A Primer on Earth Pollution: Pollution Types and Disposal E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A Primer on Earth Pollution: Pollution Types and Disposal, is an encyclopedia of important research articles and short essays on pollution. Chapters in the initial half provide information about a wide variety of pollutants (dyes and microplastics) and contributing factors (thermal pollution and the impact of GM plants, for instance). Each chapter explains the nature of polluting agents and presents notes and references on preventive measures. Notes on the associated clinical complications due to exposure are also proved where applicable, such as the case of MDR bacteria in marine environments. The latter chapters of the book cover the biotechnology of medical waste disposal using microbes as well as nanotechnology used for limiting the spread of COVID-19.
The volume is a handy reference for students and trainees in the field of environmental science as it brings a balance of basic and applied information on the subject of pollution.
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Seitenzahl: 346
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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PREFACE
Pollution is one of the serious cases that need to be taken care of. Pollution can be broadly classified as air, land, and water pollution. The term defines the undesirable changes in the specific environmental condition. The study on pollution is one of the extensive areas of study in almost all countries around the Globe. The byproducts and used over materials of like plastics, one use plastic bags, medical wastes and other pollutants were reported since two decades with their adverse effects.
Pollution as a whole in any form should either limited or reduced in order to gift the wealth we enjoyed from our mother nature. This book is in lieu with various pollution and the problems associated with us in our day to day life. It comprises of 13 chapters including Agricultural pollution, Land Pollution, Water Pollution, Biomedical waste pollution, Micro plastics pollution and Synthetic dyes pollution, etc. The book also highlights the readers with the damage incurred to human health by the special chemical substances present in air, water , food and radioactive compounds. This will create adverse effects such as plants, animals, vegetation and vegetation. The damage caused for long term will leads to an apparent and embracing situation may not fit for humans to live.
It educates readers with about the probable arenas of pollution and ways to control it. Paws a path before we leap and we should return all the wealth for the next generation to grow and survive better with healthy atmosphere. The reductions of pollution in all means are in its way, as one among the Hundred billion question of the hour.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe Editors of this book are thankful to the Management of Sri Krishna Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, and Bharathiar University, Coimbatore India, for providing an opportunity to publish this book under the umbrella of Bentham Science Publishers, Singapore.
The Editors are also thankful to the Science Academies, India, for their appreciation and motivation of the participants in connection with the collaborative teamwork required to make this book a success.
The Editors are also thankful to the contributors for their extended support in providing their chapters within the stipulated time and in an effective way to allow for faster processing.
The Editors are thankful for to, for accepting our proposal and assisting us Bentham Science Publishers, Singapore through their expertise and their financial support.
The Editor also appreciates Nature Science Foundation, Coimbatore for their motivation and their assistance during the processing of this book.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors confirm that this chapter contents have no conflict of interest.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Synthetic Dyes Pollution
B. Sathya Priya1,*,V. Arun2,T. Stalin3Abstract
Colored products are more attractive and increase the marketing value. Natural and synthetic dyes are used for many centuries for coloring. Synthetic dyes are preferred mostly due to their high stability and cost effectiveness. The food products and textile fabrics which are coloured by synthetic dyes cause severe health issues to human beings. The synthetic dyes are cleaved into aromatic or aryl amines during reductive reactions that cause carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. Children are severely affected due to the consumption of artificial colours in food and may get ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). The European Commission (EU) prohibits the marketing of products that contain the restricted azo dyes which have longer contact with the skin. The synthetic dyes with improper fixing are discharged into the environment along with effluent, causing biomagnification problems. They also affect the terrestrial and aquatic systems and cause severe pollution to the environment. This study deals with the various types of textile and food dyes, their impacts on health and environment and the effective treatment methods for the removal of dyes from the industrial effluent.
INTRODUCTION
The coloured fabrics or food products are liked by everyone, from the kids to adults. Natural dyes are more ecofriendly but not used more because of their less availability, low colour fastness, restricted colours, more cost needed for production and extraction. Hence, synthetic dyes are increasingly used by industries for colouring their products.
Synthetic dyes are derived from carcinogenic petrochemical compounds and have more advantages such as less cost, varieties of colors, simple production with high colour-fastness. Azo dyes are produced in a larger quantity than other dyes and are mostly utilized by textile, leather and food industries. They cause many health disorders, including irritation of the skin, eye, lungs, mutagenic and cancer effects on human beings. Moreover, the mordant like chromium which is used to fix colour on the fabric, is also highly toxic and results in detrimental effects. The workers in the textile and dyeing industries are easily prone to cancer risks. The dyes are persistent in the environment as xenobiotics and are very difficult to treat by the conventional methods due to their complex structure. The textile and dyeing industries discharge a large quantity of wastewater, which has a significant level of dyes and other toxicants that have severe detrimental effects on the environment.
