited, and appetitive parts, arguing that virtue consists in harmony among them under reason’s guidance. He ties ethics to epistemology: knowledge enables right rule of self and city. His myths and metaphors, from the Cave to the Charioteer, dramatize the ascent from appearance to truth.
Plato’s political philosophy evaluates constitutions by their justice and their care for the soul. He criticizes unbalanced regimes, including tyranny and forms of democracy susceptible to demagogy, while proposing an ideal city governed by those educated in philosophy and mathematics. The Republic outlines a demanding educational program and supports shared civic responsibilities among guardians, including arguments for educating women guardians comparably, based on capacities rather than custom. He links civic order to personal virtue: a just city mirrors a well-ordered soul. Throughout, Plato insists that law and education shape character, aiming to align power with wisdom and the common good.
Although not an activist in a modern sense, Plato pursued the practical implications of his philosophy. He founded the Academy to cultivate statesmen and thinkers, and he made journeys to Sicily seeking, with varying success, to influence rulers toward philosophical governance. His later work, Laws, reflects a sober turn toward detailed legislation, civic religion, and institutional design for a second-best polity when philosopher-rule is unattainable. Across dialogues, he advocates disciplined education, moral self-examination, and the priority of truth over reputation. In these ways, Plato’s public life and writings form a unified pursuit of rational order in persons and communities.
Final Years & Legacy
In his later years, Plato continued teaching at the Academy and composing dialogues that refine or reconsider earlier doctrines. Laws, likely his last major work, offers a comprehensive legal and educational framework for a well-ordered city, emphasizing habituation, music and gymnastics, and the rule of law. His enduring concern with balancing reason and tradition is evident here. Plato died in Athens in the mid-4th century BCE. Leadership of the Academy passed to Speusippus, ensuring institutional continuity. His death closed a formative chapter in Athenian intellectual life, yet his school and texts sustained vigorous debate among contemporaries and successors.
Plato’s legacy spans antiquity to the present. His dialogues became central to later Platonist and Neoplatonist schools, influenced Hellenistic philosophy, and entered Jewish, Christian, and Islamic thought through translation and commentary. Renaissance humanists revived Platonic studies, while modern philosophers repeatedly returned to his questions about knowledge, value, and political order. Scientists and mathematicians drew inspiration from his esteem for abstract structure; literary authors adopted the dialogic form to stage ideas. Today, Plato stands as a touchstone for philosophy’s methods and aims: analytic clarity joined to imaginative vision. His works continue to guide inquiry into justice, truth, beauty, and the good.
Historical Context
Plato, born around 427 BCE in Athens, was a pivotal figure in Western philosophy whose work emerged amid the socio-political upheavals of classical Greece. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) and the ensuing decline of Athenian democracy, together with the trial and execution of his mentor Socrates in 399 BCE, profoundly shaped his reflections on justice, virtue and the ideal political order.
Scholars often divide his writings into early, middle and late periods. The earliest dialogues, featuring Socratic inquiry, establish his views on knowledge and ethics and mount a critique of sophistic rhetoric and moral relativism. In these texts he insists on the possibility of absolute truths, setting his approach apart from prevailing intellectual fashions.
In the middle phase he develops a systematic political philosophy, most notably in the work completed around 380 BCE that introduces the notion of a ruler guided by wisdom rather than wealth or popular favor. This vision responds to the limitations of Athenian imperial ambitions and engages with contemporary thinkers—among them followers of Pythagoras and other ethical schools—whose debates on number, harmony and the good life informed his own.
Also in this period he articulates the theory of Forms, portraying the material world as a changing reflection of stable, intelligible realities. By shifting attention from sense experience to rational analysis, he laid the groundwork for metaphysics in the Western tradition and influenced generations of later philosophers.
His later dialogues, including the text written around 350 BCE, turn from ideal blueprints toward practical legislation and civic institutions. This evolution mirrors the political fragmentation Greece experienced after Athens’ wartime losses and the brief rule of oligarchs and tyrants that followed.
All this unfolded during the rich cultural florescence of the Classical Age, when theater, poetry and oratory probed deep moral and existential questions. Tragic dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides explored dilemmas of justice and fate that resonate throughout his own dramatic exchanges.
He also drew on historical accounts by writers like Thucydides and Xenophon, whose analyses of political strife and democratic debate informed his critiques of power and his conception of citizenship. Although the Persian Wars (499–449 BCE) lay a generation before his birth, the collective memory of those conflicts and the values they engendered formed part of the cultural backdrop against which he reflected on courage, unity and the common good.
Responding to the sophists’ emphasis on persuasive speech, he perfected a dialectical method that prizes logical consistency and aims to uncover objective principles rather than merely win arguments. In 387 BCE he founded the Academy, one of the earliest institutions devoted to sustained philosophical study, where students—including Aristotle—could pursue his conviction that education is indispensable to individual virtue and social harmony.
