2D Materials E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
2D Materials: Chemistry and Applications, Part 2 addresses the cutting-edge advancements in the synthesis, functionalization, and applications of two-dimensional materials, focusing on graphene and other emerging materials like boron nitride, germanene, silicene, and stanene. This volume explores the potential of these materials in energy storage, nanoelectronics, waste management, and more, while addressing challenges like toxicity and cost-effective production.
The book highlights innovative approaches to graphene-based supercapacitors, nanoparticle-functionalized graphene, and the application of 2D materials in diverse fields. It also provides insights into the toxicity and remediation strategies of graphene family materials and outlines the roadmap for sustainable graphene production.
This book is ideal for researchers, academics, and professionals in materials science, nanotechnology, chemistry, and environmental engineering.
Key Features:
Advanced applications of graphene-based supercapacitors.
Functionalization and applications of boron nitride, germanene, silicene, and stanene.
Insights into graphene toxicity and remediation approaches.
Roadmap for cost-effective graphene production and waste management.
Readership: Graduate and undergraduate students, professionals
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Seitenzahl: 490
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
This second part of the book, "2D Materials: Chemistry and Applications," aims to provide comprehensive coverage of recent developments in various other 2D materials, extending its discussion beyond graphene to 2D Boron Nitride, Germanene, Silicene, Stanene, Mxene, and Transition Metal Chalcogenides. Recognizing the importance of these materials, detailed discussions have been conducted on topics such as their fundamental structure, surface chemistry, physiochemical, and optoelectronic properties in the backdrop of their applications in diverse fields ranging from electronics and energy storage to advanced composites and catalysis.
The first chapter of the second part of this book discusses one of the most promising fields where graphene can revolutionize the current state of affairs pertaining to advanced energy storage systems. The chapter examines the structural properties of graphene that facilitate enhanced capacitance and quick ion exchange and explores how rapid charging and discharging cycles lead to higher power densities. The book further explores the critical evaluation of the toxicity associated with the graphene family of materials and current strategies for remediation. The exploration of the toxicity of graphene materials and strategies for remediation is crucial as it addresses public health concerns and environmental safety, ensuring the responsible development and application of these advanced materials.
The discussion on graphene is summarised with sustainable and cost-effective practices and recent significant advancements in its production. This chapter highlights how cost-effective production of graphene remains elusive and the environmental concerns associated with its manufacturing processes that continue to pose significant challenges. It elaborates on the need for cost-effective production as it ensures more economically viable products for both manufacturers and consumers. This is particularly important in scaling up new technologies like graphene, where lowering costs can lead to broader adoption and integration into various industries.
Expanding the scope of this exploration, subsequent discussions introduce and elaborate on other members of the 2D material family, such as boron nitride and germanene. These materials are discussed in terms of their synthesis, functionalization, and wide-ranging applications, from energy systems to electronic devices. Moreover, a concise discussion on the relatively newer 2D materials such as Silicene, Stanene, Mxenes, and Transition Metal Chalcogenides enriches the discourse with the inclusion of an in-depth discussion on their unique electronic properties that make them promising candidates for applications in Nano electronics and photonics.
The comprehensive coverage of two-dimensional materials beyond graphene makes it an essential guide for researchers, engineers, and policymakers involved in the development of next-generation technologies and for ensuring the responsible integration of these materials into future products and applications.
List of Contributors
Advanced Graphene-Based Supercapacitors for Energy Storage Applications
Isha Kumari1,†,Sushant Kumar2,†,Pawan Singh Dhapola2,*,Pramod K. Singh2,*Abstract
Graphene-based supercapacitors (SC) are rising as the most efficient and smart energy storage systems. Nonpareil physiochemical properties of graphene offer immense potential for their use in developing next-generation energy storage and portable devices. Since the rise of graphene, this material has been seen as the best alternative to activated carbon in SC applications. Being a 2D material, its high surface area enables it to store electrostatic charge even after high cycling. Since the first graphene-based SC was fabricated in 2008, this material has been explored beyond the boundaries of pristine graphene. The recent invention paved the way for ultrafast charging devices with excellent efficiency. However, the widespread use of these devices in daily life seems far-fetched, but recent results in graphene-based architectures are fetching these possibilities to life. In the last decade, various revamped and manipulated graphene derivatives have also been investigated and found to have great potential in SC applications. These derivatives have shown tremendous specific capacitance with enhanced cyclability. Graphene derivatives can even exhibit capacitance retention of almost 100% after 20,000 cycles. This book chapter discusses the current state of affairs in various graphene-based SC devices, such as crumpled graphene, graphene-metal oxide composites, graphene-based aerogels, graphene nanoparticle systems, graphene-based fibers, graphene/carbon-based hybrid composites for their potential application in the fabrication of efficient energy devices. This comprehensive study aims to analyze current trends and the opportunities and challenges offered by graphene and its derivatives in the development of next-generation SCs.
