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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
ADVANCED MATERIALS and MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES for BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS The book provides essential knowledge for the synthesis of biomedical products, development, nanomaterial properties, fabrication processes, and design techniques for different applications, as well as process design and optimization. In origin, biomaterials can come from nature or be synthesized in the laboratory with a variety of approaches that use metals, polymers, ceramic, or composite materials. They are often used or adapted for various biomedical applications. Biomaterials are commonly used in scaffolds, orthopedic, wound healing, fracture fixation, surgical sutures, artificial organ developments, pins and screws to stabilize fractures, surgical mesh, breast implants, artificial ligaments and tendons, and drug delivery systems. The sixteen chapters in Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques in Biomedical Applications cover the synthesis, processing, design, manufacturing, and characterization of advanced materials; self-healing, bioinspired, nature-resourced, nanobiomaterials for biomedical applications; and manufacturing techniques such as rapid prototyping, additive manufacturing, etc. Audience The book is for engineers, technologists, and researchers working in the area of biomedical engineering and manufacturing techniques. It is also appropriate for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgement
Section I: Advanced Materials for Biomedical Applications
1 Introduction to Next-Generation Materials for Biomedical Applications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Advanced Functional Materials
1.3 Market and Requirement of Next-Generation Materials
1.4 Metals and Polymeric Biomaterials
1.5 Bioabsorbable Biomaterials
1.6 Processing of Bioabsorbable Polymeric Biomaterials
1.7 Application of Next-Generation Materials in Biomedical Applications
1.8 Latest Status of Next Generation Materials in Biomedical Applications
1.9 Bioresorbable Devices for Skin Tissue Engineering
1.10 Challenges and Perspectives
1.11 Conclusion
References
2 Advanced Materials for Surgical Tools and Biomedical Implants
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Application of Bioengineering to Healthcare
2.3 Application in Musculoskeletal and Orthopedic Medicines
2.4 Application as a Disposable Medical Device
2.5 Application as an Implantable Biosensor
2.6 Conclusions
References
3 Insights into Multifunctional Smart Hydrogels in Wound Healing Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Architecture of Fabricated Hydrogels
3.3 Bactericidal Effect on Wound Repair
3.4 New Frontiers of Hydrogels in Wound Dressing Applications
3.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
4 Natural Resource-Based Nanobiomaterials: A Sustainable Material for Biomedical Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Natural Resource-Based Biopolymer
4.3 Extraction of Nature Resource-Based Nanomaterials
4.4 Biomedical Applications of Nature Resource-Based Nanomaterials and Their Nanobiocomposites
4.5 Other Applications
References
5 Biodegradable Magnesium Composites for Orthopedic Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
6 New Frontiers of Bioinspired Polymer Nanocomposite for Biomedical Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Methods to Prepare Graphene-Based Polymer Nanocomposites
6.3 Magnetic Material - Polymer Nanocomposites
6.4 Nanostructured Composites
6.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
7 Nanohydroxyapatite-Based Composite Materials and Processing
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biomaterials
7.3 Types of Biomaterials
7.4 Structure of Hydroxyapatite
7.5 Nanohydroxyapatite
7.6 Cancer Detection and Cell Imaging
7.7 Conclusion
References
8 Self-Healing Materials and Hydrogel for Biomedical Application
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Self-Healing Hydrogels
8.3 Mechanism of Self-Healing in Hydrogels
8.4 Application of Self-Healing Hydrogel in Biomedical Application
8.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Section II: Advanced Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications
9 Biomimetic and Bioinspired Composite Processing for Biomedical Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis of Biomimetic and Bioinspired Composite
9.3 Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
9.4 Bioinspired Materials
9.5 Biomimetic Drug Delivery Systems
9.6 Artificial Organs
9.7 Neuroprosthetics
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 3D Printing in Drug Delivery and Healthcare
10.1 Introduction
10.2 3D Printing in Healthcare Technologies
10.3 Four Dimensions Printing (4D)
10.4 Transformation Process and Materials
10.5 3D Printing’s Pharmaceutical Potentials
10.6 Drug Administration Routes
10.7 Custom Design 3D Printed Pharmaceuticals
10.8 Excipient Selection for 3D Printing Custom Designs
10.9 Customized Medicating of Drugs
10.10 Devices for Personalized Topical Treatment
10.11 Conclusion
References
11 3D Printing in Biomedical Applications: Techniques and Emerging Trends
11.1 Introduction
11.2 3D Printing Technologies
11.3 Materials for 3D Printing
11.4 Biomedical Applications: Recent Trends of 3D-Printing
11.5 Challenges and Opportunities
11.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
12 Self-Sustained Nanobiomaterials: Innovative Materials for Biomedical Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanobiomaterials Applications
12.3 Challenge in the Clinical Rendition of Nanobiomaterials
12.4 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
13 Residual Stress Analysis in Titanium Alloys Used for Biomedical Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methodology
13.3 Results and Discussion
13.4 Conclusions
References
14 Challenges and Perspective of Manufacturing Techniques in Biomedical Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 3D Printing Applications in the Biomedical Field
14.3 Multi-Functional Materials in 3D Printing
14.4 Merits of AM in Medical Field
14.5 Major Challenges of AM in Medical Field
14.6 Major Challenges of AM
14.7 Problems Encountered When Processing
14.8 Challenges in Management
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 Metal 3D Printing for Emerging Healthcare Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Metallic 3D Printing Methods for Biomedical Applications
15.3 Biometals 3D Printing
15.4 Future Direction and Challenges
References
16 Additive Manufacturing for the Development of Artificial Organs
16.1 Introduction
16.2 3D Printing of Biomaterials
16.3 Main Mechanisms of 3D Printing for Organ and Tissue Printing
16.4 Techniques to Fabricate Tissues and Organs Using 3D Printing
16.5 Application of 3D Printing in Implants and Drug Delivery
16.6 Application 3D Printing in Orthotics and Prosthetics
16.7 3D Printing Application in Tissue Engineering
16.8 Future Scope
16.9 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Normally applied polymers for healthcare applications.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Cellulose in biomedical applications.
