Advanced Materials and Nanosystems: Theory and Experiment - Part 2 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The discovery of new materials and the manipulation of their exotic properties for device fabrication is crucial for advancing technology. Nanoscience, and the creation of nanomaterials have taken materials science and electronics to new heights for the benefit of mankind. Advanced Materials and Nanosystems: Theory and Experiment covers several topics of nanoscience research. The compiled chapters aim to update students, teachers, and scientists by highlighting modern developments in materials science theory and experiments. The significant role of new materials in future technology is also demonstrated. The book serves as a reference for curriculum development in technical institutions and research programs in the field of physics, chemistry and applied areas of science like materials science, chemical engineering and electronics.
This part covers 12 topics in these areas:
1. