Women’s Health: A Comprehensive Guide to Common Health Issues in Women E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Women’s Health: A Comprehensive Guide to Common Health Issues in Women provides an in-depth look at the various health challenges faced by women and the available treatments and preventive measures. The book begins with an overview of women's health, followed by an exploration of complementary and alternative therapies that address common health concerns. It delves into the menstrual cycle, common menstrual problems, and the role of genetics and hormones in women's health, offering insights into hormonal imbalances and genetic factors that contribute to menstrual irregularities.
Readers will also find comprehensive information on cervical cancer, including its control and basic understanding, as well as detailed discussions on breast cancer screening, treatment, breastfeeding, and the benefits of breast milk. The book addresses unmet needs in contraception and family planning, highlights the importance of nutrition in women's health, and examines heart diseases and risk factors specific to women. Additional topics include autoimmune diseases, treatment options, bone health, menopause, and the processes of understanding and remodeling during these stages. This guide is an essential resource for anyone looking to understand and improve women's health.
Readership
Healthcare professionals, clinicians, administrators, caregivers, and general readers.
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Seitenzahl: 566
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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FOREWORD
A thorough resource that discusses the particular health issues that women face throughout their lives is "Women's Health: A Comprehensive Guide to Common Health Issues in Women", edited by Dr. Rishabha Malviya and his team. The book chapters, which are written by a varied group of experts in the field, researchers, and professionals, cover a wide range of subjects, including nutrition, genetics, and the menstrual cycle, in addition to themes like breast and cervical cancer, contraception, genetics and hormones.
The book stands out for its dedication to women's empowerment by providing them with the information they need to make wise decisions regarding their health. It fosters a sense of agency and autonomy in women by encouraging them to actively participate in their health. It serves as a reminder to women that they are also advocates for their own health, not simply patients.
The book inspires readers to indulge in the knowledge, participate in conversations, and spread the word. This book acts as a potent motivator for the communal empowerment movement, which is not a single endeavor.
I applaud Dr. Rishabha Malviya and his colleagues for their commitment to enhancing women's health and for developing a tool that has the potential to make a significant difference in a great many people's lives. "Empowering Women's Health" is a tribute to the advancements made and a lighthouse that points us in the direction of a future in which everyone places a high premium on women's health.
PREFACE
We are pleased to welcome you to the book "Women's Health: A Comprehensive Guide to Common Health Issues in Women". This book is an outcome of a sustained effort that provides researchers with a thorough resource that can equip them to make decisions about women's health and well-being.
Women have experienced particular health issues throughout history, and as society advances, so does its understanding of women's health. This book attempts to close the knowledge-to-action gap by providing women with the knowledge they need to successfully manage all aspects of their health journey.
Each of the twelve chapters covers a different facet of women's health, from the complexity of the menstrual cycle to how genetics and hormones impact general health. The book discusses problems such as contraception, food, heart disease, autoimmune diseases, and bone health. The book also explores cervical and breast cancer.
With the information discussed in the book, women may communicate more effectively with healthcare providers, make sensible decisions, and make proactive efforts to enhance health.
This is not only a book for women. It is for the partners, relatives, friends, and healthcare practitioners who want to better understand and support the women in their lives. When it comes to women's health, we support constructive discussion and cooperation, and this book acts as a catalyst for those interactions.
As you explore through "Empowering Women's Health", we invite you to approach each chapter with interest and empower yourself.
We would like to thank all the authors, researchers, and healthcare professionals who contributed their expertise and insights to this book. Their commitment to improving women's health has been essential in the development of this excellent resource.
We hope it will be a reliable companion on the journey to improved health and will motivate you to take an active role in developing women's well-being. Let us work together to inspire women to live healthier, happier lives.
List of Contributors
Overview of Women’s Health
Suraj Kumar1,Rishabha Malviya1,*,Dhanalekshmi Unnikrishnan Meenakshi2Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of women's health, encompassing various aspects of physical, mental, and social well-being specific to women. Women's health concerns have gained significant attention due to their unique physiological, psychological, and social attributes. This overview explores key areas such as reproductive health, menstrual cycle, maternal health, menopause, and common medical conditions affecting women. It discusses the importance of gender-sensitive healthcare approaches and emphasizes the need for comprehensive medical services that address women's specific needs. Furthermore, the book highlights the significance of promoting education and awareness regarding women's health issues, enabling informed decision-making and proactive healthcare management. In conclusion, this overview underscores the necessity of recognizing women's health as a vital component of public health agendas and advocates for continued research, policy development, and healthcare initiatives aimed at enhancing women's overall well-being.
