A Competency-Based Approach for Student Leadership Development E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: J-B SL Single Issue Student Leadership
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 216

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

Looking to foster student leadership competency development? With this volume, you'll gain the latest research, resources, and tools to do just that. There are many factors to consider when providing educational experiences that foster student leadership competency development. But, the process of designing, facilitating, and assessing these experiences to be both effective and meaningful can be elusive and challenging. In this volume, a variety of scholars offer diverse perspectives and nuanced expertise that address the following questions: * What leadership competencies are the most critical for students to develop? * How can we ensure students are ready to develop leadership competencies? * What instructional strategies and program design elements can we use to effectively enhance leadership competency development? * How do we help students and educators track and measure leadership competency learning and growth? The Jossey-Bass quarterly report series New Directions for Student Leadership explores leadership concepts and pedagogical topics of interest to high school and college leadership educators. Issues are grounded in scholarship and feature practical applications and best practices in youth and adult leadership education.

Leseprobe

New Directions for Student Leadership

Susan R. Komives EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Kathy L. Guthrie ASSOCIATE EDITOR

A Competency-Based Approach for Student Leadership Development

Corey Seemiller

Number 156 • Winter 2017

Jossey-Bass

San Francisco

A Competency-Based Approach for Student Leadership Development

Corey Seemiller (ed.)

New Directions for Student Leadership, No. 156, Winter 2017

Editor-in-Chief:Susan R. Komives

Associate Editor:Kathy L. Guthrie

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CONTENTS

Editor's Notes

References

1: Developing Leadership Competencies

History and Emergence of Leadership Competencies

Leadership Competencies Today

Using Competencies for College Student Leadership Development

Examples of Leadership Competencies in Action

Challenges and Benefits in Using Leadership Competencies with Students

Conclusion

References

2: The Interaction of Efficacy and Leadership Competency Development

Defining Self-Efficacy in Leadership

Relationship Between Self-Efficacy and the Development of Students’ Leadership Competencies

Nurturing and Managing Leader Self-Efficacy of Students

Conclusion

References

3: Using Leadership Competencies to Develop Talents into Strengths

Clifton StrengthsFinder

Competencies

Mapping Competencies and Strengths

Using Competencies and Strengths Together

Benefits

Limitations and Future Research

Conclusion

References

4: Aligning Instructional Strategies with Learning Outcomes and Leadership Competencies

The Five-Step Design Process for Leadership Education

Discussion

Conclusion

References

5: Using Leadership Competencies as a Framework for Career Readiness

Developing the Whole Person to Be Effective

An Approach to Developing Competencies That Promote Career Readiness

Conclusion

References

6: Utilizing Gamification to Foster Leadership Competency Development

Human Motivation and Game Design

Framing and Defining Gamification

Designing the Gamified Leadership Competency Experience: A Four-Domain Model

Domain One: Mechanics

Domain Two: Elements

Domain Three: Resources

Domain Four: Customization

Domain Interaction and Intentional Design

Conclusion

References

7: Strategies in Assessment of Leadership Competencies

Strategic Considerations in Assessing Leadership Programs

Common Issues in Assessing Leadership Competencies

Essential Assessment Tools

Innovative Theoretical Approaches to Assessment

Conclusion

References

8: Building a Competency-Based Leadership Program with Campus-Wide Implementation

The Context

Idea Exploration

From Idea to Proposal

From Proposal to Implementation

Key Strategies

Recommendations in Hindsight

Conclusion

References

Order Form

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

List of Illustrations

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Strengths Development

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Boyatzis’ Intentional Change Theory

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Program Gamification Model

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Considerations of Leadership Assessment

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Strengths and Student Leadership Competencies Implementation Team Structure

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Editor's Notes

Whether addressing environmental problems, human rights issues, international conflict, or the economy, the world needs leaders who can thrive in a time of uncertainty and complexity. Yet, we continue to see examples of unethical and even incompetent leaders who have either not addressed these issues or are contributing to their continued existence. This has led to what appears to be a crisis of leadership facing the world today. Schools, communities, organizations, and workplaces have a vested interest in ethical, competent leadership; in many ways, our lives depend on it. Thus, it is no surprise that there is an abundance of books, articles, blogs, videos, trainings, speakers, and resources dedicated to the topic—supporting the belief that if we help develop leadership capacity in people early on, we might avoid these scenarios of bad leadership.

Given that the concept of leadership is referenced in many institutional mission statements (Seemiller, 2016) and that 100% of all 97 academic accrediting agencies in the United States require students to obtain proficiency in one or more leadership competencies before graduation (Seemiller, 2013), it is no surprise that there is a focus on developing students as leaders. Many educational institutions offer credit-bearing classes, workshops, co-curricular programs, and developmental experiences focused on leadership, with some colleges and universities even offering entire graduate and undergraduate programs in leadership. These opportunities are often aimed at helping students develop the competencies essential for engaging in leadership in their workplaces and communities.