His metaphysical speculations recall pre-Socratic inquiries by figures such as Heraclitus and Parmenides on change, permanence and the origins of knowledge. Their questions helped him clarify the distinction between the sensory realm and the intelligible domain of Forms.
On social questions he went against prevailing conventions by arguing for the education of women in roles suited to their abilities, although there is little evidence that women routinely participated in philosophical circles of the time. His proposals nonetheless signal a concern for merit over inherited privilege.
Philosophy for him was never abstracted from civic life or religious practice. His dialogues weave ethical theory into discussions of ritual, myth and everyday decision-making, demonstrating how philosophical reflection might guide personal conduct and public policy alike.
After his death, his thought continued to reverberate throughout the Hellenistic world. Schools such as the Stoics and the Epicureans engaged with his ethical and epistemological concerns, adapting or contesting his emphasis on virtue and reason.
By integrating mythic imagery with rigorous dialectic, he sought to reconcile traditional beliefs with systematic inquiry. In challenging the moral skepticism and relativism he perceived around him, he aimed to establish a secure foundation for knowledge and ethical life amid social uncertainty.
In sum, his dialogues reflect an intricate synthesis of personal experiences, historical events and intellectual currents. They offer a sustained examination of governance, knowledge and morality that has secured his place as a foundational thinker in Western philosophy.
Synopsis (Selection)
Preface to the First Edition
An introductory note outlining the significance of Plato's works and their impact on philosophical thought.
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
A continuation of the reflection on Plato's relevance, highlighting advancements in interpretation and scholarship.
Early Works
This collection includes dialogues such as 'Euthyphro,' 'Apology,' 'Crito,' and 'Phaedo,' which primarily explore Socratic methods of inquiry, ethical dilemmas, and the nature of the soul.
Middle Works
Key texts such as 'The Republic,' 'Phaedrus,' and 'Symposium' present Plato's theories on justice, the ideal state, love, and the nature of reality, introducing the Theory of Forms.
Late Works
Including 'Timaeus,' 'Critias,' and 'Laws,' these dialogues reflect Plato's mature thought, discussing cosmology, the ideal society, and governance.
Pseudonymous Works
This section includes dialogues often misattributed to Plato, which nonetheless engage with similar philosophical concerns and themes prevalent in his authentic works.
Additional Items
A collection of other writings, fragments, and scholarly notes that capture the breadth of Plato's intellectual legacy beyond his major dialogues.
Plato: The Complete Works
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
Early Works
Middle Works
Late Works
Pseudonymous Works
Additional Items
Preface to the First Edition
The Text which has been mostly followed in this Translation of Plato is the latest 8vo. edition of Stallbaum; the principal deviations are noted at the bottom of the page.
I have to acknowledge many obligations to old friends and pupils. These are:Mr. John Purves, Fellow of Balliol College, with whom I have revised about half of the entire Translation; the Rev. Professor Campbell, of St. Andrews, who has helped me in the revision of several parts of the work, especially of the Theaetetus, Sophist, and Politicus; Mr. Robinson Ellis, Fellow of Trinity College, and Mr. Alfred Robinson, Fellow of New College, who read with me the Cratylus and the Gorgias; Mr. Paravicini, Student of Christ Church, who assisted me in the Symposium; Mr. Raper, Fellow of Queen's College, Mr. Monro, Fellow of Oriel College, and Mr. Shadwell, Student of Christ Church, who gave me similar assistance in the Laws. Dr. Greenhill, of Hastings, has also kindly sent me remarks on the physiological part of the Timaeus, which I have inserted as corrections under the head of errata at the end of the Introduction. The degree of accuracy which I have been enabled to attain is in great measure due to these gentlemen, and I heartily thank them for the pains and time which they have bestowed on my work.
I have further to explain how far I have received help from other labourers in the same field. The books which I have found of most use are Steinhart and Muller's German Translation of Plato with Introductions; Zeller's 'Philosophie der Griechen,' and 'Platonische Studien;' Susemihl's 'Genetische Entwickelung der Paltonischen Philosophie;' Hermann's 'Geschichte der Platonischen Philosophie;' Bonitz, 'Platonische Studien;' Stallbaum's Notes and Introductions; Professor Campbell's editions of the 'Theaetetus,' the 'Sophist,' and the 'Politicus;' Professor Thompson's 'Phaedrus;' Th. Martin's 'Etudes sur le Timee;' Mr. Poste's edition and translation of the 'Philebus;' the Translation of the 'Republic,' by Messrs. Davies and Vaughan, and the Translation of the 'Gorgias,' by Mr. Cope.