INTRODUCTION
Over recent decades, notable developments have been made in the advancement of women's rights, healthcare, and the pursuit of gender equality on a worldwide level. One of the key aspects of this movement involves a focus on improving the overall welfare of women, with a particular emphasis on their physical and mental health as well as their overall quality of life [1]. The concept of women's health encompasses a state of holistic physical, mental, and social well-being that goes beyond the simple absence of illness or infirmity. While the leading causes of
death globally, such as coronary heart disease, cancer, and lung disorders, are similar for both men and women, women face unique obstacles related to these health issues. In addition to the aforementioned health concerns, it is crucial to recognize additional notable health conditions that impact women, including cardiovascular diseases, mood disorders, cognitive decline, degenerative joint disease, and hematological deficiencies. The lack of participation by women in research studies has been an important barrier to the advancement of women's health research. However, there have been initiatives undertaken in the United States of America and other Western nations to combat these problems [1]. These initiatives include the establishment of centers of excellence specializing in women's health research and the implementation of extensive research programs such as the Women's Health Improvement Initiative. The role of gender on health outcomes remains a prominent psychosocial element since the physical and mental well-being of women is determined not only by biological characteristics but also by other contextual factors such as socioeconomic position, employment conditions, and familial responsibilities [2].
Throughout several historical periods, women have faced significant differences in multiple domains, with a special emphasis on their limited social and economic influence. Fig. (1) illustrates the broad overview of women's health issues related to several disciplines. Although a significant proportion of problems associated with women's health pertain to their sexual and reproductive well-being, encompassing aspects such as maternal and child health, genital and breast health, as well as endocrine health encompassing menstruation, contraception, and menopause, there has been an indication for a more comprehensive understanding of women's health that covers every aspect (shown in Fig. 1). Therefore, the term “women's health” has been substituted with “the health of women” [3]. These limitations have led to the restricted availability of crucial resources required for basic human needs, such as sufficient healthcare services. Furthermore, it is crucial to highlight the extent of the disadvantages faced by women, particularly in developing nations, since they significantly and adversely impact their general health and well-being [3]. Biological variations cover a diverse range of phenotypic and cellular differences, which contribute to unique vulnerability about susceptibility to diseases [4].
Perspective from a Global Level
The concept of the global viewpoint may be described as an academic field that focuses on the examination, investigation, and application of strategies aimed at enhancing health outcomes and promoting health equity on a global scale [5]. In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) delineated a list of the foremost concerns related to women's health. These concerns included cancer, sexual and reproductive health, maternity health, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), infections transmitted via sexual contact, domestic abuse, psychological wellness, non-communicable illnesses, youth, and aging [6].
Fig. (1)) The general overview of women's health related to multidisciplinary problems [3].Social and Cultural Factors
Despite recent advancements in Western countries, women continue to experience disadvantages in comparison to males. The difference in health outcomes between genders becomes especially apparent in poorer nations when women experience a comparatively greater degree of poverty. In addition to the issue of gender inequality, there persist certain disease processes that are particularly connected with the female gender, giving rise to particular issues in terms of prevention and healthcare [7]. Behavioral discrepancies also contribute to the phenomenon, as women tend to exhibit a lower tendency for risk-taking behaviors, such as consuming a smaller number of cigarettes, alcohol, and narcotics [7]. Therefore, such behavior reduces their susceptibility to mortality resulting from related ailments, such as lung cancer, TB, and hepatitis. Motor vehicle accidents are among the risk parameters that exhibit a lower incidence rate in women. The presence of occupational inequalities has resulted in women being subjected to a lower incidence of industrial injuries [8]. However, it is anticipated that this situation may transform the future, similar to changes in the incidence of injury and mortality rates in times of conflict between nations. In 2009, the United States observed that injuries contributed to 3.5% of female mortality, whereas the corresponding figure for the entire population was 6.2%. The incidence of suicide is lower among women as well [8].