Table 4.2 Lignin in biomedical applications.
Table 4.3 Starch in biomedical applications.
Table 4.4 Chitosan in biomedical application.
Table 4.5 Silk in biomedical application.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Classification, properties, and applications of biomaterials.
Table 7.2 Some of the properties and applications of various composites.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Shows the materials that can be used in neuroprosthetics [89].
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Materials used for biomedical applications.
Table 11.2 3D printing and biomedical applications.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Mechanical properties of CP Ti grade 2 at different microstructural...
Table 13.2 Weight percentage of the commercially pure titanium grade-2 used in...
Table 13.3 Process parameters and levels employed in experimentation.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Various components of 3D bio printing technology.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Next-generation biomaterials application in various areas in biomed...
Figure 1.2 Progress in biomaterials in recent years in biomedical applications...
Figure 1.3 Processing of next-generation composites for biomedical application...
Figure 1.4 The challenges associated with processing of biocomposite for biome...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Graphic illustration of cardiac bandages for ischemic heart [11].
Figure 2.2 Schematic illustration of different types of microneedles use in dr...
Figure 2.3 Application of drug-eluting stents [21]
.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of four consecutive steps of wound healing.
Figure 3.2 Multifaceted application prospects of hydrogels on wound healing.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Biomedical application of natural resource-based bionanomaterials.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Mechanical features of commercially available implants, natural bon...
Figure 5.2 The case studies on the use of magnesium for fixing bones since the...
Figure 5.3 The design strategy for creating high-performance magnesium-based n...
Figure 5.4 The distinction between Mg/degradable bioactive composite and Mg/no...
Figure 5.5 Microstructures obtained by microwave sintering of (a) Mg/5HAP, (b)...
Figure 5.6 (a) Degradation rate of Mg–Zn–Zr/n-HAP composite (b) mass gain of A...
Figure 5.7 The chemical reactions to reveal the corrosion behavior of Mg in th...
Figure 5.8 The mass gain behavior (A), the degradation resistance (B), and SEM...
Figure 5.9 Cell viability test (L cells exposed to samples for 72 hours) and S...
Figure 5.10 Fluorescent images of Mg/BG composite live-dead assay on MG-63 cel...
Figure 5.11 Diagram illustrates the interplay between a biological environment...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Allotropes of carbon [1].
Figure 6.2 Simple methods for graphene based PNCs preparation method [1].
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram for the
in-situ
polymerization of grapheme (Gr)-b...
Figure 6.4 Illustrative depiction of extruder used in melts compounding approa...
Figure 6.5 Biomedical and biotechnological applications of polymer nanocomposi...
Figure 6.6 Arrangement of magnetic polymer nanocomposites.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 This figure shows the unit-cell structure of hexagonal HAp, with (a...
Figure 7.2 Figure (a) displays the schematic diagram of the air jet spray equi...
Figure 7.3 (a) The process for producing HAp. (b) A diagram that illustrates h...
Figure 7.4 A diagram illustrating the creation of CHAMs, along with the proced...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Different factors affecting the self-healing hydrogel.
Figure 8.2 Schematic representation of different mechanisms occurring in self-...
Figure 8.3
(
a) Diagrammatic representation of hydrogen bonding (b) Illuminous ...
Figure 8.4
(
a,b) Process to fabricate the hydrogel and the intrinsic self-heal...
Figure 8.5 (a) The schematic of PAM/XG hydrogel healing process (b) Notch inse...
Figure 8.6
(
a) Self-healing capability of Collagen-Chitosan hydrogel with diff...
Figure 8.7 Synthesis of pectin-based hydrogel. Reproduced with permission from...
Figure 8.8 Outline of drug delivery system of self-healing hydrogel. Reproduce...