I have also derived much assistance from the great work of Mr. Grote, which contains excellent analyses of the Dialogues, and is rich in original thoughts and observations. I agree with him in rejecting as futile the attempt of Schleiermacher and others to arrange the Dialogues of Plato into a harmonious whole. Any such arrangement appears to me not only to be unsupported by evidence, but to involve an anachronism in the history of philosophy. There is a common spirit in the writings of Plato, but not a unity of design in the whole, nor perhaps a perfect unity in any single Dialogue. The hypothesis of a general plan which is worked out in the successive Dialogues is an after-thought of the critics who have attributed a system to writings belonging to an age when system had not as yet taken possession of philosophy.
If Mr. Grote should do me the honour to read any portion of this work he will probably remark that I have endeavoured to approach Plato from a point of view which is opposed to his own. The aim of the Introductions in these volumes has been to represent Plato as the father of Idealism, who is not to be measured by the standard of utilitarianism or any other modern philosophical system. He is the poet or maker of ideas, satisfying the wants of his own age, providing the instruments of thought for future generations. He is no dreamer, but a great philosophical genius struggling with the unequal conditions of light and knowledge under which he is living. He may be illustrated by the writings of moderns, but he must be interpreted by his own, and by his place in the history of philosophy. We are not concerned to determine what is the residuum of truth which remains for ourselves. His truth may not be our truth, and nevertheless may have an extraordinary value and interest for us.
I cannot agree with Mr. Grote in admitting as genuine all the writings commonly attributed to Plato in antiquity, any more than with Schaarschmidt and some other German critics who reject nearly half of them. The German critics, to whom I refer, proceed chiefly on grounds of internal evidence; they appear to me to lay too much stress on the variety of doctrine and style, which must be equally acknowledged as a fact, even in the Dialogues regarded by Schaarschmidt as genuine, e.g. in the Phaedrus, or Symposium, when compared with the Laws. He who admits works so different in style and matter to have been the composition of the same author, need have no difficulty in admitting the Sophist or the Politicus. (The negative argument adduced by the same school of critics, which is based on the silence of Aristotle, is not worthy of much consideration. For why should Aristotle, because he has quoted several Dialogues of Plato, have quoted them all? Something must be allowed to chance, and to the nature of the subjects treated of in them.) On the other hand, Mr. Grote trusts mainly to the Alexandrian Canon. But I hardly think that we are justified in attributing much weight to the authority of the Alexandrian librarians in an age when there was no regular publication of books, and every temptation to forge them; and in which the writings of a school were naturally attributed to the founder of the school. And even without intentional fraud, there was an inclination to believe rather than to enquire. Would Mr. Grote accept as genuine all the writings which he finds in the lists of learned ancients attributed to Hippocrates, to Xenophon, to Aristotle? The Alexandrian Canon of the Platonic writings is deprived of credit by the admission of the Epistles, which are not only unworthy of Plato, and in several passages plagiarized from him, but flagrantly at variance with historical fact. It will be seen also that I do not agree with Mr. Grote's views about the Sophists; nor with the low estimate which he has formed of Plato's Laws; nor with his opinion respecting Plato's doctrine of the rotation of the earth. But I 'am not going to lay hands on my father Parmenides' (Soph.), who will, I hope, forgive me for differing from him on these points. I cannot close this Preface without expressing my deep respect for his noble and gentle character, and the great services which he has rendered to Greek Literature.
Balliol College, January, 1871.
Preface to the Second and Third Editions
In publishing a Second Edition (1875) of the Dialogues of Plato in English, I had to acknowledge the assistance of several friends: of the Rev. G.G. Bradley, Master of University College, now Dean of Westminster, who sent me some valuable remarks on the Phaedo; of Dr. Greenhill, who had again revised a portion of the Timaeus; of Mr. R.L. Nettleship, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, to whom I was indebted for an excellent criticism of the Parmenides; and, above all, of the Rev. Professor Campbell of St. Andrews, and Mr. Paravicini, late Student of Christ Church and Tutor of Balliol College, with whom I had read over the greater part of the translation. I was also indebted to Mr. Evelyn Abbott, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, for a complete and accurate index.
In this, the Third Edition, I am under very great obligations to Mr. Matthew Knight, who has not only favoured me with valuable suggestions throughout the work, but has largely extended the Index (from 61 to 175 pages) and translated the Eryxias and Second Alcibiades; and to Mr Frank Fletcher, of Balliol College, my Secretary. I am also considerably indebted to Mr. J.W. Mackail, late Fellow of Balliol College, who read over the Republic in the Second Edition and noted several inaccuracies.
In both editions the Introductions to the Dialogues have been enlarged, and essays on subjects having an affinity to the Platonic Dialogues have been introduced into several of them. The analyses have been corrected, and innumerable alterations have been made in the Text. There have been added also, in the Third Edition, headings to the pages and a marginal analysis to the text of each dialogue.