SOURCES OF SYNTHETIC DYES POLLUTION
Synthetic dyes are used by many industries, such as textile, dyeing, paint, cosmetics, food, pharmaceutical, leather and plastics,for colouring the products. The discharge of the untreated effluent into the environment causes severe pollution problems. Textile industries use more azo dyes for processing in which some portion of the dyes is not fixed to the fabrics and washed out along with the effluent.
Dyeing Process
Dyeing is the process of colouring the textile material with other treatments. Dyes contain both chromophoric and auxochromic groups. The chromophores and auxochromes are responsible for colouring and intensifying the colours. The batch, continuous and semi-continuous mode is used for the dyeing process. The batch mode is usually used for dyeing the fabrics. The aqueous solution is used to fix the dye on the fabric. During dye fixation, 4 distinctive forms of interaction may be observed, such as Van der Waals, ionic, hydrogen interactions and covalent bonds [1]. The process of dyeing has three important steps such as preparation, dyeing and finishing, which are as follows:
Preparation of Fabrics
Before the dyeing process, the fabric is treated with alkaline substances, detergents and enzymes for removing the impurities. The fabrics are bleached with chlorine substances or hydrogen peroxide in order to remove the natural colour of the fabrics. Brightening agents are added to improve the white colour of the fabric.
Dyeing
This step is responsible for the application of colour to the fabrics by the synthetic dyes due to diffusion and adsorption at high temperatures and pressures with the help of chemical aids such as acids, bases, carriers, surfactants, promoting, chelating agents, softening agents, etc. in order to get the uniform color and color fastness. Dyeing can also be done by using pigments with binders such as polymers, which fix the pigments to the respective fibers [2-5].
Finishing
This is the final stage in which pressing, water proofing, softening and applying antimicrobial agents are used to enhance the quality of the fabric [5].
TYPES OF DYES
Table 1 describes the different types of dyes with specific features [1, 4] and applications.
VARIOUS TYPES OF FOOD COLORANTS
The food colorants are either natural or synthetic dyes, which are used to give attractive colour to the food products. Natural food dyes are safe for health but have limitations such as less colour, more cost, less availability and tedious extraction. So synthetic food dyes are mostly preferred due to colour stability and less cost. Children are more attracted to coloured foods than adults.
Table 2 shows the different types of food colours and their applications [6-12].
EU (European Union) permits the use of 16 synthetic dyes. The dyes with brown and black colour are banned in most of the developed countries. The permissible limit of dye to any food item is 0.1 g/Kg [13].
THE IMPACTS OF DYES
China and India produce maximum azo dyes. Azo dyes are mostly used because they need 60°C for dyeing, but the other azo-free dyes need 100°C. Moreover, they give an extensive range of colours, good colour fastness during synthesis and are cost-effective. But under reductive conditions, they cleave and produce dangerous aromatic amines, which are carcinogens in humans. They are traced in the dyed product and in the environment due to improper degradation.
Environmental Impact of Dyes
The textile industries are one of the main polluters due to the discharge of effluent with toxic dyes and chemicals. The traces of azo dye in water affect the transparency, light penetration, photosynthetic activity, solubility of gas, depletion of oxygen. The azo dyes cause carcinogenic and mutagenic effects on organisms. They affect the yield of plants and cause metabolic disorders, damage to neurosensors, stress and death to aquatic organisms. They also affect the water used for drinking, recreation, aquaculture and irrigation. The azo dyes may alter the physical and chemical properties of soil and cause death to the soil microbes that affect the agricultural yield [14]. The improper dyeing process results in the release of dyes (10 -50%) along with the effluents and reaches the environment. The synthetic dyes are highly stable and persist as xenobiotics in the environment for long days. Dyes such as reactive, disperse and vat dyes are also responsible for the formation of AOX (Adsorbable Organic Halogen). Metals which are present along with dye stuffs cause many health disorders.
Impacts of Food Dyes on Health
Amaranth may affect the immune system. Sunset yellow (Yellow 6) causes breast cancer. Auramine (yellow dye) and rhodamine cause damages to the kidney, liver and retard the growth condition. Rhodamine may breakdown red blood cells and Lead chromate causes anaemia, neurological disorders and hypertension. Metanil yellow severely affects the reproductive organs (ovaries and testis). It causes discoloration of the skin and may cause methaemoglobinaemia in adults after consuming rice coloured by it. Brown dye and tartrazine elevate asthma. Allura red and brown dyes may cause allergic reactions [15]. ADHD is an attention deficit hyperactivity disorder which may cause hyperactivity and lack of attention. The persons who regularly consume artificial food colours may get ADHD. Experimental studies showed that the children who consumed Yellow 5, Tartrazine and allura red regularly had more hypersensitivity reactions [16-18]. Red 40, Yellow 5 and 6 have benzidene, which is a carcinogen. Azo dyes follow three mechanisms to produce such a carcinogenic product. The reactive intermediate molecules are formed during metabolism that linked closely with the DNA [19]. The azo dyes, which are metabolized by the intestinal microflora, produce aromatic amines that cause cancer in the intestine [20]. The food and textile industries mostly use azo dyes and increase the cancer risk in people in the industrial area who are exposed to those dyes. Auramine and malachite green may cause mutagenic effects in the exposed organisms [21].