INTRODUCTION
Graphene has revolutionized the field of supercapacitors and graphene-based supercapacitors are believed to revamp the industry within five to ten years [1]. Moreover, the extensive research on the use of graphene derivatives in SC fabrication has opened the possibility of eventually utilizing these architectures in many different applications [2]. Various methods to synthesize graphene for SCs are explored by the research community, which include widespread epitaxial growth (EG) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, mechanical/chemical exfoliation of sp2 hybridized graphite bulks, synthesis in a microwave plasma reactor, arc-discharge and chemical reduction of GO [3-5]. A complete discussion on the methods of synthesis of graphene is beyond the scope of this chapter.
The conception of the 'idea of SC' originates from the poor performance of batteries, especially in their time to charge. However, batteries are well-celebrated devices for their high energy density [6]. Capacitors, on the other hand, exhibit ultrafast charging; unfortunately, their capacity to store charges is limited. In addition, capacitors can store energy only for a short time. An SC is a mesmerizing device that contains the best things of both batteries and capacitors. It shows ultrafast charging and the tendency to retain more charges with a more extended period of charge retention [7]. The first categorization of SCs comes from the mode of functioning of its components and architecture.
The SCs are categorized into the following three types, viz. electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), pseudocapacitors (PCs), and hybrid SCs (HSCs) [8]. The EDLCs are superior high-power density devices with capacitances of several thousand farads. The high power density of these materials is due to the energy-fast adsorption and desorption also known as electrosorption, which generally occur on porous electrodes [9-12]. The fundamental architecture of EDLCs is very similar to that of lithium-ion batteries with two electrodes, an electrolyte, and a separator. Mostly porous materials are encouraged for the electrosorption of charged ions as electrodes, while electrolytes act as an active source of charged particles. On the other hand, PCs differ from EDLCs in the architecture of electrodes, which plays a crucial role in the mechanical differences in the energy storage process. In PCs, the electrode consists of active materials that exhibit simultaneous oxidation and reduction [13]. Energy storage is achieved via multiple methods, such as electrosorption, redox reactions, and intercalation of charges. External potential induces rapid and reversible redox changes on the electrode, and this facilitates fast migrations of charges between the electrode and electrolyte. The HSCs are fabricated using one electrode for each of the EDLCs and PC to assemble the best properties of both of them into one. The hybrid storage system exhibits high power of EDLCs and high energy of PCs [14]. Fig. (1) illustrates the architectural differences in EDLCs, pseudocapacitors, and HSCs.
Fig. (1)) Illustration showing mechanistic differences in EDLSs, pseudocapacitors and HSCs.The stature of graphene in developing next-generation SCs is on the top owing to its excellent properties, such as the unique consistency of atoms in creating a honeycomb lattice with sp2 hybridized carbon atoms [15]. In addition, properties such as electrical conductivity, high specific surface area, excellent mechanical performance, and very high theoretical capacitance bolster its claim to deliver the best available materials. The 2D framework of graphene and its derivatives allows rapid charge migration along the 2D plane and reduces the struggle in ionic diffusion. Though pristine graphene offers some challenges in fabricating electrodes, the extended pi-cloud prevents superior dispersion by stimulating π- π interactions between the layers [16]. These inter-layer interactions affect the specific gravimetric capacitance adversely. Various graphene-based derivatives are used to manage the reduction in specific gravimetric capacitance, which includes employing porous graphene sheets, 3D graphene architectures, graphene aerogels, and many more. The 3D graphene derivatives show pores of 2.1 to 3.4 nm and high SSA (295 m2/g). It was observed that interconnected pores significantly reduce the diffusion distances from the ion sources to the electrodes. In addition, the stacked graphene sheets greatly enhance charge storage in the SCs [4, 7, 13]. In addition, the strategy to dope graphene surfaces with suitable functionalities has shown promising results in enhancing the performance of the electrodes. In addition, defective and wrinkled graphene sheets have also been synthesized and used to develop efficient electrodes. Another major challenge in using pristine graphene comes from the low packing density. In pristine structures with a high surface area, very low volumetric capacitance is observed along with low energy density due to their poor packing density. Graphene has also been used as an assisting material in bringing out the best from the other materials that can be used to fabricate the electrodes. The primary Pseudo-capacitive materials, such as oxides and hydroxides of 'd’ block elements and various conducting polymers, suffer from some limitations or drawbacks, which can be rectified using graphene. One of the significant drawbacks of these materials is inferior electrical conductivity and incident volume change. These disadvantages prevent the fabrication of efficient electrodes by reducing the power density and desired sustenance after repeated cycles [15]. The problems described above can be addressed using graphene-based composite materials. The reinforced graphene in composite materials offers conducting networks and facilitates the redox reactions of 'd’ block oxides/hydroxides and conducting polymers [16, 17]. In addition, the layers of graphene assist in the superior dispersion of 'd’ block oxide/hydroxide and their nanoparticles and play the role of the conductive matrix. The conductive matrix enhances conduction and ameliorates electrode performance [18-20]. This book chapter thoroughly discusses the significant recent development of graphene-based materials and their electrochemical performance. The review will offer a thorough comprehension of the importance attributed to materials associated with graphene.