At the end of a long task, the translator may without impropriety point out the difficulties which he has had to encounter. These have been far greater than he would have anticipated; nor is he at all sanguine that he has succeeded in overcoming them. Experience has made him feel that a translation, like a picture, is dependent for its effect on very minute touches; and that it is a work of infinite pains, to be returned to in many moods and viewed in different lights.
I. An English translation ought to be idiomatic and interesting, not only to the scholar, but to the unlearned reader. Its object should not simply be to render the words of one language into the words of another or to preserve the construction and order of the original;this is the ambition of a schoolboy, who wishes to show that he has made a good use of his Dictionary and Grammar; but is quite unworthy of the translator, who seeks to produce on his reader an impression similar or nearly similar to that produced by the original. To him the feeling should be more important than the exact word. He should remember Dryden's quaint admonition not to 'lacquey by the side of his author, but to mount up behind him.' (Dedication to the Aeneis.) He must carry in his mind a comprehensive view of the whole work, of what has preceded and of what is to follow,as well as of the meaning of particular passages. His version should be based, in the first instance, on an intimate knowledge of the text; but the precise order and arrangement of the words may be left to fade out of sight, when the translation begins to take shape. He must form a general idea of the two languages, and reduce the one to the terms of the other. His work should be rhythmical and varied, the right admixture of words and syllables, and even of letters, should be carefully attended to; above all, it should be equable in style. There must also be quantity, which is necessary in prose as well as in verse: clauses, sentences, paragraphs, must be in due proportion. Metre and even rhyme may be rarely admitted; though neither is a legitimate element of prose writing, they may help to lighten a cumbrous expression (Symp.). The translation should retain as far as possible the characteristic qualities of the ancient writerhis freedom, grace, simplicity, stateliness, weight, precision; or the best part of him will be lost to the English reader. It should read as an original work, and should also be the most faithful transcript which can be made of the language from which the translation is taken, consistently with the first requirement of all, that it be English. Further, the translation being English, it should also be perfectly intelligible in itself without reference to the Greek, the English being really the more lucid and exact of the two languages. In some respects it may be maintained that ordinary English writing, such as the newspaper article, is superior to Plato: at any rate it is couched in language which is very rarely obscure. On the other hand, the greatest writers of Greece, Thucydides, Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Pindar, Demosthenes, are generally those which are found to be most difficult and to diverge most widely from the English idiom. The translator will often have to convert the more abstract Greek into the more concrete English, or vice versa, and he ought not to force upon one language the character of another. In some cases, where the order is confused, the expression feeble, the emphasis misplaced, or the sense somewhat faulty, he will not strive in his rendering to reproduce these characteristics, but will re-write the passage as his author would have written it at first, had he not been 'nodding'; and he will not hesitate to supply anything which, owing to the genius of the language or some accident of composition, is omitted in the Greek, but is necessary to make the English clear and consecutive.
It is difficult to harmonize all these conflicting elements. In a translation of Plato what may be termed the interests of the Greek and English are often at war with one another. In framing the English sentence we are insensibly diverted from the exact meaning of the Greek; when we return to the Greek we are apt to cramp and overlay the English. We substitute, we compromise, we give and take, we add a little here and leave out a little there. The translator may sometimes be allowed to sacrifice minute accuracy for the sake of clearness and sense. But he is not therefore at liberty to omit words and turns of expression which the English language is quite capable of supplying. He must be patient and self-controlled; he must not be easily run away with. Let him never allow the attraction of a favourite expression, or a sonorous cadence, to overpower his better judgment, or think much of an ornament which is out of keeping with the general character of his work. He must ever be casting his eyes upwards from the copy to the original, and down again from the original to the copy (Rep.). His calling is not held in much honour by the world of scholars; yet he himself may be excused for thinking it a kind of glory to have lived so many years in the companionship of one of the greatest of human intelligences, and in some degree, more perhaps than others, to have had the privilege of understanding him (Sir Joshua Reynolds' Lectures: Disc. xv.).