But the task of developing students’ leadership competencies can be both elusive and challenging. What competencies are the most critical for students to develop? How can we ensure students are ready to develop leadership competencies? What instructional strategies and program design elements can we use to foster development effectively? How do we help students and educators track and measure competency learning and growth? This issue includes insights from a variety of scholars who attempt to tackle these questions, offering their diverse perspectives and nuanced expertise on: (a) the historical development and current use of leadership competencies in the workforce and in developing college student leaders; (b) the optimal levels of self-efficacy for students to maximize their learning and use of leadership competencies; (c) connecting leadership competency development with Gallup strengths in order to help students develop specific competencies to leverage their talents into strengths; (d) instructional strategies for intentional competency development; (e) the connection between emotional and social intelligence competencies and career readiness, including curricular ideas for on-line learning; (f) designing competency-based leadership programs using elements of gamification; (g) strategies and processes for measuring leadership competency development, including practical ideas for implementation; and (h) integrating a campus-wide leadership competency development approach.

Although the use of competencies has a rich history in organizations, the use of leadership competencies with college students is only in its infancy. But, as funding becomes scarcer and students become more discretionary with their time, using a leadership competency approach can offer institutions quantifiable data to prove the value of leadership development to students, parents, employers, alumni, donors, and institutional administrators. And leadership competencies might just provide the roadmap we need to develop the ethical and competent leaders we need in our world today.

Corey SeemillerEditor

References

Seemiller, C. (2013).

The student leadership competencies guidebook

. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Seemiller, C. (2016). Leadership competency development: A higher education responsibility.

New Directions for Higher Education

,

174

, 93–104.

Corey Seemiller

serves as a faculty member in the Department of Leadership Studies in Education and Organizations at Wright State University, teaching undergraduate courses in organizational leadership and graduate courses in leadership development. Dr. Seemiller received her bachelor's degree in communication, master's degree in educational leadership, and Ph.D. in higher education. She is the author of 

The Student Leadership Competencies Guidebook

and associated tools to help educators develop intentional curriculum that enhances leadership competency development, and

Generation Z Goes to College

, which aims to prepare college educators to serve and develop Generation Z students.

1

This chapter provides an overview of leadership competencies including the history of emergence, contemporary uses, common frameworks, challenges, benefits, and future implications.

Developing Leadership Competencies

Lucy Croft, Corey Seemiller

Are leaders born or made? This is the classic question often posed to students in leadership classes as they grapple with whether they believe the capacity to lead effectively is something that is innate or something that can be learned. Many leadership scholars, however, have asserted there are elements of leadership that can be taught and developed (Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 2001) through experience, training, classes, or workshops, either separately or through a combination of opportunities (Astin & Astin, 2000; Roberts, 2003). So, what exactly is being taught and developed to help people engage in effective leadership? This chapter will cover the history and emergence of leadership competencies, the use of leadership competencies today, using competencies for college student leadership development, and examples of leadership competencies in action.

History and Emergence of Leadership Competencies

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a paradigm shift occurred in the field of personnel management from a traditional standard performance approach, centered on individuals’ formal qualifications and experiences as predictors of job achievement, to an approach acknowledging greater self-directed behavior and responsibility of the employee in their achievement of job excellence (Horton, Hondeghen, & Farnham, 2002). One way to address this shift was through the use of competencies. Hirsch and Stabler (1995; in Horton et al., 2002) “define competencies as the skills, knowledge, experience, attributes and behavior that an individual needs to perform a job effectively” (p. 4).

Using competencies in a job setting, often referred to as competency-based management, involves identifying the varied knowledge, values, abilities, and behaviors that people need to possess and exercise to achieve the strategic objectives, goals, and performance expectations of the organization. Competency-based management can provide a framework for recruitment (What competencies should be in this job description and how do I market to prospective employees who have those competencies?); selection (Which prospective candidate best possesses the competencies necessary for the job?); training (How can I create training experiences that help develop the competencies associated with the position?); and the development of incentives, recognitions, and rewards (What can I do to recognize the development and achievement of essential competencies?) (Horton et al., 2002).

The work of psychologist David McClelland is associated with developing the modern concept of competencies (German & Johnson, 2006). McClelland (1973) reviewed with some skepticism the main lines of evidence for the validity of intelligence and aptitude tests through standardized testing. Disillusioned with the idea that test achievement could be the only determination to qualify a person for admittance into schools or colleges or for employment purposes, McClelland offered alternatives to traditional intelligence testing. The alternatives concentrated on the analysis of the behavior of a person, the changes reflected based on the learning acquired, and the consideration of various situations in which the person is critiqued (McClelland).