CRUMPLED GRAPHENE FOR SUPERCAPACITORS
Regarding supercapacitor performance parameters, graphene has been deemed the optimal choice for electrode material due to its theoretically predicted surface area. However, the presence of irreversible stacking interactions among individual graphene sheets leads to a reduction in specific surface area compared to its theoretical values [21]. 2-D graphene sheets are converted into the 3-D crumpled graphene structure to resolve this limitation. It is a new carbon nanostructure drawing notice because of its 3-D open system and its permanence in an aqueous solution [22]. The mechanical properties of graphene, i.e., number of layers, Young's modulus, interfacial energy, etc., govern its deformation, and the deformation in shape enhances some properties of it, i.e., transmittance, chemical potential, wettability, conductivity and expansion for energy storage [23]. Theoretically, different strains, pressure differences, uniaxial tension, and temperature are responsible for corrugations. Experimentally, the deformations are because of varying reduction techniques, changes in temperature, fast evaporation of aerosol elements (containing graphene), and allocating 2-dimensional graphene on a required substrate. Different corrugations' formation depends on the amount of strain and the synthesis technique used. The reasons responsible for the appearance of wrinkles are defects [24, 25], functional groups [26], and substrate-induced corrugation, while ripples are the intrinsic tendency of graphene, which is owed to thermal fluctuations. Crumpled graphene shows distinctive characteristics like elevated conductivity, high specific surface area, and permanence towards graphitization which gives it a superior capacitance and therefore locates an application in energy storage devices, specially supercapacitors [27].
Any material must have a high surface area to use as an electrode material in supercapacitors and achieve large specific capacitance because a high surface area means high accommodation of charges and ions. By inserting inorganic/ organic interlayer pillars or spacers between sheets or utilizing functional groups of chemical stitching such as Boron, Sulphur, and Nitrogen, the surface area and physical/ chemical characteristics of graphene can be modified [28, 29]. To support it, Wang et al. utilized a hydrothermal procedure to insert a carbon nanotube in the graphene sheets as an interlayer spacer. He takes different ratios of CNT and graphene for the same. He gets the highest value of capacitance, 318 F/g, at the ratio of 1:1. This value is consistent with the theoretical value of crumpled graphene [28]. Also, Tang et al. (2012) chemically stitched methacrylate groups for the structural corrugations and increment of the spacing interlayer to the graphene sheets, which tends to take almost the rectangular shape of the CV graph, showing good super capacitive performance [29]. Li et al. (2018) optimized the content of CNT to use it to increase the inter-layer spacing of graphene by introducing it into the graphene sheets. They obtained 206 F/g specific capacitance in EMIMBF4 (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafuoroborate) electrolyte [30]. Yu Y et al. (2014) used diethylene glycol as an interlayer spacer for the increment in the surface area of the rGO. They obtained a specific capacitance value of 237 F/g with 2000 cyclic stability [31]. Some of the significant results have been summarised in Table 1.