There are fundamental differences in Greek and English, of which some may be managed while others remain intractable. (1). The structure of the Greek language is partly adversative and alternative, and partly inferential; that is to say, the members of a sentence are either opposed to one another, or one of them expresses the cause or effect or condition or reason of another. The two tendencies may be called the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the language; and the opposition or inference is often much more one of words than of ideas. But modern languages have rubbed off this adversative and inferential form: they have fewer links of connection, there is less mortar in the interstices, and they are content to place sentences side by side, leaving their relation to one another to be gathered from their position or from the context. The difficulty of preserving the effect of the Greek is increased by the want of adversative and inferential particles in English, and by the nice sense of tautology which characterizes all modern languages. We cannot have two 'buts' or two 'fors' in the same sentence where the Greek repeats (Greek). There is a similar want of particles expressing the various gradations of objective and subjective thought(Greek) and the like, which are so thickly scattered over the Greek page. Further, we can only realize to a very imperfect degree the common distinction between (Greek), and the combination of the two suggests a subtle shade of negation which cannot be expressed in English. And while English is more dependent than Greek upon the apposition of clauses and sentences, yet there is a difficulty in using this form of construction owing to the want of case endings. For the same reason there cannot be an equal variety in the order of words or an equal nicety of emphasis in English as in Greek.
(2) The formation of the sentence and of the paragraph greatly differs in Greek and English. The lines by which they are divided are generally much more marked in modern languages than in ancient. Both sentences and paragraphs are more precise and definitethey do not run into one another. They are also more regularly developed from within. The sentence marks another step in an argument or a narrative or a statement; in reading a paragraph we silently turn over the page and arrive at some new view or aspect of the subject. Whereas in Plato we are not always certain where a sentence begins and ends; and paragraphs are few and far between. The language is distributed in a different way, and less articulated than in English. For it was long before the true use of the period was attained by the classical writers both in poetry or prose; it was (Greek). The balance of sentences and the introduction of paragraphs at suitable intervals must not be neglected if the harmony of the English language is to be preserved. And still a caution has to be added on the other side, that we must avoid giving it a numerical or mechanical character.
(3) This, however, is not one of the greatest difficulties of the translator; much greater is that which arises from the restriction of the use of the genders. Men and women in English are masculine and feminine, and there is a similar distinction of sex in the words denoting animals; but all things else, whether outward objects or abstract ideas, are relegated to the class of neuters. Hardly in some flight of poetry do we ever endue any of them with the characteristics of a sentient being, and then only by speaking of them in the feminine gender. The virtues may be pictured in female forms, but they are not so described in language; a ship is humorously supposed to be the sailor's bride; more doubtful are the personifications of church and country as females. Now the genius of the Greek language is the opposite of this. The same tendency to personification which is seen in the Greek mythology is common also in the language; and genders are attributed to things as well as persons according to their various degrees of strength and weakness; or from fanciful resemblances to the male or female form, or some analogy too subtle to be discovered. When the gender of any object was once fixed, a similar gender was naturally assigned to similar objects, or to words of similar formation. This use of genders in the denotation of objects or ideas not only affects the words to which genders are attributed, but the words with which they are construed or connected, and passes into the general character of the style. Hence arises a difficulty in translating Greek into English which cannot altogether be overcome. Shall we speak of the soul and its qualities, of virtue, power, wisdom, and the like, as feminine or neuter? The usage of the English language does not admit of the former, and yet the life and beauty of the style are impaired by the latter. Often the translator will have recourse to the repetition of the word, or to the ambiguous 'they,' 'their,' etc.; for fear of spoiling the effect of the sentence by introducing 'it.' Collective nouns in Greek and English create a similar but lesser awkwardness.
(4) To use of relation is far more extended in Greek than in English. Partly the greater variety of genders and cases makes the connexion of relative and antecedent less ambiguous: partly also the greater number of demonstrative and relative pronouns, and the use of the article, make the correlation of ideas simpler and more natural. The Greek appears to have had an ear or intelligence for a long and complicated sentence which is rarely to be found in modern nations; and in order to bring the Greek down to the level of the modern, we must break up the long sentence into two or more short ones. Neither is the same precision required in Greek as in Latin or English, nor in earlier Greek as in later; there was nothing shocking to the contemporary of Thucydides and Plato in anacolutha and repetitions. In such cases the genius of the English language requires that the translation should be more intelligible than the Greek. The want of more distinctions between the demonstrative pronouns is also greatly felt. Two genitives dependent on one another, unless familiarised by idiom, have an awkward effect in English. Frequently the noun has to take the place of the pronoun. 'This' and 'that' are found repeating themselves to weariness in the rough draft of a translation. As in the previous case, while the feeling of the modern language is more opposed to tautology, there is also a greater difficulty in avoiding it.