Additionally, McClelland (1973) asserted that testing for personality variables or competencies of life outcomes such as communication skills, patience, moderate goal setting, and ego development (taking initiative), could be a strong indicator of one's abilities. His principles for defining a new alternative testing analysis method were centered as much on evaluating educational progress as they were in identifying fixed characteristics for selection purposes into schools, employment, or advancement (McClelland).

McClelland's approach has provided an important foundation for shaping the modern definition of personal competencies and traction for the competency movement. In the early 1980s, the American Management Association conducted a study in which competencies were defined as “underlying characteristics of an individual that is causally related to effective or superior performance in a job” (Boyatzis, 1982, p. 21). By the late 1990s and early 2000s, it became increasingly clear that many jobs in the modern workplace required some level of leadership aptitude (Bolden & Gosling, 2006). “Leadership competencies shifted emphasis from the mainly technical requirements of specific jobs to the softer interpersonal qualities sought from people at many levels across an organization” (Bolden & Gosling, 2006, p. 5).

Leadership Competencies Today

Both the Society for Human Resource Management and the United States Office of Personnel Management promote the use of leadership competencies in the workplace. The Society for Human Resource Management (2008) defines leadership competencies as “leadership skills and behaviors that contribute to superior performance” (p. 1), whereas the Office of Personnel Management (n.d.) defines a competency as “a measurable pattern of knowledge, skills, abilities, behaviors, and other characteristics that an individual needs to perform work roles or occupational functions successfully” (para. 1). Leadership competencies can be found in corporate settings and professional associations across a multitude of fields.

Corporate Leadership Competencies

Today, many companies use leadership competencies for training, development, and evaluation. The Walt Disney Company, through the Disney Institute, provides training and instruction on three core competencies: leadership, employee engagement, and service. These core competencies reflect their business approach to customer service and leadership (Disney, n.d.). The Microsoft Corporation focuses on four key skills for training and development: values-based leadership practices, communication skills, specific business strategies and financial comprehension, and insights in leading at the enterprise level (Bluepoint Leadership Development, n.d.).

Professional Association Leadership Competencies

In addition to the use of competencies in specific workplaces, leadership competencies are also used in professional associations to provide a foundation for effective professional performance. For example, the Public Relations Society of America requires their professionals to acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities in the following areas: researching, planning, implementing and evaluating programs, leading the public relations function, managing relationships, applying ethics and law, managing issues and crisis communications, understanding communication models, and theories and history of the profession (Universal Accreditation Board, 2016).

In the accounting profession, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) defines a set of skill-based competencies necessary for those looking to enter the field of accounting. The core personal competencies essential for the accounting professional include professional demeanor, problem-solving and decision-making, interaction, leadership, communication, project management, and leveraging technology to develop and enhance personal competencies (American Institute of CPAs, 2016).

Student Affairs Leadership Competencies

Student Affairs professionals, who serve in roles focused on college student development and student life, are also well versed in professional development and skill-based achievement through competency development. NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education and ACPA: College Student Educators International joined forces to create the Professional Competency Areas for the Student Affairs Practitioners to define the broad professional “knowledge, skills and in some cases, attitudes expected of student affairs professionals” (ACPA & NASPA, 2015, p. 6). The following are the professional competency areas for student affairs educators: personal and ethical foundations; values, philosophy, and history; assessment, evaluation, and research; law, policy, and governance; organizational and human resource; leadership; social justice and inclusion; student learning and development; technology; and advising and supporting (ACPA & NASPA, 2015).

National Leadership Education Research Agenda Leadership Competencies

There are also core competencies aimed at leadership educators more specifically. The National Leadership Education Research Agenda (NLERA) released in 2013 established seven priorities vital for leadership education (Andenoro, 2013). The first two priorities, in particular, fall under Pedagogical Priorities—The Applied How of Leadership Education. These priorities focus on “leadership learning and transfer of learning through innovative leadership education” and include the critical practices of teaching, learning, and curriculum development, as well as program assessment and evaluation (Andenoro, 2013, p. 3).

In addition, one of the standards of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (2012) is for Student Leadership Programs. It outlines 10 competencies essential for leadership educators, including diversity, communication, reflection, and group dynamics.