GRAPHENE-METAL OXIDE COMPOSITES
On the mechanism of charge storing phenomenon, three types of supercapacitors are there, starting with electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC), pseudocapacitor, and hybrid supercapacitor. From them, the pseudocapacitors mechanism is based on the pseudo reaction in electrolytes, and the efficiency of the cell is due to the redox reaction in electrolytes. This storage is done by reduction-oxidation reactions, electrosorption, and intercalation processes known as pseudocapacitance [39, 40]. The most common materials for electrodes used in pseudocapacitors are metal oxides/transition metals and conducting polymers which make pseudocapacitors to get more energy densities than electrochemical double-layer supercapacitors [40]. But in terms of cycle life and power density, pseudocapacitors are inferior to EDLCs [41]. And to enrich these properties of pseudocapacitors, graphene can be a good candidate [41]. Therefore metal/transition metal oxides can be decorated with graphene oxide, where graphene acts as a sustained matrix to build up electroactive species in the nano dimension, which tends to a greater surface area and modified electrochemical performances [42].In metal oxide-graphene composites, graphene can act as a functional component for restraining metal oxide or as s substrate. Hence these composites will raise their storage reaction in the field of energy conversions [43, 44]. There are different methods used to decorate graphene with metal oxide, i.e., atomic layer deposition method, sol-gel method, solution mixing method, solvothermal method, self-assembly method, microwave method, electrochemical deposition method, reduction method, encapsulation method, layer-to-layer assembly method, thermal production method, co-precipitation procedure, photochemical synthesis, etc. Recently many studies have been performed on graphene composites with different metal oxides.
Beka et al. [45] produced a structure of nickel-cobalt sulfide in a 3D core-shell by using hydrothermal steps on chemical vapor deposition to grow graphene for supercapacitor applications where NiCo2S4 acts as a core and carbon nanosheets act as a shell. Excellent capacitive performance is shown by the structure of the core/shell with the support of graphene having a high surface area. The electrode using this graphene/NCS/CNS composites exhibits outstanding cycling stability of 93% with 5000 cycles and very high areal capacitance of 15.6 F/cm2 at a 10mA/cm2 density of current.
Zhai et al. [46] synthesized manganese dioxide-decorated graphene nanoparticles using electrostatic adsorption. Graphene particles in a water medium possess negative charges, but manganese dioxide needs positive charges for adsorption. They used a micro-emulsion process to eliminate this problem by integrating manganese dioxide in hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide. Using these two novel approaches, the large aromatic molecules integrated graphene sheets possess specific capacitance hiked by 40% and 250%, respectively.
Hassan et al. [47] developed a one-pot synthesis method to synthesize a ruthenium-based hybrid composite. This synthesis includes the formation of rGO from graphene oxide and Ru3+(RuCl3) in Ru nanoparticles using a single-step method without a reductant. The prepared composite's supercapacitive properties are studied with 1 M of NaNo3 neutral electrolyte in a three-electrode setup. And it gives a specific capacitance of 270 F/g with energy and power density of 15Wh/kg and 76.4 kW/Kg, respectively, and cyclic stability over 5000 cycles at 24A/g.
Some more metal oxide/graphene composites synthesized by other researchers are given in Table. 2, containing their different super-capacitive properties.
GRAPHENE-BASED AEROGELS
Graphene-Based Aerogels' restacking issue limits its extraordinary properties as an electrode material. This re-stacking happens because of π-π interactions and Van der Waals forces among graphene layers which the formation of graphene aerogels can solve, and the layer can be chemically bonded together [54]. Like solid, liquid, gas, and plasma, aerogels can be considered a new state of matter. It can be defined as the lightest materials with large surface areas, high porosity, and low density. Recently aerogels have brought attention to their applications in supercapacitors as an electrode material. They possess good physicochemical and mechanical properties, tunable surface areas, and pore sizes. As the characteristics mentioned above of hybrid aerogels can be tuned, it is believed that innovative ranges of aerogels can be produced in the future.
Aerogels can be classified into two classes which are single-component and composite aerogels. Single-component aerogels consist of organic, oxide, carbon, and chalcogenide, while hybrid aerogels are further classified into micro, nano, multi-component, and gradient aerogels [55]. Because of the 3D structures of graphene aerogels, it has an elevated possibility, especially in energy storage devices technology. Some latest studies on applying graphene aerogels in supercapacitors are given below—Chen, T.T. et al. [56] synthesized a 3D graphene aerogel using a two-step hydrothermal method. The obtained graphene aerogel was measured in three electrode systems with 6M KOH as an electrolyte which shows the highest capacity of 410 F/g at 0.1 A/g. Moreover, a solid-state supercapacitor is also fabricated, showing no capacitance loss after 5000 cycles of cycling at a current density of 5A/g.