Figure 8.9
(
a) Schematic representation of synthesis of cyclodextrin (CD) and ...
Figure 8.10 (a) Synthetic scheme of self-healing hydrogels of CS-CNF (b) obser...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Categories of biomimetic synthesis.
Figure 9.2 Representation of efficient applications of leukocyte, erythrocyte,...
Figure 9.3 Mechanism of biomechanotronics.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Basic flow chart of 3D-printing from modeling to products.
Figure 11.2 Different types of Inkjet printers [17–19].
Figure 11.3 (a) Different types of extrusion based 3D-printers [20–22], (b) Se...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Types of nanobiomaterials [70].
Figure 12.2 Inorganic nanoparticles [70].
Figure 12.3 Organic nanoparticles [70].
Figure 12.4 Polymeric-based and lipid-based nanoparticles [70].
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Schematic of single point incremental forming operation.
Figure 13.2 Sequence of manufacturing of a cranial implant through incremental...
Figure 13.3 Experimental setup used for the incremental forming process (a) fo...
Figure 13.4 (a) Contour tool path for different forming angles along with fabr...
Figure 13.5 Experimental trend of three components of force in SPIF.
Figure 13.6 Average resultant force for the different forming angles at differ...
Figure 13.7 Resultant deforming force and average resultant force at different...
Figure 13.8 EBSD (electron backscattered diffraction) data in IPF (inverse pol...
Figure 13.9 IPF and IQ maps of SPIF fabricated test samples.
Figure 13.10 Average grain size at different forming angles and various Increm...
Figure 13.11 Gradient in residual stresses with forming angle at a particular ...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Biometals used in biomedical applications (a) prosthesis for crani...
Figure 15.2 (a) SLM working flowchart; (b)–(d) SLM porous titanium 3D printed;...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The expansion of additive manufacturing technology at different ti...
Figure 16.2 Application of 3D printing in the different biomedical sectors.
Figure 16.3 The procedure of 3D bioprinting.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgement
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications
Edited by
Arbind Prasad
Department of Science and Technology, Katihar Engineering College, Katihar, Bihar, India
Ashwani Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical Education Department (under Government of Uttar Pradesh), Kanpur, India
and
Manoj Gupta
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-16619-0
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design Russell Richardson
This book is dedicated to all engineers, researchers, health professionals and academicians
Preface
Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques in Biomedical Applications covers the synthesis, processing, design, manufacturing, and characterization of advanced materials; self-healing, bioinspired, nature-resourced, nano biomaterials for biomedical applications; and manufacturing techniques such as rapid prototyping, additive manufacturing, etc. Biomaterials and the latest manufacturing techniques are the central themes of this book. The variety of chapters presented herein is fascinating and up-to-date, and this book will be invaluable to researchers in biomedical and engineering disciplines. The background information and the literature review provided in each chapter give an in-depth analysis of the present topic.
In origin, biomaterials can come from nature or be synthesized in the laboratory with a variety of approaches that use metals, polymers, ceramic, or composite materials. They are often used or adapted for various biomedical applications. Biomaterials are commonly used in scaffolds, orthopedic, wound healing, fracture fixation, surgical sutures, artificial organ developments, pins and screws to stabilize fractures, surgical mesh, breast implants, artificial ligaments and tendons, and drug delivery systems. The high quality of the material presented here will benefit those who seek to understand orthopedic biomaterials, processing, and other biomedical applications.
The sixteen chapters of this book thoroughly explore the latest information about biomaterials, such as self-healing, bioinspired, biomimetics, nature-resourced multifunctional materials, etc., and manufacturing techniques such as additive manufacturing and rapid prototyping for artificial organ developments. Each chapter provides an exhaustive literature review, solution, methodology, experimental setup, results validation, and future scope.
The book provides essential knowledge for the synthesis of biomedical products, development, nanomaterial properties, fabrication processes, and design techniques for different applications, as well as process design and optimization. Further, it encourages readers to discover and convert newly reported technologies into products and services for the future development of biomedical applications. This is an ideal book for upperlevel undergraduate and graduate students, engineers, technologists, doctors, and researchers working in the area of biomedical engineering and manufacturing techniques. By lucidly presenting the latest information and research, this volume provides a foundational link to more specialized research work in biomedical engineering and applications.
The editors are appreciative of all contributors’ collaboration and assistance. We also offer our sincere appreciation to Wiley and Scrivener Publishing for their support and guidance throughout the editorial process.
Editors
Dr. Arbind Prasad
Dr. Ashwani Kumar
Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Gupta
Acknowledgement
We express our gratitude to Wiley-Scrivener Publishing and the editorial team for their suggestions and support during completion of this book. We are grateful to all contributors and reviewers for their illuminating views on each book chapter presented in book “Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications”.