(5) Though no precise rule can be laid down about the repetition of words, there seems to be a kind of impertinence in presenting to the reader the same thought in the same words, repeated twice over in the same passage without any new aspect or modification of it. And the evasion of tautologythat is, the substitution of one word of precisely the same meaning for anotheris resented by us equally with the repetition of words. Yet on the other hand the least difference of meaning or the least change of form from a substantive to an adjective, or from a participle to a verb, will often remedy the unpleasant effect. Rarely and only for the sake of emphasis or clearness can we allow an important word to be used twice over in two successive sentences or even in the same paragraph. The particles and pronouns, as they are of most frequent occurrence, are also the most troublesome. Strictly speaking, except a few of the commonest of them, 'and,' 'the,' etc., they ought not to occur twice in the same sentence. But the Greek has no such precise rules; and hence any literal translation of a Greek author is full of tautology. The tendency of modern languages is to become more correct as well as more perspicuous than ancient. And, therefore, while the English translator is limited in the power of expressing relation or connexion, by the law of his own language increased precision and also increased clearness are required of him. The familiar use of logic, and the progress of science, have in these two respects raised the standard. But modern languages, while they have become more exacting in their demands, are in many ways not so well furnished with powers of expression as the ancient classical ones.
Such are a few of the difficulties which have to be overcome in the work of translation; and we are far from having exhausted the list. (6) The excellence of a translation will consist, not merely in the faithful rendering of words, or in the composition of a sentence only, or yet of a single paragraph, but in the colour and style of the whole work. Equability of tone is best attained by the exclusive use of familiar and idiomatic words. But great care must be taken; for an idiomatic phrase, if an exception to the general style, is of itself a disturbing element. No word, however expressive and exact, should be employed, which makes the reader stop to think, or unduly attracts attention by difficulty and peculiarity, or disturbs the effect of the surrounding language. In general the style of one author is not appropriate to another; as in society, so in letters, we expect every man to have 'a good coat of his own,' and not to dress himself out in the rags of another. (a) Archaic expressions are therefore to be avoided. Equivalents may be occasionally drawn from Shakspere, who is the common property of us all; but they must be used sparingly. For, like some other men of genius of the Elizabethan and Jacobean age, he outdid the capabilities of the language, and many of the expressions which he introduced have been laid aside and have dropped out of use. (b) A similar principle should be observed in the employment of Scripture. Having a greater force and beauty than other language, and a religious association, it disturbs the even flow of the style. It may be used to reproduce in the translation the quaint effect of some antique phrase in the original, but rarely; and when adopted, it should have a certain freshness and a suitable 'entourage.' It is strange to observe that the most effective use of Scripture phraseology arises out of the application of it in a sense not intended by the author. (c) Another caution: metaphors differ in different languages, and the translator will often be compelled to substitute one for another, or to paraphrase them, not giving word for word, but diffusing over several words the more concentrated thought of the original. The Greek of Plato often goes beyond the English in its imagery: compare Laws, (Greek); Rep.; etc. Or again the modern word, which in substance is the nearest equivalent to the Greek, may be found to include associations alien to Greek life: e.g. (Greek), 'jurymen,' (Greek), 'the bourgeoisie.' (d) The translator has also to provide expressions for philosophical terms of very indefinite meaning in the more definite language of modern philosophy. And he must not allow discordant elements to enter into the work. For example, in translating Plato, it would equally be an anachronism to intrude on him the feeling and spirit of the Jewish or Christian Scriptures or the technical terms of the Hegelian or Darwinian philosophy.
(7) As no two words are precise equivalents (just as no two leaves of the forest are exactly similar), it is a mistaken attempt at precision always to translate the same Greek word by the same English word. There is no reason why in the New Testament (Greek) should always be rendered 'righteousness,' or (Greek) 'covenant.' In such cases the translator may be allowed to employ two wordssometimes when the two meanings occur in the same passage, varying them by an 'or'e.g. (Greek), 'science' or 'knowledge,' (Greek), 'idea' or 'class,' (Greek), 'temperance' or 'prudence,'at the point where the change of meaning occurs. If translations are intended not for the Greek scholar but for the general reader, their worst fault will be that they sacrifice the general effect and meaning to the over-precise rendering of words and forms of speech.
(8) There is no kind of literature in English which corresponds to the Greek Dialogue; nor is the English language easily adapted to it. The rapidity and abruptness of question and answer, the constant repetition of (Greek), etc., which Cicero avoided in Latin (de Amicit), the frequent occurrence of expletives, would, if reproduced in a translation, give offence to the reader. Greek has a freer and more frequent use of the Interrogative, and is of a more passionate and emotional character, and therefore lends itself with greater readiness to the dialogue form. Most of the so-called English Dialogues are but poor imitations of Plato, which fall very far short of the original. The breath of conversation, the subtle adjustment of question and answer, the lively play of fancy, the power of drawing characters, are wanting in them. But the Platonic dialogue is a drama as well as a dialogue, of which Socrates is the central figure, and there are lesser performers as well:the insolence of Thrasymachus, the anger of Callicles and Anytus, the patronizing style of Protagoras, the self-consciousness of Prodicus and Hippias, are all part of the entertainment. To reproduce this living image the same sort of effort is required as in translating poetry. The language, too, is of a finer quality; the mere prose English is slow in lending itself to the form of question and answer, and so the ease of conversation is lost, and at the same time the dialectical precision with which the steps of the argument are drawn out is apt to be impaired.