Song, Z. et al. [57] uses hydrothermal process to synthesize a composite of Fe2O3 and 3D graphene aerogel (Fe2O3/GA). Fe2O3 particles were nut shelled homogenously in graphene aerogel for the same. The electrochemical performances of the prepared composite were examined using different techniques, i.e., Cyclic voltammetry, Galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) with a three-electrode system in an electrolyte 0.5 M Na2SO4 environment. The specific capacitance shows 81.3 F/g at 1A/g current density, in the potential operating range of -0.8V to 0.8V. Liu, Y. et al. [58] synthesized triple composites by combining rod-like MnCO3 and MnO2 hybrid nanostructure to particle form by graphene oxide and then fabricated aerogel-based asymmetric supercapacitors. The prepared triple composite MnO2/MnCO3/rGOaerogels possess high mechanical strength and electrical conductivity and showed an energy density of 17.8 Wh/kg at 400 W/kg power density in a potential range of 0-1.6V. Aken, K.L.V., et al. [59] obtained single-wall carbon nanotube aerogels by drying them at the critical point. The electronic and ionic conductivity of prepared aerogels is improved and shows good electrochemical performances with high charge-discharge stability over 10000 cycles. Other than the above-mentioned studies, some other studies on aerogels with different materials and methods are provided in Table 3.
Along with the advantages mentioned above of graphene aerogels, it has some disadvantages, i.e., costly production, time-consuming synthesis process, and fragile and brittle nature. They still need some improvement to be used in today's world. But for high energy storage, we definitely need aerogels as they have a very high surface area, even more, significant than graphene oxide.
GRAPHENE/CARBON BASED HYBRID COMPOSITES
Combining graphene with conducting polymers has allowed supercapacitor electrodes to be made without binder, improving conductivity and eliminating the step needed to form the electrodes separately. In pseudocapacitor applications, Polypyrrole (PPy), polythiophene (PT), and Polyaniline (PANI) are more frequently used conducting polymers. It is possible to increase the energy storage capacity of nanocomposites through in-situ or dispersion polymerization, which provides films that can be directly used as electrodes for supercapacitors, eliminating the need for additional steps. Another technique for creating composites of conducting polymer and graphene is electro-polymerization. This method allows a polymer matrix to expand using a single polymerization phase more quickly. Different techniques, such as chronoamperometry, cyclic voltammetry, and chronopotentiometry, can achieve electro-polymerization. When electro-polymerization is carried out using a three-electrode setup, counter electrode, and reference electrode are used. Contrasted with G-paper (147 F/g), the high value of specific capacitance (233 F/g) was attained using PANI-flexible GO's composite paper with excellent strength [66].
Using the PANI and GO interfacial interactions, nanofibers of the PANI/GO composite were created, providing a power density of 80 W/Kg and an energy density of 7.1 Wh/Kg. After 1000 cycles, the retention in capacitance was approximately 80.6%, which was significantly greater than that of pristine PANI (25%) and went (73%) [67]. Non-stacked PPy/Go nanocomposites were made with good GO dispersion in the PPy matrix, and at a scan rate of 100 m/s, they displayed an increase in the capacitance of about 92 F/g in comparison to pure PPy [68]. Composites of PPy and reduced GO are produced when pyrrole is photopolymerized in the presence of GO. Following 1000 cycles, retention increased composite conductivity (610 S/m) above pure PPy (0.012 S/m), and a specific capacitance of 376 F/g was noted, with roughly 84% of capacitance [69]. Carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, and carbon dots were employed to make a hybrid composite in addition to graphene. For instance, the interfacial coupling of liquid crystalline graphene oxide led to the combined electrical, electrochemical, and mechanical properties of MWCNT and PEDOT: PSS, which were used as electrodes for energy storage and flexible multifunctional 3D architecture. A specific capacitance of 318 F/g was measured at a scan rate of 5 mV/s and a current density of 1 A/g in an electrolyte of 1 M H2SO4 [70]. The Ni-Al layer double hydroxide (1 OH), MWCNT, and rGO sheet composite electrode material for the supercapacitor was produced utilizing a simple one-step ethanol solvothermal technique, provides a specific capacitance value of 1869 F/g at the current density of 1mA/cm2 [71]. Various graphene-based metal oxides can enhance the aggregation and restacking of graphene bands emitted due to the van der Wall interaction. Recent research has demonstrated the viability of using hydrothermal and solvothermal processes to create high-quality graphene metal oxide nanocomposites. The hydrothermal method was used to develop MnO-based composites. According to reports, MnO-based composites favorably affect the supercapacitors' charge-discharge stability, making them suitable for a range of applications [72].