Section IADVANCED MATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
1Introduction to Next-Generation Materials for Biomedical Applications
Arbind Prasad1*, Sudipto Datta2, Ashwani Kumar3 and Manoj Gupta4
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Katihar Engineering College (under DST, Govt. of Bihar), Katihar, Bihar, India
2Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
3Technical Education Department Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
4Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore
Abstract
Materials play a vital role in every field of applications. The demand for advance materials has always been in increasing mode in order to complete its intended applications. There are various types of materials which has now been utilized and researched by various researchers to give its best performance with low input. Self-healing materials, bioinspired materials, and smart nanomaterials shape memory materials, biomimetic materials, and composites. Now a days these materials are used for advanced healthcare such as cancer therapy, drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensors, antimicrobial applications, and tissue engineering. The resorbable composites are nowadays to use for bone fracture fixation in order to provide relief to the patients. Various materials and polymeric composite are processed for multifunctional tasks and also have multifunctional properties. This chapter deals with the various types of advance materials, processing techniques, market for the implants and materials, applications, latest status, challenges and future scope of these materials for the biomedical applications.
Keywords: Bioabsorbable, biomedical, bioinspired, drug delivery, degradation
1.1 Introduction
The role of materials in almost all fields plays a significant role in order to perform its intended applications. In the biomedical applications the metallic biomaterials have lot of limitations such as leaching of metallic ions, corrosion, underlying bone damages, and stress shielding [1]. In order to eliminate the problems associated, researchers are working on various types of biomaterials which not only performs its intended function but also self-sustaining in nature. Clinical professional and researchers are looking for materials that provided (i) Sufficient mechanical properties (ii) corrosion less (iii) nontoxic (iv) biocompatible [2, 3]. In the second half of the twentieth century, materials scientists began to partner with physicians in order to develop novel biomaterials that were specifically designed for use within the human body. During this time, biomaterials were created that promoted specific responses by the surrounding tissues and also encourages the neo bone regeneration [4–6]. The examples of bioactive materials include calcium phosphate based inorganic materials such as Hydroxyapatite (HAp). The hydroxyapatite is having similar composition as of natural bone minerals. The HAp is brittle in nature thus alone this material is not sufficient to produce implants suitable for bone fracture fixations. Resorbable polymers are another class of second-generation biomaterials. The examples of such resorbable polymers include polylactic acid (PLA), Polycaprolactone (PCl), Poly D lactic acid, chitosan etc. The most prominent use of resorbable polymers is in scaffolds fabrication, implants productions, and drug-eluting. The main challenges associated with the scaffolds for recreating the artificial tissues that allow the nutrient transport and support cell proliferation. In recent years, several computer-aided additive and subtractive methods for processing biomaterials have been developed [7]. These techniques may be used to develop prostheses with patient-specific attributes, scaffolds for tissue engineering, as well as small-scale medical devices. The development and use of biomaterials are expected to dramatically increase over the coming decades which are mentioned in subsequent section. The industries based on biomaterials and bioimplants are based on the advanced composites processing, ceramics, metals and polymeric composites developments which has an enormous role to replace the damaged tissues, fracture fixations, encourages bone formation, self-healing and also consists of sufficient mechanical properties [8]. It is hoped that this special issue will stimulate interactions among the numerous stakeholders involved in the development of biomaterials, including physicians, surgeons, engineers and biologists, and will promote future research activities in this rapidly developing area. Figure 1.1 shows the application areas, where next generation materials are establishing themselves in a sustainable manner.
Figure 1.1 Next-generation biomaterials application in various areas in biomedical field.
In this chapter, various functional materials and their processing routes has been discussed. In the subsequent section, market and requirement of the next generation materials and their processed bioimplants has been analyzed and afterwards metal, polymeric biomaterials and their roles in these days, latest statue of these materials along with their application has been discussed. In the end of this chapter challenges associated with the processing and fabrication of these biomaterials and implants has been discussed in details.
1.2 Advanced Functional Materials
The advanced materials have their unique application based upon their intended application such as orthopedics fixations, dentistry, wound healing anti-inflammatory medicines, antimicrobial elements, and various other biomedical devices, implants and scaffolds. In initial days, researchers were using first generation materials such as Alumina, Zirconia and carbon etc. [9, 10]. The second-generation materials include mostly ceramics and phosphate-based materials such as calcium phosphates, calcium sulphate, iron oxides, calcium carbonates, hydroxyapatite, glasses, and its ceramics. The various protein molecules along with nanofibrils are generally used for Gels, films, fibers for enhancements of additional mechanical properties and biocompatibility. The evolution of biomaterials moves forwards from bioinertness to self-healing materials [11]. It was referenced that the first-generation materials were developed close to the year 1940, their objective was having properties of bioinertness. The bioinertness, the materials having reasonable actual properties to coordinate those of replaced tissue with a negligible toxic reaction of the host, so naturally idle, or almost dormant material, were utilized to lessen corrosion and to limit the insusceptible reaction and unfamiliar body response. The examples were gold fillings, wooden teeth, PMMA dental implants, steel, gold, ivory, bone plates and so on. The subsequent age was from 1970’s their objective was about bioactivity [12]. The bioactive materials were observed more encouraging towards bone regeneration. The second era of biomaterials was created through the cooperation of doctor and specialists. These include most of the biomaterials including devices which has relevant application in heart valves and pacemakers. The third era was begun about the year 2000 their objective was to recover the original tissues. This age essentially presents the possibility of regenerative medication. Biomaterials are fit for stimulating one or a few elements of the neo tissues such as bone, muscle, ligament etc. to signaling, to induce the recovery of this tissue. For example: cell networks for 3D development and tissue regenerating. Tissue engineering includes the utilization of sub-atomic and cell science innovation to further apply the innovative materials to the patient for their worthy applications. The third-age materials incorporate bio glass-based materials and its composites, bioactive and biodegradable inorganic materials production, mesoporous materials, natural and inorganic composites. The necessity of the implants for the most part of the bodies relies on three things like mechanical properties, processing methods and compatibility. The cytocompatibility is the majority of the significant where inserts and all the obsession are taken consideration most extreme while applying for the capabilities [13–15]. Figure 1.2 shows the progress in materials and implants used for biomedical applications.
