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John Heywood

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Explores how we judge engineering education in order to effectively redesign courses and programs that will prepare new engineers for various professional and academic careers * Shows how present approaches to assessment were shaped and what the future holds * Analyzes the validity of teaching and judging engineering education * Shows the integral role that assessment plays in curriculum design and implementation * Examines the sociotechnical system's impact on engineering curricula

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IEEE Press445 Hoes Lane Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial BoardTariq Samad, Editor in Chief

George W. Arnold

Ziaoou Li

Ray Perez

Giancarlo Fortino

Vladimir Lumelsky

Linda Shafer

Dmitry Goldgof

Pui-In Mak

Zidong Wang

Ekram Hossain

Jeffrey Nanzer

MengChu Zhou

Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Book and Information Services (BIS)

The Assessment of Learning in Engineering Education

Practice and Policy

John Heywood

Trinity College, The University of Dublin

Copyright © 2016 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.

ISBN: 978-1-110-17551-3

In Memory ofGeorgine LoackerDoyen of Assessment

Contents

Preface

References

Acknowledgments

1 Prologue

1.1 General Introduction: The Functions of Assessment

1.2 Health Warning: Ambiguities in the Use of the Term “Assessment”

1.3 The Assessment of Persons for the Professions

1.4 The Engineering Profession

1.5 The Development of Higher and Engineering Education as Areas of Academic Study in the 1960s

1.6 Assumptions About Examinations: Reliability

1.7 Myths Surrounding Examinations

1.8 The Introduction of Coursework Assessment

1.9 Rethinking Validity

1.10 Wastage (Dropout): The Predictive Value of School Examinations for Satisfactory Performance in Higher Education

1.11 Factors Influencing Performance in College Courses

1.12 Assessment: Results and Accountability

1.13 Assessing the Learner

Notes

References

2 Assessment and the Preparation of Engineers for Work

2.1 Engineers at Work

2.2 An Alternative Approach to the Education and Training of Engineers for Industry

2.3 Toward an Alternative Curriculum for Engineering

2.4 Creativity in Engineering and Design

2.5 Furneaux's Study of a University's Examinations in First-Year Mechanical Engineering: The Argument for “Objectives”

2.6 Discussion

Notes

References

3 The Development of a Multiple-Objective (Strategy) Examination and Multidimensional Assessment and Evaluation

3.1 The Development of an Advanced Level Examination in Engineering Science (For 17/18-Year-Old High School Students): The Assessment of Achievement and Competency

3.2 Skills Involved in Writing Design Proposals and Practical Laboratory Work

3.3 A Balanced System of Assessment

3.4 Pictures of the Curriculum Process

3.5 Multidimensional Assessment and Evaluation: A Case Study

3.6 Discussion

Notes

References

4 Categorizing the Work Done by Engineers: Implications for Assessment and Training

4.1 Introduction

4.2 A Study of Engineers at Work in a Firm in the Aircraft Industry

4.3 The Application of

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

to the Task Analysis of Managers in a Steel Plant

4.4 The Significance of Interpersonal Competence

4.5 A Comparative Study of British and German Production Engineers (Managers)

4.6 Engineering Knowledge

4.7 Discussion

Notes

References

5 Competency-Based Qualifications in the United Kingdom and United States and Other Developments

5.1 The Development of Competency-Based Vocational Qualifications in the United Kingdom

5.2 Outcomes Approaches in High Schools in the United Kingdom

5.3 Standards in Schools in the United States

5.4 Education for Capability: Capability vs. Competence

5.5 Ability (Assessment)-Led Curricula: The Alverno College Model

5.6 The Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative in the United Kingdom and the SCANS Report in the United States

5.7 The College Outcome Measures Program

5.8 Discussion

Notes

References

6 The Impact of Accreditation

6.1 ABET, European Higher Education Area (Bologna Process), and the Regulation of the Curriculum

6.2 Taxonomies

6.3 Outcomes-Based Engineering Education

6.4 Mastery Learning and Personalized Systems of Instruction

6.5 Discussion

References

7 Student Variability

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Learning and Teaching Styles

7.3 Study Habits/Strategies

7.4 Intellectual Development

7.5 Critical Thinking

7.6 The Assessment of Development

7.7 The Reflective Practitioner

7.8 Adaptive Expertise

7.9 Discussion

Notes

References

8 Emotional Intelligence, Peer and Self-Assessment, Journals and Portfolios, and Learning-How-to-Learn

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Emotional Intelligence

8.3 Self- and Peer Assessment

8.4 Learning Journals and Portfolios

8.5 Learning-How-to-Learn

8.6 Discussion

Notes

References

9 Experiential Learning, Interdisciplinarity, Projects, and Teamwork

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Project Work as a Vehicle for Integrated Learning and Interdisciplinarity