CONCLUSION
Recent findings have unveiled the potential of graphene as a substitute for batteries, by employing supercapacitors in a broad spectrum of applications. Numerous efficient and cost-effective methodologies have been devised for the synthesis of porous nanomaterials. Notably, commercial laser systems have demonstrated rapid and single-step approaches to construct highly porous and conductive three-dimensional networks comprising two-dimensional graphene sheets. Furthermore, advancements in 3D printing and cutting-edge laser cutting tools have expanded the scalability prospects with remarkable precision. Diverse forms of graphene, including crumpled graphene, graphene composites, and aerogels, exhibit remarkable capabilities for the fabrication of supercapacitors with superior energy density. While progressing towards thin-film batteries, enhancing power density remains a challenge in the years to come. Moreover, emerging synergies can be harnessed, as studies indicate the potential benefits of employing laser processing for both graphene materials and pseudocapacitive components. This integrated approach allows, for instance, the introduction of oxygen vacancies in metal oxides or the photochemical transformation of conductive polymers, facilitating their utilization alongside graphene materials produced using novel laser 3D printers. Nevertheless, certain obstacles must be addressed for the widespread adoption of graphene-based supercapacitors. Firstly, large-scale manufacturing of high-quality and uniform porous graphene materials is imperative. Optimization is still necessary in various aspects, such as ensuring intimate contact and adherence of pseudocapacitive components to the graphene network, selecting ideal pseudocapacitive materials, and exploring potential synergies with the electrolyte to establish an optimized voltage range and cycling stability. Overcoming the challenges of graphene sheet agglomeration and restacking is a concern prevalent in all-carbon electric double-layer capacitors, which can be mitigated through intercalation of active nanoparticles within the graphene material. Should these expectations be met, graphene supercapacitors and micro-supercapacitors are poised to emerge as competitive alternatives or complements to conventional lithium-ion batteries and thin film batteries, playing a vital role in future wearable and portable electronic devices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge Ms. Himani Pant for her valuable editorial support in the preparation of this document.
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Poulomi Sengupta1,*,Siddhant B. Patel2Abstract
Recently, graphene sheets have attracted a huge awareness for their special optical, mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and thermal characteristics. This has been possible due to the thin yet robust two-dimensional structural arrangement. The special properties may further be enhanced by smart chemical modifications on the two- dimensional structure. Meanwhile, nanoparticles also have come up as an emerging platform for their size, shape, surface area, optoelectronic properties and flexibility in functionalization. To utilize the advantages of both worlds, the scientific community has combined graphene with metallic nanoparticles. This event has brought about extreme enhancements in the above properties. Both inorganic and organic nanoparticles have been attached to the graphene surface. However, the attachment of metallic nanoparticles has increased their applications in developing sensors and catalysts. In this literature review, we want to concentrate on synthesizing and functionalizing graphene with different metallic nanoparticles. At the same time, we would discuss their applications in various fields.
INTRODUCTION
Graphene is a miraculous material formed by the two-dimensional combination of carbon atoms. Structurally it is analogous to well-known aromatic allotropes of elemental carbon, like graphite, carbon nano-tubes (CNT), and fullerene (Fig. 1). Like its peers, graphene is also formed by alternatingly placed carbon-carbon single and double bonds in a ring of 6 carbon atoms. It has a honeycomb-like structure. The sole difference between graphene and other carbon allotropes
(fullerene, CNT) is its stable two-dimensional structure and atomic height. It can grow as tall as a grown-up man. At the same time, its cross section is one single carbon atom providing light weight, transparency, and flexibility. The presence of alternating single and double bonds within the molecular structure confers very high strength to the material, significantly enhancing its mechanical properties. It has a very high breaking strength of almost 42 Nm-1 and a Young's modulus of around 1.0 TPa [1]. Surprisingly, it is 200 times more robust than steel of the same diameter; and although lighter in weight, it is harder than diamond. Graphene has zero band gap; because of the delocalized electrons graphene can efficiently conduct electricity and heat [2]. It exhibits an amazing ambipolar electric field effect with a high charge carrier mobility (up to 10,000 cm2V-1s-1) at an atmospheric temperature and pressure. It enables ballistic electron transfer at a very high speed, only 300 times slower than the speed of light. The conjugated system also helps graphene absorb a wide range of wavelengths. Being single molecular in height, graphene has a huge surface area (>2,000 m2/g) compared to graphite (10 m2/g) and CNT (1,300 m2/g). Graphene has been explored very extensively for this odd combination of strength with transparency, flexibility, and conductivity.
Fig. (1)) Comparison: Carbon nanotube, fullerene, and graphene.