Using Competencies for College Student Leadership Development

Given the widespread use of competencies in the professional sector, colleges and universities provide an ideal environment for helping students develop leadership competencies before they enter their future careers (Seemiller, 2016a). Thus, identifying critical competencies for students to develop is a key piece of leadership program design. The W.K. Kellogg Foundation identified four categories for an exemplary leadership program, which include competencies such as problem solving and self-assessment embedded into the framework (Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 2001). Described in more detail below, other frameworks focused more specifically on leadership competency development for students include the National Association for Campus Activities (NACA) competencies (Brill et al., 2009), Student Leadership Competencies (Seemiller, 2013b), the Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership (Kouzes & Posner, 1987), and the National Association for Colleges and Employers (NACE) Career Readiness Competencies (2014).

NACA Competencies

Acknowledging the necessity for identifying leadership competencies for college students, the NACA Education Advisory group, comprised of student affairs professionals throughout the United States, developed The Competency Guide for College Student Leaders. This guide serves as a “learning map for student leaders as they grow and develop through participation in student organizations, community service, campus employment, grassroots activities, leadership positions, followership positions, mentoring relationships with campus activities advisors, etc.” (Brill et al., 2009, p. 2). The resource highlights 10 core competencies from the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education related to working with students (Brill et al., 2009). These competencies include leadership development, assessment and evaluation, event management, meaningful interpersonal relationships, collaboration, social responsibility, effective communication, multicultural competency, intellectual growth, and clarified values (Brill et al., 2009). NACA also offers a facilitator guide and evaluation instrument based on these competencies.

Student Leadership Competencies

Based on more than 5 years of extensive research, The Student Leadership Competencies Guidebook includes 60 leadership competencies for the twenty-first century (Seemiller, 2013b). This list of competencies emerged through an analysis of components of three contemporary leadership models, content from the 2006 CAS Standards (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2006) and ACPA and NASPA's 2004 Learning Reconsidered document (Day et al., 2004), as well as nearly 18,000 learning outcomes embedded into the accreditation manuals of all 522 accredited academic programs in U.S. higher education. These 60 leadership competencies are categorized in eight clusters: learning and reasoning, self-awareness and development, interpersonal interaction, group dynamics, civic responsibility, communication, strategic planning, and personal behavior (Seemiller, 2013b). Further, each competency includes four dimensions that reflect levels of learning. These include the knowledge (content), value (belief), ability (skill or motivation), and behavior (action).

The Student Leadership Competencies Guidebook (Seemiller, 2013b) serves as a framework to develop a program or course, infuse meaningful competency-based activities into the curriculum, and help students reflect and apply their learning in future academic, professional, and life contexts (Seemiller, 2013b). Educators can also utilize the Student Leadership Competencies to assess competency learning and development using various tools such as the online inventory, evaluation measurements, and rubrics, as well as award digital leadership competency badges to recognize student achievement.

Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership

In 1987, Kouzes and Posner published The Leadership Challenge, which presented five practices of exemplary leadership. The practices, model the way, challenge the process, enable others to act, inspire a shared vision, and encourage the heart (Kouzes & Posner, 1987), are grounded in decades of research (Kouzes & Posner, 2017). Each of the five practices is comprised of a multitude of individual competencies, which can be found on the Jossey-Bass Student Leadership Competencies Database website (Seemiller, 2013a).

The five practices of exemplary leadership were later linked to high school and college student populations, resulting in the creation of The Student Leadership Challenge (Kouzes & Posner, 2008) and a student version of the Leadership Practices Inventory called the Student Leadership Practices Inventory (Kouzes & Posner, 1998). This inventory marked one of the earlier adopted skill-based inventories for assessing one's competencies for leading. The Student Leadership Practices Inventory (Student LPI) is designed to assess students’ areas of strength as well as areas warranting further development in the five areas of practice. The authors assert that “the more frequently students are perceived as engaging in the behavior and actions identified in the Student LPI, the more likely it is that students will be perceived as effective leaders” (Kouzes & Posner, 1998, p. 7). The Student LPI consists of both the student's self-assessment of their behaviors around the five practices and an observer's external assessment. Once both parties have completed their assessments independently, responses are cross-referenced to identify the consistencies and inconsistencies focusing on students’ strengths and areas of improvement.

NACE Career Readiness Competencies

The National Association for Colleges and Employers (NACE) has also established key leadership competencies for career readiness. In 2014, a task force of career services and HR professionals conducted a study of 606 employers (NACE, 2014) and determined seven competencies essential for being hired in the workforce. These include critical thinking/problem solving, oral/written communications, teamwork/collaboration, information technology application, leadership, professionalism/work ethic, and career management (NACE, n.d.). To put these competencies into practices, NACE offers resources such as evaluation forms, a resume rubric, and links to course syllabi and program descriptions using the NACE career readiness competencies.

Examples of Leadership Competencies in Action