Health Effects of Textile Dyes
The azo dyes have one or more nitrogen-nitrogen double bonds (azo groups). They are cleaved into aromatic amines, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic under reductive conditions that cause harmful health disorders to human beings. Azo dyes are mainly used for yellow, orange, and red coloring [22, 23]. The improper fixing of dyes is responsible for many health disorders [24]. The non-fixed dyes, which are nondegradable, are released along with effluent during discharge into the nearby environment [25]. Besides dyes, the wastewater also contains dyeing additives like ethoxylates, alkylphenol ethoxylates, retarders for cationic dyes, dispersing agents, ethylenediamine tetraacetate and many others [26]. Most of the azo dyes and other types of textile dyes such as anilines and anthraquinones are considered carcinogenic or mutagenic. Industrial effluents with azo dyes can cause mutagenic and genotoxic effects in cultured cells [27-29]. The direct or acid application type and fragrances of azo dyes can cause potential risks such as cancer and allergy to human health if they are exposed. It may be caused by inhalation of volatile substances, direct skin contact with a dyed cloth or the small children who are orally exposed by sucking and chewing on textile substances. Moreover, the direct and acid dyes are attached very loosely to the fibers which might be easily migrated from the fabric through the skin and saliva. It also affects the reproductive abilities of the exposed organisms.
The occupational exposure to some of the aromatic amines like benzidine, 2- naphthylamine, and 4-aminobiphenyl causes bladder cancer risk. EU restricts the use of aromatic amines. For example, the use of 1, 4-diamino benzene may cause contact dermatitis and blindness. Aromatic amines are easily mobilised by water or sweat, which is absorbed by the skin and mouth. The azo dyes, which are water-soluble are more dangerous. The industrial effluents with azo dyes cause an increasing level of colon cancer. The azo dyes, which are water-soluble, are more dangerous when metabolized by liver enzymes [30-33]. Studies on workers exposed to 2-naphthylamine, benzidine, and 4-aminobiphenyl showed an association between human exposure to aromatic amines with an increased risk of urinary bladder cancer. O-toluidine is suggested as a bladder carcinogen. Workers exposed both to o-toluidine and 4, 4’-methylene bis (2-methylaniline) showed a 62-fold increase in bladder cancer risk [34-37].
During metabolism, the azo dyes are cleaved by reduction into aromatic amines, which are highly toxic, causing damage to DNA. The bacteria which are present in the human skin are more efficient to metabolize azodyes into aromatic amines, which are easily penetrated into the skin. The bacteria in the intestine may have the ability to cleave the azodyes using the secretion of enzymes such as azoreductase and nitroreductase. The liver in mammals secreted some enzymes that have the ability to cleave the azo dyes [30, 31, 38-41].
The reactive dyes cause immune disorders, skin and respiratory problems. The dyes along with additives and bleaching agents, may increase the severity of the disorders to the affected organisms [42, 43]. Moreover, mordant dyeing using chromium salts and/or the other techniques which use chromium as oxidation or fixing agents are responsible for carcinogenic and mutagenic effects [44].
Disperse dyes are highly responsible for contacting allergy. For example, dermatitis is mainly caused by the use of disperse Blue 106, disperse Blue 124 and disperse Yellow 3 [45-49]. Mostly the synthetic fabrics such as polyester, acetate and polyamide are stained with disperse dyes. If the disperse dyes are not properly fixed on the fabric, it may easily come out from the fabric and diffused into the skin of the person who wears the garment. EU ecolabel listed out 19 disperse dyes as allergens. Some of the case reports showedpatients who suffered from textile dermatitis were caused by reactive, acidic and basic dyes in clothing [42, 50-53].
ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
The chemicals present in the garments are passed through the skin because clothes are in close contact with the skin. European Union (EU), 2006, has adopted the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) to guard human fitness and the surroundings against risks by means of chemical substances. EU added regulations to use, manufacturing, marketing of the restricted substances [54]. In 2002, EU banned the azo dyes that could break down to one of the 24 possible carcinogenic products like aromatic amines. Most of the synthetic dyes are either restricted or regulated under REACH or included in the candidate list, mainly related to substances with carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. Moreover, REACH bans the presence of carcinogenic aryl amines in consumer goods.