Biological Factors
Health gaps between women and men mostly manifest in factors associated with reproduction; however, variations based on sex have been observed across multiple domains, ranging from genetic to behavioral. Sex variations in health at the physiological, perceptual, and intellectual levels have been suggested to be influenced by a combination of variables, including the complement of women's XX sex chromosomes, hormonal milieu, gender-specific lifestyles, metabolic processes, the functioning of the immune system, and susceptibility to environmental stimuli [9]. Young women and teenagers have vulnerabilities to sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unwanted pregnancies, and unsafe abortion practices [9]. On the other hand, elderly women typically encounter fewer financial and professional disadvantages compared to males. Additionally, they are susceptible to dementia, maltreatment, and overall bad health [10].
Reproductive and Sexual Health
Complications of Pregnancy
In conjunction with mortality during pregnancy and childbirth, pregnancy can give rise to a variety of non-lethal health complications, such as obstetrical fistulae, ectopic pregnancies, premature labor, pregnancy-related diabetes, hyperemesis gravidarum, hypertensive disorders including premenstrual syndrome and anemia. On a global scale, the incidence of pregnancy-associated diseases significantly surpasses the occurrence of fatalities among mothers. It has been estimated that there are around 9.5 million worldwide instances of disease associated with pregnancy, along with 1.4 million cases of instances of near-miss denoting survival from serious life-threatening disorders [11]. Pregnancy can give rise to a range of complications encompassing psychological, financial, and social dimensions. Approximately 10-20 million women are expected to suffer from mental or physical impairments annually due to issues with pregnancy or inadequate healthcare [11]. As a result, many worldwide organizations have established standards and guidelines for the provision of obstetric care.
Obstetrical Fistula
Obstetrical fistulae (OF), comprising vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulae, continue to be regarded as extremely serious and unpleasant conditions. While it is true that corrective surgery may be performed, the procedure's accessibility is usually limited, and obstetric fistula (OF) is widely seen as an avoidable condition. According to estimates, the global annual occurrence of such an ailment is believed to reach up to 100,000 instances, while around 2 million women are now affected by it. Additionally, it's interesting to note that the highest incidence is observed in Africa as well as in certain regions of Asia [11]. Obstetric fistula (OF) arises as a consequence of protracted obstructed labor in the absence of medical intervention [11]. The condition occurs when the persistent pressure exerted by the fetus in the canal during delivery leads to restricted blood circulation in the adjacent tissues, which eventually ends in fetal death, necrosis, and subsequent ejection [12]. After the occurrence of pelvic organ injury, a fistula is formed, enabling the passage of urine or feces, or both, via the canal of the vagina. The condition is accompanied by symptoms such as urinary and fecal urinary tract infections, vaginal stenosis, nerve impairment, and infertility [11]. The occurrence of severe psychological and social repercussions is quite probable, including the ostracization of women. In addition to limited healthcare accessibility, factors contributing to the phenomenon include young age and nutritional deficiencies. Preventive measures include strategies such as avoiding adolescent pregnancy and child marriage, ensuring sufficient nutritional intake, and facilitating access to adequate healthcare services, including the provision of cesarean section when necessary [12].
Sexual Health
Abortion
The ability of individuals to make informed decisions regarding the initiation and timing of pregnancy has significant importance for women's autonomy and overall welfare. Contraceptive methods play a crucial role in protecting adolescent girls and young women against the risk factors associated with early pregnancy while also minimizing the increased risks of unplanned pregnancy in older women 13]. Therefore, the adoption of abortion rates can serve as a means to approximate the extent of satisfied demands for contraception [13]. However, the existing processes have posed significant risks for women throughout the majority of past periods, and continue to do so in countries that are developing or in situations where legal restrictions compel women to resort to covert facilities [14]. In the year 2005, there was a total of 87 million unintended pregnancies on a global scale. Out of this figure, around 46 million individuals opted for abortion as a means of resolving their situation. It is important to note that a significant portion of these abortions, particularly 18 million, were categorized as unsafe. Consequently, this dangerous practice led to the unfortunate result of 68,000 fatal accidents [15]. The majority of deaths took place in regions that are considered developing nations. The United Nations considers these circumstances preventable with the provision of safe abortion services and post-abortion healthcare. Although abortion rates have experienced a decline in industrialized nations, the same cannot be said for nations with lower incomes. During the period spanning from 2010 to 2014, the rate of abortions per 1000 women aged 15-44 was recorded as 35, resulting in an annual aggregate of 56 million abortions [16]. The United Nations has produced guidelines to enhance the accessibility and safety of abortion and post-abortion care for healthcare professionals. The supply of sufficient contraception is an integral component of post-abortion care.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Infections caused by sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) and female genital cutting (FGC) are significant reproductive health concerns that affect women [17]. Fig. (2) is a systematic depiction of the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among women throughout different periods. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are considered a significant worldwide health concern due to the severe implications they have for the well-being of mothers and newborns.