9.3 Learning to Collaborate

9.4 Constructive Controversy

9.5 Communication, Teamwork, and Collegial Impediments to the Development of Good Engineering Practice

9.6 The Demand for Skill in Innovation: Can It Be Taught?

9.7 Creativity, Teamwork, and Reflective Practice (See Also Section 2.4)

9.8 Can Teamwork Be Taught?

9.9 Discussion

References

10 Competencies

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Iowa Studies (ISU)

10.3 The Outcomes Approach in Australia, Europe, and Elsewhere

10.4 The CDIO Initiative

10.5 A Standards-Based Approach to the Curriculum

10.6 Recent European Studies

10.7 Impact of Subjects (Courses) on Person-Centered Interventions

10.8 The Potential for Comparative Studies: Choosing Competencies

10.9 Expressive Outcomes

10.10 Discussion

References

11 “Outside” Competency

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Accidental Competencies

11.3 Understanding Competence at Work

11.4 Contextual Competence

11.5 A Post-Technician Cooperative Apprenticeship

11.6 Theories of Competence Development in Adult Life

11.7 Discussion

Notes

References

12 Assessment, Moral Purpose, and Social Responsibility

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Moral Purpose and the Power of Grading

12.3 From Reliability to Validity: Toward a Philosophy of Engineering Education

12.4 Screening the Aims of Engineering Education

12.5 The Role of Educational Institutions in the Preparation for Industry (the Development of Professional Skills)

12.6 The Role of Industry in Professional Development

12.7 Assessment and the Curriculum

12.8 Changing Patterns in the Workforce, the Structure of Higher Education

12.9 Lifelong Education and Credentialing

12.10 Conclusion

Notes

References

A A Quick Guide to the Changing Terminology in the Area of “Assessment“

A.1 Objectives and Outcomes

A.2 Assessment and Evaluation

References

B Extracts from the

Syllabus and Notes for the Guidance of Schools for GCE Engineering Science (Advanced) 1972

Joint Matriculation Board, Manchester

B.1 Extract 1 (pp. 2–6)

B.2 Extract 2 (p. 9)

B.3 Extract 3 (pp. 13–16)

Author Index

Subject Index

EULA

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

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Preface

The core idea explored in this book is that of judgment. Judgment is something that all professionals are called upon to do simply because of what it means to be a professional. This book explores specifically how we judge engineering education. A great deal of time and effort worldwide is being put into redesigning engineering courses and programs to meet the accreditation requirements of various agencies that judge whether degree programs are producing sufficiently qualified engineers. These agencies focus on assessment as the mechanism for evaluating courses and student learning, but because such assessment has far-reaching impact, it is appropriate to examine both the agencies and their methods. In this text, I try to, in a somewhat nonlinear fashion, explore what it means to claim to be “professional” in one's role as a teacher. Beyond content knowledge and understanding, theories of learning, professionalism includes a defensible theory and philosophy of assessment for one role of a teacher is to judge student progress. The aim of the text is, therefore, to provide sufficient data for an engineering educator to acquire a defensible theory or philosophy of assessment.

Assessment is not a stand-alone topic best left to experts. Examining assessment is one way of focusing on the curriculum for it cannot be divorced from learning, instruction, and content. It is integral to the curriculum process yet, more often than not, it is the afterthought of the educational process. Focusing on assessment forces us to consider in detail the aims and objectives of programs and for whom they serve. This book focuses internally on the problems of the curricula we have, and externally on the dictates of the sociotechnical system in which we live; these are inextricably linked. The book brings into sharp relief the relative responsibilities of academia and industry for the development of their charges as professionals.

This book is not about particular techniques of measurement or a “how to” guide for instructors. These can be found in most books on assessment in higher education (Angelo and Cross, 1994; Heywood, 2000). Rather this book is about the validity of teaching and judging learning and therefore includes illustrations of what our colleagues are doing framed against the backdrop of accepted educational policies.

The late Sister Georgine Loacker, Professor of English at Alverno College and Chairperson of the College's Assessment Council to whom this is book is dedicated and I disagreed about many things but we did not disagree about the principles of assessment. She and her colleagues defined assessment as “a multidimensional attempt to observe and, on the basis of criteria, to judge the individual learner in action” that is the position taken in this book. In the case of professional students, it means judging them in both academic and workplace situations.