TREATMENT METHODS
The reactive azo dyes (Disperse blue 373, Reactive blue 19, Disperse Orange 37) are not easily degradable due to their chemical stability and synthetic nature and not easily treated by the conventional methods such as trickling filter, flocculation and electrodialysis. The dioxins and furans are formed due to the incomplete combustion of these substances during incineration. It is very difficult to remove because of their stability in aerobic conditions and anaerobic biotreatment causes the synthesis of dangerous aromatic amines. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) developed the hydroxyl free radicals by using different oxidants, are able to destroy the components that are not easily degraded by using conventional treatment methods. AOP with a combination of ozone, UV, TiO2, fenton, photo- fenton, hydrogen peroxides (H2O2) and ultrasonic (US) could be used efficiently for the treatment of textile industry effluent. This technology is more useful to degrade the complex structure with maximum oxidation. Hydroxyl radicals, which are the main oxidative energy, are released from the photolytic separation of H2O2 in water by UV light [59]. The chromospheres in the dyes are efficiently degraded by hydrogen peroxide and Ultraviolet treatment. The sulphonated azo and anthraquinone dyes are completely decolourized by UV irradiation along with H2O2. Fenton’s oxidation by using the H2O2/Fe2+ system is one of the efficient methods for treating textile dyeing industry effluent, which is done by the formation of hydroxyl radicals and followed by ferric coagulation. Adsorption is an effective treatment method for textile wastewater in order to remove the dyes. The adsorbent with a highly porous surface adsorbs the compound to be removed. Activated carbon is a good adsorbent. Biosorption of dyes was studied by using various agricultural wastes (bagasse, ground nutshell and corncobs) and industrial wastes (coal ashes and wood chips), which have the efficiency to absorb the dyes from textile effluents with a removal capacity of 40-90% of basic dyes (40-90%) and direct dyes (40%). Reverse Osmosis is used to remove hydrolysed reactive dyes. The ozonisation treatment irradiation is more useful to treat the textile effluent. The dyes are coagulated by coagulants such as aluminum and iron slats. The addition of the lime, ferrous/ferric sulphate, ferric chloride, aluminium sulphate/chloride enhanced the precipitation of dyes in textile effluents [55-59]. The maximum dyes are removed from effluent by using the electrocoagulation method, which has many advantages, such as the removal of very small colloidal particles. It is a very simple and low-cost process than other methods [60].
Biological Treatment
The dyes are removed by biosorption/biodegradation using bacteria, fungi, yeast and algae either by single species/mixed consortium/immobilized state. The dead algae have shown maximum efficiency for the absorption of dyes. The biological treatment is ecofriendly and cheapest than other treatments. Table 3 shows the ability of microbes to biosorb/degrade different types of dyes.
The enzymes (lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase and laccase), which are synthesized by bacteria and fungi, could degrade the dyes efficiently. Some of the bacteria can reduce azo compounds to aromatic amines in the presence of azo reductases, laccase, lignin peroxidase [81-83]. The azo dyes such as Basic Red 46, Basic Yellow 19, Acid Red 151 and Basic Blue 41 are degraded efficiently by using an aerobic biofilm system in which the efficiency was further improved by adding activated carbon in an aeration tank. The azo dyes are also degraded by an anaerobic method in which the electrons could reduce the bonds in azo dyes that lead to the decolourization of the effluent with the release of toxic amines [84].
CONTROL MEASURES
The wastewater should be recycled and reused by the textile industries for various processing. The customers should have awareness of the toxic effects of synthetic dyes and avoid the products based on it. The industries should prefer to use alternative ecofriendly dyes, which are safe for both human beings and the environment. Air dyeing technology is an advanced dyeing method that uses only air to dye the fabrics instead of water. It minimizes the use of more water for processing and reduces the pollution effects on the environment. The chlorine bleaching of fabrics could be replaced by alternative hydrogen peroxide or ozone treatment. For the finishing of fabrics, ecosafe natural material such as beeswax could be used as an alternative to toxic chemicals. During sizing, the toxic polyvinyl alcohol is replaced with CMC (Carboxy Methyl Cellulose). The textile and leather industries which use nearly 42 benzidine dyes are restricted in India from February 1, 1993. Food industries should use natural dyes as an alternative to synthetic dyes. The other industries, such as cosmetics, drug, paint and paper industries, which depend on synthetic dyes, should find ecofriendly alternative to synthetic dyes [85].
Environmental laws should be followed, which regulate the effects of industrial effluents that solve the environmental and health problems linked with synthetic dyes. Natural dyes are both environment and human safe. So the research should be aimed at enhancing the quantity and quality of dyes, which are extracted from the efficient microbes.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors confirm that this chapter contents have no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