II. In the Introductions to the Dialogues there have been added some essays on modern philosophy, and on political and social life. The chief subjects discussed in these are Utility, Communism, the Kantian and Hegelian philosophies, Psychology, and the Origin of Language. (There have been added also in the Third Edition remarks on other subjects. A list of the most important of these additions is given at the end of this Preface.)
Ancient and modern philosophy throw a light upon one another: but they should be compared, not confounded. Although the connexion between them is sometimes accidental, it is often real. The same questions are discussed by them under different conditions of language and civilization; but in some cases a mere word has survived, while nothing or hardly anything of the pre-Socratic, Platonic, or Aristotelian meaning is retained. There are other questions familiar to the moderns, which have no place in ancient philosophy. The world has grown older in two thousand years, and has enlarged its stock of ideas and methods of reasoning. Yet the germ of modern thought is found in ancient, and we may claim to have inherited, notwithstanding many accidents of time and place, the spirit of Greek philosophy. There is, however, no continuous growth of the one into the other, but a new beginning, partly artificial, partly arising out of the questionings of the mind itself, and also receiving a stimulus from the study of ancient writings.
Considering the great and fundamental differences which exist in ancient and modern philosophy, it seems best that we should at first study them separately, and seek for the interpretation of either, especially of the ancient, from itself only, comparing the same author with himself and with his contemporaries, and with the general state of thought and feeling prevalent in his age. Afterwards comes the remoter light which they cast on one another. We begin to feel that the ancients had the same thoughts as ourselves, the same difficulties which characterize all periods of transition, almost the same opposition between science and religion. Although we cannot maintain that ancient and modern philosophy are one and continuous (as has been affirmed with more truth respecting ancient and modern history), for they are separated by an interval of a thousand years, yet they seem to recur in a sort of cycle, and we are surprised to find that the new is ever old, and that the teaching of the past has still a meaning for us.
III. In the preface to the first edition I expressed a strong opinion at variance with Mr. Grote's, that the so-called Epistles of Plato were spurious. His friend and editor, Professor Bain, thinks that I ought to give the reasons why I differ from so eminent an authority. Reserving the fuller discussion of the question for another place, I will shortly defend my opinion by the following arguments:
(a) Because almost all epistles purporting to be of the classical age of Greek literature are forgeries. (Compare Bentley's Works (Dyce's Edition).) Of all documents this class are the least likely to be preserved and the most likely to be invented. The ancient world swarmed with them; the great libraries stimulated the demand for them; and at a time when there was no regular publication of books, they easily crept into the world.
(b) When one epistle out of a number is spurious, the remainder of the series cannot be admitted to be genuine, unless there be some independent ground for thinking them so: when all but one are spurious, overwhelming evidence is required of the genuineness of the one: when they are all similar in style or motive, like witnesses who agree in the same tale, they stand or fall together. But no one, not even Mr. Grote, would maintain that all the Epistles of Plato are genuine, and very few critics think that more than one of them is so. And they are clearly all written from the same motive, whether serious or only literary. Nor is there an example in Greek antiquity of a series of Epistles, continuous and yet coinciding with a succession of events extending over a great number of years.
The external probability therefore against them is enormous, and the internal probability is not less: for they are trivial and unmeaning, devoid of delicacy and subtlety, wanting in a single fine expression. And even if this be matter of dispute, there can be no dispute that there are found in them many plagiarisms, inappropriately borrowed, which is a common note of forgery. They imitate Plato, who never imitates either himself or any one else; reminiscences of the Republic and the Laws are continually recurring in them; they are too like him and also too unlike him, to be genuine (see especially Karsten, Commentio Critica de Platonis quae feruntur Epistolis). They are full of egotism, self-assertion, affectation, faults which of all writers Plato was most careful to avoid, and into which he was least likely to fall. They abound in obscurities, irrelevancies, solecisms, pleonasms, inconsistencies, awkwardnesses of construction, wrong uses of words. They also contain historical blunders, such as the statement respecting Hipparinus and Nysaeus, the nephews of Dion, who are said to 'have been well inclined to philosophy, and well able to dispose the mind of their brother Dionysius in the same course,' at a time when they could not have been more than six or seven years of age also foolish allusions, such as the comparison of the Athenian empire to the empire of Darius, which show a spirit very different from that of Plato; and mistakes of fact, as e.g. about the Thirty Tyrants, whom the writer of the letters seems to have confused with certain inferior magistrates, making them in all fifty-one. These palpable errors and absurdities are absolutely irreconcileable with their genuineness. And as they appear to have a common parentage, the more they are studied, the more they will be found to furnish evidence against themselves. The Seventh, which is thought to be the most important of these Epistles, has affinities with the Third and the Eighth, and is quite as impossible and inconsistent as the rest. It is therefore involved in the same condemnation.The final conclusion is that neither the Seventh nor any other of them, when carefully analyzed, can be imagined to have proceeded from the hand or mind of Plato. The other testimonies to the voyages of Plato to Sicily and the court of Dionysius are all of them later by several centuries than the events to which they refer. No extant writer mentions them older than Cicero and Cornelius Nepos. It does not seem impossible that so attractive a theme as the meeting of a philosopher and a tyrant, once imagined by the genius of a Sophist, may have passed into a romance which became famous in Hellas and the world. It may have created one of the mists of history, like the Trojan war or the legend of Arthur, which we are unable to penetrate. In the age of Cicero, and still more in that of Diogenes Laertius and Appuleius, many other legends had gathered around the personality of Plato,more voyages, more journeys to visit tyrants and Pythagorean philosophers. But if, as we agree with Karsten in supposing, they are the forgery of some rhetorician or sophist, we cannot agree with him in also supposing that they are of any historical value, the rather as there is no early independent testimony by which they are supported or with which they can be compared.