Fig. (2)) Systematic illustration of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in women yearwise [17].The transfer of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) from mother to baby has been associated with adverse outcomes such as premature births, infant mortality, weight loss, premature delivery, sepsis, respiratory infections, newborn conjunctivitis, and congenital defects. The occurrence of syphilis during pregnancy leads to a significant number of fetal and postnatal fatalities, estimated to exceed 300,000 annually [18]. Additionally, around 215,000 newborns are born with an elevated susceptibility to mortality due to premature, premature deliveries, low birth weight, or congenital ailments [19]. Disorders such as chlamydia and gonorrhea play significant roles in the development of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and consequent infertility in women [19]. A further significant implication of certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as genital herpes virus and syphilis, is that they have the potential to triple the probability of contracting HIV and impact its transmission and development. Globally, females, both women and girls, face a heightened vulnerability to HIV/AIDS [19]. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are frequently linked to sexual behaviors that are considered unsafe and, in many cases, non-consensual (Fig. 2).
Female Genital Mutilation
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines female genital mutilation, also known as female genital cutting, as including any non-medically justified treatments that entail either the complete or partial elimination of the external female genitalia or impose harm upon the female genital organs. The current global impact of this issue extends to a population of over 200 million women and girls. The practice is predominantly centered among around 30 nations throughout the continents of Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and the Asian continent [12]. Female genital cutting (FGC) has a significant impact on numerous spiritual beliefs, nations, and socioeconomic groups, and it remains a subject of intense controversy. The primary justifications put forth to support female genital cutting (FGC) include considerations of health and hygiene, fertility, the maintenance of continence, the significance of FGC as a ritual of passage, the potential for improved marital prospects, and the perceived enhancement of masculine sexual satisfaction [12]. The extent of tissue ablation exhibits significant variation, prompting the World Health Organization (WHO) and other authoritative entities to categorize Female Genital Cutting (FGC) into four distinct kinds. Type I involves either complete or partial excision of the clitoris, along with or without the elimination of the prepuce, which is occasionally referred to as clitoridectomy [20]. In addition to the ablation of the superficial labia, the removal of the major portion of the labia may or may not be performed (referred to as Type II). Type 3 female genital mutilation involves the constriction of the vaginal opening, known as the introitus, by the use of sutures to create a seal. This procedure may also involve the removal of the clitoris, a practice referred to as infibulation. In this particular context, a narrow aperture is formed to facilitate the expulsion of urine and blood from the menstrual cycle. Type 4 encompasses a range of treatments, typically including modest modifications such as piercings [20]. The immediate health consequences may encompass hemorrhage, infection, septicemia, and a fatal accident, while the long-term consequences may involve dyspareunia, menstrual cramps, vaginitis, and hepatitis [20]. Moreover, female genital cutting (FGC) is associated with several difficulties during gestation, labor, and childbirth. In certain cases, it may be necessary for proficient medical professionals to perform a procedure known as reversal or defibrillation to alleviate the effects of tissue scarring and restore normal functionality [21].
Infertility
Infertility impacts around 1.5 million couples in the United States of America [22]. A significant number of families choose assisted reproductive technology (ART) as a means of dealing with issues of infertility. However, approximately fifty percent of pregnancies achieved by in vitro fertilization (IVF) culminate in the delivery of multiple infants, a circumstance that has been associated with an increased likelihood of disease and mortality for both the mother and the newborn [23]. Several factors contribute to the phenomenon, such as elevated maternal blood pressure, premature deliveries, and infants with low birth weight. Furthermore, an increasing number of women are choosing to delay conception and are turning to assisted reproductive technologies (ART) [24].