Cytocompatibility prompts the tissue response, changes in properties incorporates, mechanical, physical and chemical properties, degradation prompt nearby changes, and also systematic impacts. The mechanical properties of the mainly used biomaterials and implants incorporate generally elasticity, yield stress, ductility, toughness, time dependent deformation, creep ultimate strength, fatigue strength, hardness and wear resistance. The process for developing the implants and scaffolds. The manufacturing process held for fabrication of fixation, implants and scaffolds must be consistent to conform all the requirement laid by food and drug administration [16, 17]. The quality of raw materials, mechanical properties, compatibility, stability towards bearing load and ultimately cost will be the most important to take care. Thus, from Figure 1.2, it is clear that afterward year 2022, it is an era of smart materials which will not only self-healing but also shape memory in nature as well. Various researchers are working on it in order to produce the advance biomaterials which would be multifunctional and also very much worthy for their targeted applications.
Figure 1.2 Progress in biomaterials in recent years in biomedical applications.
1.3 Market and Requirement of Next-Generation Materials
The patterns of bone cracks are expanding step by step every year. According to International osteoporosis foundation, In Asia, it is extended that more than around half of all osteoporotic hip break will happen in Asia continuously by the year 2050. Vertebral or spinal cracks are the most widely recognized fracture happening in 30–50% half of individuals beyond 50 years old and result in essentially expanded bleakness and mortality. Cracks happen when the bone is exposed to a power that is excessively solid for the unresolved issue. Assuming the bone is now debilitated, it doesn’t take a lot of power to cause a break. According to the LANCET solid life span report, Globally, in 2019, there were 178 million new breaks. According to the fortune business experiences report, the worldwide muscular inserts market is expected to develop from USD 45.30 billion of every 2021 to USD 64.18 billion out of 2028 at a CAGR of 5.1% in the 2021–2028 period. Breaks in more established individuals might prompt diminished versatility, freedom, and capacity to complete every day capacities, moving into long haul care, constant torment, more terrible personal satisfaction, higher danger of death. For an unresolved issue appropriately, great blood supply after the injury, satisfactory adjustment, adequate new tissue arrangement.
1.4 Metals and Polymeric Biomaterials
Biomaterials are basically started either from natural or synthetic source that don’t damage or influence the living organic entity when interacts with tissue, blood or biological fluids, and planned for use in symptomatic, prosthesis, restorative applications. For instance, the materials utilized for joint replacement, bone plates, bone cements, hip joints, tendon and ligament, dental embed for tooth obsessions, vein prostheses, skin fix and contact lens and so on [17–20]. The biomaterials may be classified based upon the natural origin and synthetic origin. The natural origin consists of biocompatible materials which are available in nature such as chitosan, hydroxyapatite, cellulose etc. while synthetic origin consists of materials which are widely processed in to the lab for their intended application such as PCL, PLA, PDLA and other based composites.
The addition of various natural and synthetic biomaterials enhances the biocompatibility, biodegradability and high potential to avoid resurgery [21, 22]. The general criterion for biomaterials selection is consists of mechanical and chemical properties such as strength, elastic modulus, fatigue strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance. No undesirable biological effects-carcinogenic, toxic, allergenic or immunogenic. Possible to process, fabricate and sterilize with a good reproducibility, and cost effective [23–25]. Classification of synthetic biomaterials consists of metals, ceramic, polymers, semiconductor materials [26–29]. These materials have wide applicability in drug delivery devices, skin/cartilage, orthopedic screw fixations, dental implants, fracture fixations. Due to their excellent high strength, fracture toughness, relative ease of fabrication, good electrical conductivity made them use in various applications. The bio ceramics are specially designed and fabricated ceramics which can be used to repair and reconstruct the diseased, damaged or worn-out part of the body [30]. The resistance to microorganism, temperature, solvents, pH changes and high pressures is the advantage.