IV. There is another subject to which I must briefly call attention, lest I should seem to have overlooked it. Dr. Henry Jackson, of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a series of articles which he has contributed to the Journal of Philology, has put forward an entirely new explanation of the Platonic 'Ideas.' He supposes that in the mind of Plato they took, at different times in his life, two essentially different forms:an earlier one which is found chiefly in the Republic and the Phaedo, and a later, which appears in the Theaetetus, Philebus, Sophist, Politicus, Parmenides, Timaeus. In the first stage of his philosophy Plato attributed Ideas to all things, at any rate to all things which have classes or common notions: these he supposed to exist only by participation in them. In the later Dialogues he no longer included in them manufactured articles and ideas of relation, but restricted them to 'types of nature,' and having become convinced that the many cannot be parts of the one, for the idea of participation in them he substituted imitation of them. To quote Dr. Jackson's own expressions,'whereas in the period of the Republic and the Phaedo, it was proposed to pass through ontology to the sciences, in the period of the Parmenides and the Philebus, it is proposed to pass through the sciences to ontology': or, as he repeats in nearly the same words, 'whereas in the Republic and in the Phaedo he had dreamt of passing through ontology to the sciences, he is now content to pass through the sciences to ontology.'
This theory is supposed to be based on Aristotle's Metaphysics, a passage containing an account of the ideas, which hitherto scholars have found impossible to reconcile with the statements of Plato himself. The preparations for the new departure are discovered in the Parmenides and in the Theaetetus; and it is said to be expressed under a different form by the (Greek) and the (Greek) of the Philebus. The (Greek) of the Philebus is the principle which gives form and measure to the (Greek); and in the 'Later Theory' is held to be the (Greek) or (Greek) which converts the Infinite or Indefinite into ideas. They are neither (Greek) nor (Greek), but belong to the (Greek) which partakes of both.
With great respect for the learning and ability of Dr. Jackson, I find myself unable to agree in this newly fashioned doctrine of the Ideas, which he ascribes to Plato. I have not the space to go into the question fully; but I will briefly state some objections which are, I think, fatal to it.
(1) First, the foundation of his argument is laid in the Metaphysics of Aristotle. But we cannot argue, either from the Metaphysics, or from any other of the philosophical treatises of Aristotle, to the dialogues of Plato until we have ascertained the relation in which his so-called works stand to the philosopher himself. There is of course no doubt of the great influence exercised upon Greece and upon the world by Aristotle and his philosophy. But on the other hand almost every one who is capable of understanding the subject acknowledges that his writings have not come down to us in an authentic form like most of the dialogues of Plato. How much of them is to be ascribed to Aristotle's own hand, how much is due to his successors in the Peripatetic School, is a question which has never been determined, and probably never can be, because the solution of it depends upon internal evidence only. To 'the height of this great argument' I do not propose to ascend. But one little fact, not irrelevant to the present discussion, will show how hopeless is the attempt to explain Plato out of the writings of Aristotle. In the chapter of the Metaphysics quoted by Dr. Jackson, about two octavo pages in length, there occur no less than seven or eight references to Plato, although nothing really corresponding to them can be found in his extant writings:a small matter truly; but what a light does it throw on the character of the entire book in which they occur! We can hardly escape from the conclusion that they are not statements of Aristotle respecting Plato, but of a later generation of Aristotelians respecting a later generation of Platonists. (Compare the striking remark of the great Scaliger respecting the Magna Moralia:Haec non sunt Aristotelis, tamen utitur auctor Aristotelis nomine tanquam suo.)