Child Marriage
Child marriage, comprising both union and cohabitation, is a practice that involves individuals turning married before reaching the minimum age of eighteen. The practice has been prevalent since the beginning of history. According to estimates from 2010, the number of women was around 67 million, and the figure had grown to 70 million by 2012. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data of 2020, a total of 785 cases were registered under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act. The number of cases registered was the highest in Karnataka at 184, followed by Assam at 138, West Bengal at 98, Tamil Nadu at 77, and Telangana at 62. In countries that are developing, approximately one-third of girls get married before reaching the age of majority, with a ratio of 1:9 being married before the age of 15 [25]. Several cultural factors contribute to the continuation of the practice. These factors comprise the child's long-term financial prospects, the dowry associated with her marriage, her social connections and standing, as well as the prevention of premarital sexual activity, extramarital pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections. The act of child marriage results in the establishment of a relationship where the girl involved experiences an important status inequality, hence sustaining the preexisting gender inequity that first gave rise to the practice [24]. Moreover, it is important to note that early pregnancies are frequently associated with increased medical risks for both the mother and the child. Additionally, repeated pregnancies and limited access to prenatal treatment contribute to the alarming rates of mortality among adolescent girls aged 15–19, with pregnancy being one of the primary reasons for death [12]. Females who get into matrimony at a young age exhibit a higher propensity to experience domestic abuse.
Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycles faced by women, which involve regular monthly alterations to the female reproductive system, can provide substantial difficulties for women over their reproductive lifespan, spanning from adolescence to around 50 years of age [26]. These encompass the physiological alterations that may affect both physical and emotional well-being, as well as the indications of fertilization and the periodic shredding of the endometrium, the innermost layer of the uterus, which is accompanied by bleeding from the vagina known as menses or menstruation [26]. The beginning of menstruation, also known as menarche, can be a source of distress for inexperienced young girls, who could misread it as a sign of disease. The occurrence of menstruation can impose significant challenges for women, affecting their capacity to engage in various activities and get necessary menstrual products, including tampons and sanitary pads. The problem is more pronounced within socioeconomically disadvantaged populations, as they could face financial difficulties. Additionally, in developing nations, menstruation can pose a barrier to girls' educational pursuits. The hormonal fluctuations might potentially be linked to various physiological responses, including systemic manifestations like hot flashes, as well as localized alterations inside the reproductive tract, such as decreased secretions from the vagina and lubrication.
Non-Reproductive Health
Women have different degrees of numerous diseases, including coronary heart disease, malignancy, depressive disorders, and Alzheimer's. In addition, women are more susceptible to urinary tract infections than males.
Cardiovascular Disease
According to Gronowski and Schindler, coronary artery disease is the most common cause of mortality (30%) among women in the United States, as well as the most prevalent chronic condition, impacting around 40% of this population [26]. The age at which the initial manifestation of the condition gets started is often higher in women compared to males. For example, the prevalence of stroke among females below the age of 80 is lower than among males, but it is higher among individuals aged 80 and above. In general, the incidence of stroke in women surpasses that observed in males during their lifetimes. Women have a greater chance of developing cardiovascular disease than males, particularly those with diabetes and smokers [26]. There are significant variations between women and men in multiple aspects of cardiovascular disease, including factors associated with risk, incidence physiology, signs and symptoms, response to treatments, and outcomes.
Cancer
The mortality rates associated with cancer are quite similar among women and men, resulting in a comparable risk of death. Cancer is responsible for nearly one-fourth of all fatalities and ranks as the second most prevalent cause of death. However, there exists an inequality in the occurrence rates of several types of malignancies among females and males. In Fig. (3), statistical data indicates that certain types of malignancies are prevalent among the female population.