1.5 Bioabsorbable Biomaterials
A biomaterial is known as synthetic or natural material engineered to interrelate with natural structures thru modern medical usage [31]. It must be biocompatible significance that they make their purpose with a suitable host reaction [32]. Bio-polymers have an important perspective since flexibility in material science gives response to materials with excessive mechanical and chemical property variety [33–35]. Bioabsorbable polymers are of greatest attention since these types of materials are proficient to be packed up and defecated or adherence without abstraction or medical especially in surgical modification [36, 37]. From a fundamental material science viewpoint, the ability to moderate biomaterial to carry exclusive material characteristics is limitless until now needs important time and properties to comprehensive the investigation [38]. Since biomaterials are useful in the medical applications, several matters rise that can’t be sufficiently recognized and deal with in earlier in vivo as well as in vitro investigations [39, 40]. The host response depends on the biomaterial properties of physical, chemical, and biological belongings. To enhance address the numerous concerns in biomaterial design and advanced development, biomaterial experts have essentially transformed their method of investigation [41, 42]. Particularly in the previous few time, there has been a modification in standards from researchers investigating individualistically on constricted investigation objectives to cooperative groups that simplify resolving better purposes. By uniting investigators with capability in biology, chemistry, medical practice, and engineering materials, biomaterials investigation has been capable of the improvement more quickly in the previous few years [43–45].
In biodegradable biomaterials, several significant properties must be well-thought-out. These materials are essential (a) not evoke a continued inciting response; [35, 38] (b) keep a degradation time corresponding with their utility; [41] (c) have suitable physical properties for their planned usage; [34, 38] (d) create non-toxic degradation produces which can be freely resorbed or defecated; and (e) comprise suitable permeability for premeditated use [46]. These belongings are importantly impacted several structures of polymeric degradable biomaterials as well as, but not restricted to: hydrophobicity, material science, surface charge, water adsorption, erosion, and degradation mechanism.
1.6 Processing of Bioabsorbable Polymeric Biomaterials
The processing of bioabsorbable polymeric biomaterials mostly held in injection molding machines. Some processing of polymers passes through shaping operations which consist of polymer pellet, powders, or resin which is transformed into preform or into final products using extrusion or blow molding process. Some of the techniques involve thermoforming or blow molding [47–52]. Figure 1.3 show the various techniques widely used for processing of next generation composite materials for biomedical applications. This sentence will be added here. The joining operation also happens for particular cases in which two or more parts of the polymer products are assembled physically or through bonding or welding operations. In Extrusion process, polymer is melted at a suitable temperature and pumped through a desired die in order to make the various shapes of the products and biomedical products. The extrusion process held in extruder comes in two mechanism i.e. single screw and twin-screw extruder. Generally, in polymer industries, single screw extruder is used whereas twin-screw extruder is widely used as mixing and compounding devices. Injection molding process is also one of the widely used commercially viable process for the production of various implants in a mass scale. In this process, the polymer melt is injected into a cavity in order to produce the products [53–58].
Figure 1.3 Processing of next-generation composites for biomedical applications.
During injection molding process, various nanofillers along with base resorbable polymers is melt mixed in order to produce composites. Rotational molding is generally used in producing hollow objects. It can produce large parts having uniform thickness at cost effective approach. Blow molding is used to produce a hollow shape. In case of thermoforming, a plastic sheet is heated in order to reach a temperature that is slightly above the glass transition temperature for amorphous polymers and slightly below the melting temperature for semi crystalline polymers [59–64]. Generally, this process is widely used for amorphous materials because they have a wide temperature range. In the coating process, a liquid film is deposited on a substrate. it is generally used for providing an insulating coating over conducting wires. The solvent casting is used create the polymeric films and scaffolds. The polymer is first dissolved in a suitable solvent to have a viscous solution then after evaporation of the solvent, the polymeric film is obtained [65–69].
1.7 Application of Next-Generation Materials in Biomedical Applications
Biocompatibility is a precarious necessity for a biomaterial, which is a capability of a significant to purpose with a suitable host reaction in an exact use. Numerous physicochemical and biological features of a transplant material direct the host tissue’s reaction to the material. For example, solubility material chemistry, hydrophobicity, degradation mechanism, molecular weight, hydrophobicity, surface energy, and lubricity, erosion, and profile and configuration of the implant can all affect biocompatibility. Prominently, a biodegradable object needs outstanding biocompatibility after a while as the biological, and physicochemical characteristics of a bioabsorbable biomaterial will fluctuate with instance and, therefore, the subsequent desolation produced can take variable stages of biocompatibility as related to the primary material [70–75].