“To undertake assessment means sampling, observing, and judging according to criteria. It means developing a whole array of techniques to take into account the fullest possible range of human talents. And it means an ongoing commitment to dealing with these kinds of questions” (Alverno College, 1994). This book is about how the engineering community has and is answering these questions and how it has and is determining the criteria on which such judgments are made. In sum, it is about practice and how research and theory should inform practice and policy.

Readers may come at this from different perspectives. Administrators and policy makers may be more concerned with assessment and its role in accountability, whereas instructors may be concerned with the impact that assessment has on learning. Similarly, the focus of the former will be, in all probability, on the curriculum, whereas the latter are likely to be more focused on techniques. Here it is argued that the two are not separable from each other. The more one tries to separate them, the more one becomes misled because they become detached from the system of which they are a part. This book is an attempt to demonstrate that this is the case and frame assessment more holistically.

John Heywood

References

Angelo, T., and Cross, K. P. (1994).

Classroom Assessment Techniques

. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Alverno College. (1994).

Student-Assessment-as-Learning at Alverno College

. Milwaukee, WI: Alverno College Institute.

Heywood, J. (2000).

Assessment in Higher Education. Student Learning, Teaching Programmes and Institutions

. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Acknowledgments

This book resulted from a request by Marcia Mentkowski to write a short commentary on developments in performance-based assessment in engineering education. Bill Williams encouraged me to develop the drafts into a book and Rich Felder provided valuable criticism. During the subsequent development, Bill, together with Mani Mina and Alan Cheville, spent many hours critiquing the text. Russ Korte drew my attention to important papers that had escaped my search. I am most grateful to them for their kindness and their no-holds-barred support. Meriel Huggard has helped me get the text ship-shape for which I am also most grateful.

A book of this kind is the result of many influences. Sir Charles Carter triggered my interest in assessment when, 50 years ago, he offered me a Leverhulme Senior Research Fellowship to investigate examining in universities. The work undertaken for this fellowship led the late Harry Edels to invite me to assist him and his colleagues in the development of a new university entrance examination in engineering science for the Joint Matriculation Board. The development of this examination resulted in a 20-year collaboration with the late Deryk Kelly. We were supported by George Carter and Glyn Price. It should be noted that the Board, supported by its Secretary Mr. R. Christopher and later Mr. C. Vickerman, departed from its usual organizational practices and provided a structure that enabled this unique curriculum development. Later, in Ireland, in collaboration with Seamus McGuinness and the late Denstone Murphy, we attempted to apply the model developed for engineering science to school examinations in history and mathematics.

During this period, Michael Youngman, Bob Oxtoby, the late Denis Monk, and I responded to the criticism that university and school curricular in engineering did not respond to what engineers actually do by undertaking a job analysis of what engineers actually did using a statistical methodology developed by Youngman. I was also invited to undertake other collaborations and investigations in industry by the late Bill Humble and the late Barry Turner. Throughout the last 30 years, I have had valuable discussions with John Cowan about assessment.

After my first book on assessment in higher education was published, Georgine Loacker contacted me and the developments at Alverno College came into my thinking. I hope that to use the title of their book that this contribution will provide “Learning That Lasts.”

Taken together, these studies provided the setting for the development of this book and those I have mentioned undoubtedly influenced the direction that my thoughts on assessment have taken as did Alec Martin and Lester Parker. To these should be added James Freeman, who introduced me to research on assessment in medical education and showed me its bearing on engineering education, and to Catherine Griffin, my doctoral student, who undertook a longitudinal study of portfolio assessment among nurses with whom I had many mind-stretching discussions. To all whom I have mentioned—Thank You.

Finally, no acknowledgment would be complete without a thank you to all the authors whose work I have read, and whose contributions gave me so much pleasure. I regret that the scale of the exercise prevented me from drawing attention to many other studies that merited attention.

1Prologue

1.1 General Introduction: The Functions of Assessment

Recently I had a cause to enquire of a friend how he was recovering from an operation on his heart. He mailed a reply, which said, “They opened my chest, split my sternum, pried my rib cage apart, turned off my heart and lungs and let a machine do the work, replaced my aortic valve with a device fashioned from a cow's pericardium, cut out a piece of my ascending aorta and replaced it with a Dacron tube, restarted my refurbished heart and lungs, pulled my sternum back in place, and stapled my chest back together. Miracle 1—I'm still alive after all that. Miracle 2—three weeks later, and I'm almost fully functional unaided and what mild aches and pains I have are managed well with gabapentin (a nerve pain pill) and Tylenol.”

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