Fig. (3)) Statistics from 2012 show some of the most common types of cancers affecting women [26].The Globocan 2020 estimates of cancer incidence and mortality were produced by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Worldwide, an estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases (18.1 million excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths (9.9 million excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) occurred in 2020. Female breast cancer has surpassed lung cancer as the most commonly diagnosed cancer, with an estimated 2.3 million new cases (11.7%), followed by lung (11.4%), colorectal (10.0%), prostate (7.3%), and stomach (5.6%) cancers. Lung cancer remained the leading cause of cancer death, with an estimated 1.8 million deaths (18%), followed by colorectal (9.4%), liver (8.3%), stomach (7.7%), and female breast (6.9%) cancers [27]. In addition, among the significant malignancies affecting women, ovarian cancer and uterine cancer (including endometrial and cervical cancers) have considerable significance. The cancer mortality rates significantly accelerated in the twentieth century [28]. However, it is important to note that the rise in mortality rates among women was comparatively lower and occurred at a later stage, mostly attributed to variations in smoking frequency. In recent years, there has been a significant decrease in cancer mortality rates, which can be attributed to the decreasing prevalence of cigarette consumption [29]. Overall incidence was 2-fold to 3-fold higher in transitioned versus transitioning countries for both sexes, whereas mortality varied <2-fold for men and slightly for women. Death rates for female breast and cervical cancers, however, were considerably higher in transitioning versus transitioned countries (15.0 vs 12.8 per 100,000 and 12.4 vs 5.2 per 100,000, respectively). The global cancer burden is expected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, a 47% rise from 2020, with a larger increase in transitioning (64% to 95%) versus transitioned (32% to 56%) countries due to demographic changes, although this may be further exacerbated by increasing risk factors associated with globalization and a growing economy [27]. During the initial decades of the twentieth century, mortality resulting from tumors affecting the uterine body and cervix emerged as the primary cause of cancer-related deaths in women, surpassing the mortality rates observed in males [30]. In the beginning of 1930s, there was a notable decrease in mortality rates associated with uterine cancer, primarily attributed to a reduction in fatalities caused by cervical cancer [31]. This decrease in mortality may be largely attributed to the introduction and widespread application of the Papanicolaou (Pap) screening test [32]. The occurrence led to an overall decrease in cancer-related mortality among women from the 1940s to the 1970s, but there was a subsequent rise in total mortality due to the increasing incidence of lung cancer [33]. During the 1950s, there was a significant reduction in the incidence of uterine cancer, resulting in breast cancer as the primary cause of cancer-related mortality [34]. However, in the 1980s, cancer of the lung surpassed breast cancer as the major cause of cancer death. According to Siegel et al., the mortality rates for three types of cancer, namely lung, breast, and uterine cavity, have shown a decreasing pattern [28]. However, it is notable that the number of women who succumb to lung cancer annually exceeds the total number of deaths caused by ovarian, breast, and uterine cancers. In general, around 20% of individuals diagnosed with lung cancer do not have a history of smoking [35]. However, among those who have never smoked, the probability of getting lung cancer is three times higher for women compared to men. Fig. (4) shows that recognizing these risk factors allows for the development of preventive strategies and targeted interventions to mitigate the incidence and impact of cardiovascular disease [36]. In addition to its effect on death rates, cancer substantially contributes to the economic burden of disease in women. Females exhibit a decreased overall probability of a cancer diagnosis (38% compared to 45% in males), although they demonstrate a higher tendency to receive cancer diagnoses at a younger age [29].
Fig. (4)) Risk factors for cardiovascular disease [36].Mental Health
Approximately 25% of women will suffer from mental health disorders over their lifetimes [36]. Females exhibit a greater susceptibility to depression, stress, and psychological ailments compared to males. Depression is the primary cause of health problems on a global scale. In the United States of America, the incidence of depressive disorders is twice as high in women compared to men. The annual financial burden associated with depression among women in the United States is estimated to amount to $20 billion. The relationship between depressive disorders in women and alterations in their hormonal milieu, such as those occurring during adolescence, periods, pregnancy, delivery, and menopause, has been demonstrated. There is an imbalance in the metabolism of medications utilized for the treatment of depression between women and men [37]. The reported incidence of suicide is lower among women compared to men, with rates estimated at less than 1% for women and 2.4% for men [38]. However, it is important to note that suicide remains a significant cause of mortality among women under the age of 60. The establishment of the Women's Psychological Health Committee in the United Kingdom was prompted by the objective of addressing the variations in psychological experiences and needs across genders [39].
Violence
The phenomenon of violence against women is a pervasive global concern within the field of public health, with significant and long-lasting repercussions for women's physical, psychological, and reproductive well-being [40-42]. Fig. (5) depicts a comprehensive demonstration of the unfavorable effects of violence toward women. This kind of violence comprises a range of manifestations, including psychological, sexual, physical, and economic types of abuse.