As well as biocompatibility, numerous other significant belongings are deliberated when selecting a bioabsorbable biomaterial. Mainly, the stage of the degradation should correspond with the healing and regeneration progression to confirm the appropriate altering of the biological tissue. Additionally, the biocompatible biomaterial must sustain appropriate penetrability and processability for its planned use. As a final point, the mechanical characteristics of the biomaterial must be necessary to encourage regeneration throughout the daily tasks of patient, and any modification in biomechanical belongings because of degradation must reserve consistence with the regeneration or else healing procedure [76–78].
Certain the difficulty of the anatomical structure of human and the possibility of presentations that biomaterials (polymeric) are presently used for, no single polymeric arrangement can be measured the perfect biomaterial for all medicinal presentations. Therefore, current improvements in the synthesis of biodegradable biomaterial have been absorbed on the way to emerging and producing polymers with belongings tailored for precise biomedical uses. Furthermore, present advances integrating combinatorial and multifunctional methods in biomaterial design have enhanced the invention of original bioabsorbable biomaterials. Additional important issue in biomaterials investigation is the expansion of healing plans, three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds (porous) for modern biomedical and tissue engineering etc. Basically, they show a variation of organic and physicochemical characteristics and, consequently, can duplicate the belongings of dissimilar tissues, and these biomaterials are evaluated for usage as a) bone plates, large implants, and also bone screws; b) sutures and small implants; c) natural membranes for regeneration of tissue [79–82]. Furthermore, biodegradable materials can be applied to create nano or micro scale drug delivery devices for measured drug delivery in a diffusive or erosive way, or as an arrangement of together. As a result of the presence of an extensive variety of biomaterials, both synthetic and natural, fluctuating superiority of substance preparation, and a common shortage of relative investigates of dissimilar biomaterials for precise healthcare and tissue engineering applications, it is difficult to determine which biopolymer is the most perfect. Presently, in the area of biomedical engineering, impermanent, artificial scaffolds are being investigated and established for cells to keep to, segregate, and form fresh tissue. Though, as opposed to demanding to classify exact polymers for exact biomedical presentations, it appears that the upcoming biopolymer presentation is to use dissimilar groupings of polymers to grow hybrid biopolymers, which have an improved specificity summary for exact applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering, healthcare, etc. Certainly, several fresh revisions about polymers for biomedical application have addressed linking dissimilar biomaterials, through methods like grafting, blending, and chemical crosslinking responses and the consequences have been typically optimistic. Many challenges still are today through maximum biomaterials, for instance, the viability of mass production at a comparatively little cost in addition to defeating definite physiochemical boundaries of precise biomaterials; though, with the arrival of genetic and cloning engineering methods to definite together synthetic and natural biomaterials in a multiplicity of host arrangements, there endures a positive forthcoming for biomedical application [83–86].
As a result of the presence of an extensive variety of biomaterials, both synthetic and natural, fluctuating superiority of substance preparation, and a common shortage of relative investigates of dissimilar biomaterials for precise healthcare and tissue engineering applications, it is difficult to determine which biopolymer is the most perfect. Presently, in the area of biomedical engineering, impermanent, artificial scaffolds are being investigated and established for cells to keep to, segregate, and form fresh tissue. Though, as opposed to demanding to classify exact polymers for exact biomedical presentations, it appears that the upcoming biopolymer presentation is to use dissimilar groupings of polymers to grow hybrid biopolymers, which have an improved specificity summary for exact applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering, healthcare, etc. Certainly, several fresh revisions about polymers for biomedical application have addressed linking dissimilar biomaterials, through methods like grafting, blending, and chemical crosslinking responses and the consequences have been typically optimistic. Many challenges still are today through maximum biomaterials, for instance, the viability of mass production at a comparatively little cost in addition to defeating definite physiochemical boundaries of precise biomaterials; though, with the arrival of genetic and cloning engineering methods to definite together synthetic and natural biomaterials in a multiplicity of host arrangements, there endures a positive forthcoming for biomedical application [87–89].