Fig. (5)) Systematic illustration of negative consequence of violence against women.The consequences of perpetrating violence against women extend beyond their individual experiences, encompassing wider social implications. The impact of physical violence on women's physical health encompasses a spectrum of health issues, ranging from acute injuries to permanent implications. The injuries contain a range of manifestations, such as injuries called contusions, bone fractures, internal trauma, and potentially fatal circumstances. The incidence of chronic health conditions, including but not limited to chronic pain, migraines, and gastrointestinal disorders, is found to be elevated following instances of physical abuse. Instances of sexual violence have been found to have adverse effects, such as the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), the occurrence of premature births, and the development of gynecological disorders [40]. Individuals who have been subjected to sexual abuse may face challenges while attempting to establish intimate relationships, which can eventually contribute to mental health complications. The psychological and mental health consequences of violence against women are significant. Individuals who have been subjected to traumatic events frequently encounter psychological challenges such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and several other mental health conditions [41]. The enduring impact of abuse may have long-term consequences for an individual's confidence, sense of self-worth, and general emotional state. There exist several barriers that prohibit women from seeking assistance and reporting incidents of assault. Some potential factors contributing to the reluctance of individuals to report instances of abuse might include apprehension regarding potential retribution, the negative perceptions and social disapproval associated with such disclosures, economic reliance on the perpetrator, insufficient awareness regarding the existence of support systems, and restricted availability of assistance-oriented provisions [42]. The resolution of these obstacles is essential to ensuring the safety and welfare of women.
Challenges and Prospects in Women's Health
The field of women's healthcare pertains to a wide range of psychological, social, and physical concerns that are exclusive to women and encountered by them during their lifespans. The discipline has achieved significant improvements in resolving various challenges while simultaneously offering encouraging possibilities for the forthcoming period. The discussion below intends to explore numerous challenges and potential opportunities for women's health.
One of the Main Concerns that Needs to be Addressed is the Challenge that Occurs in these Circumstances.
Reproductive Health Disparities
The presence of disparities in the accessibility of reproductive health services, including methods of contraception, prenatal treatment, and medical care for mothers, remains common, particularly within marginalized communities and those with limited incomes. It is imperative to recognize and correct these inequities to establish a healthcare system that provides equal access and treatment for women of every socioeconomic group [43].
Menstrual Health and Stigma
The maintenance of menstrual health is a crucial component of women's overall welfare. However, some women continue to face societal discrimination as well as challenges with obtaining adequate menstrual hygiene products [44]. The continued issues lie in the normalization of conversations about menstruation and the enhancement of the accessibility of cost-effective and environmentally friendly feminine hygiene products.
Chronic Conditions
Females exhibit a higher prevalence of specific chronic ailments, including autoimmune illnesses, osteoporosis, and thyroid problems, hence experiencing a disproportionate effect [45]. These above-mentioned diseases have the potential to exert a substantial influence on an individual's overall quality of life, hence demanding focused study endeavors and specific therapies.
Mental Health
The increasing incidence of mood disorders and anxiety disorders in women can be attributed to several factors, including hormonal cycles, life transitions, and cultural pressures [46]. Overcoming stigma, enhancing the quality of mental health care, and promoting mental well-being are crucial endeavors.
Reproductive Rights and Family Planning
The issue of women's reproductive rights continues to be a subject of disagreement and discussion in many regions around the globe. The provision of comprehensive family planning services and education plays a crucial role in empowering women to make well-informed choices regarding their sexual and reproductive health [47].
The Potential Opportunities or Possibilities that Lie in the Future
Advancements in Precision Medicine
The customization of medical therapies based on individual genetic profiles exhibits significant potential in the field of women health [48, 49]. The application of precision medicine has the potential to yield enhanced therapeutic approaches and improved clinical outcomes for medical conditions such as carcinoma of the breast and problems with reproduction [50].
Technological Innovations
The use of telecommuting, mobile applications, wearable devices, and remote surveillance has the promise of transforming the field of women's healthcare through the augmentation of simplicity, accessibility and the adoption of data-driven choices [51].
Focus on Menstrual Health
Increasing awareness of gender-specific health needs is prompting more research on women's health concerns. This includes studies on sex-specific differences in disease presentation, treatment responses, and health outcomes [52-54].
Women-Centred Research
The growing recognition of gender-specific health requirements has resulted in an upsurge in scientific investigations related to women's medical problems [55]. These include research on the variations between sexes in terms of how diseases appear, how they respond to therapy, and the resulting health consequences.
Empowerment through Education
The promotion of comprehensive sexual education, reproductive health literacy, and understanding of women's health rights serves to empower individuals, empowering them to assume responsibility for their health and make well-informed decisions [56, 57].
Global Advocacy and Policy Changes
International efforts are pushing for policies that prioritize women's health on a global scale [58]. Improved access to maternal and reproductive health services is becoming a key focus, potentially reducing maternal mortality rates and improving overall well-being [59, 60].