1.8 Latest Status of Next Generation Materials in Biomedical Applications
1.8.1 Bioabsorbable Devices for Bone Tissue Engineering
Among all-natural tissues, bone basically acts as an extracellular matrix, which is basically made up of collagen and some mineral component like hydroxyapatite during the damage of the bone numerous surgeries are necessary for structural restoration and function of the damaged bone. The tissue engineering technique produces bone restoration. Among all materials, volumetric materials are required for sale growth in which blood vessels are formed. In the case of bio-resorbable polymer that can be enriched with hydroxyapatite and many growth factors can service bones morphogenic proteins. Those bone elements are highly effective in bone formation as well as stimulating bone reformation transplants basically consist of dissimilar types of isolated cells cultured on PLLA and PGA scaffold that can be explored as temporary substitutes of damage tissue portion. PLGA polymers act as biosorption materials and act as a newborn forming element at the damage site. In addition, PLGA can be completely biodegradable and can reserve the tissue in weeks or years subject to the polyester ratio present in the osteoblast sales can proliferate by a satisfactory pattern of sale addition and spreading over PLA, PGA, and PLGA scaffold. Furthermore, sales can grow over the polymer presence of phosphorus content in it. Osteoblast information is increased in the case of synthesis collagen. Similar results can be obtained when osteoblast cultures were performed over a PLGA scaffold. In this case mineralization of bones, and matrix can be observed. Interestingly bones meadow sale cultured on the porous PLGA scaffold are more prone in case of bone higher the porosity can eight higher bones growth rate, but the factors like Mechanical properties can be limited with an increase in porosity. In the case of in vitro and in Vivo results suggest that when the interconnections are greater than 300 micrometers, it can facilitate the vascularization of graft. Gugala et al. [32] examined the absorption of protein and activity of osteoblast that cultured on non-porous and porous PDLA membranes for 3 weeks. In another study, the pattern of cell interaction with the substrate also depends on osteoblast culture and PLLA and PDLA [33]. Correct the problem differently with active ceramics has been used such as calcium phosphate with polymers to improve the mechanical strength of the scaffold. Ostioconductivity properties of the scaffold can be increased by composite matrix [33]. Porous PLLA and PLLA-hydroxyapatite composite matrix are seeded with osteoblasts cells. The sale work was found to penetrate deep into the PLA hydroxy appetite scaffold that was uniformly distributed over the scaffold. In sab composite scaffolds cell viability and cell proliferation are better during bone differentiation [35]. Another study can investigate the cells tend to adhere to hydroxyapatite and PCL hydroxyapatite composite and greater spreading in hydroxy appetite expose to the surface. The presence of hydroxy apatite can improve cellular by activity as well [90, 91].
1.9 Bioresorbable Devices for Skin Tissue Engineering
Numerous groups investigated the dissimilar methods to create dermal equivalent based on biological materials such as collagen, synthetic material, and epidermal layers [89]. But patient-specific s is soon slow growth of vascular structure. That consequence leads to a second surgical procedure to transplant the epidermal component for wound regeneration [90–95]. Keratinocytes and leukocytes are suitable substances for the migration of cells to provide an extracellular matrix. Fibroblast developed on collagen gel can produce extracellular matrix components such as fibronectin that can be resembled to reconstruct the connective tissue. But various culture conditions can change fibroblast behavior into the epithelial cells with the reduction in migration behavior of collagen matrix and that can produce the molecules such as collagen 4 and laminin. The skin graft is very flexible at the site of injury. It should not adhere to the deeper layer permitting free and functional joint movement [96–99]. Collagen base artificial dermatitis is the next successful target for skin grafting. This type of structure basically consists of chondroitin sulphate and collagen some non-inorganic compounds like chitosan will show slow degradation in an aqueous medium even presence of a lysosome. Furthermore, in addition of chitosan reduces the cell interactivity with collagen. fibroblast culture dance and porous three-dimensional PLLA membrane were found to add her on the polymer substrate to yield extracellular matrix molecules like collagen 4 and fibronectin [100–104].
1.10 Challenges and Perspectives
The challenges associated with coming next generation materials are the mechanical strength, surface compatibility, dug releases and control and cost effective. The processing is still in developing mode. In case of scaffold and temporary construct as an implant the blood supply must be continuous in all the tissue engineered constructs, which is now a challenge when the artificial organs the researchers are developing. Thus, researchers are using bioactive resorbable composites to enhance the vascularization of the soft tissues. Sometimes it was also observed that bacterial adhesion to biomaterials that causes biomaterials centered infection and leads to poor tissue integration which ultimately reduce the life period of the bioimplant devices [20–22]. However, the scientists are looking for the genetic basis for the development of the bioimplants and scaffolds which provides the foundation for molecular design of scaffolds for tissue engineering and preferably using minimally invasive surgery. In case of metallic implants, various limitation is still there so upgrade of the alloying along with composition of the metallic ions must be further investigated. Some of the common challenges seen in the next generation materials and devices are shown in Figure 1.4. The main aim of the researchers is now a day to find the best suitable materials and bioimplant device which is not only approachable to all but also multifunctional in nature. In these regards, bioresorbable polymeric composites have established themselves as an alternative for their fruitful applications. The processing routes such as 3D printing, injection molding, additive manufacturing are extensively used these days to fulfill the huge demand of the biomedical implants and materials for their applications.
Figure 1.4 The challenges associated with processing of biocomposite for biomedical applications.
1.11 Conclusion
This chapter has summarized that for nearly two decades, some remarkable progress has been made in the processing routes and also in the production of biomaterials for various biomedical areas. There is huge demand for bioimplants which to fulfill is still a challenge in terms of cost effectiveness, mechanical strength, compatibility etc. Bioresorbable polymeric based composite and implants has established themselves in vast ways and still in rising phase. Various researchers are looking for environment friendly processing routes in order to produce these implants a cost-effective manner so that it would be approachable to all the needy patients. Various functional materials have a greater scope in the future in terms of shape memory, resorbable, self-healing biomimetic and also play a significant role in order to fulfill the desired functions.
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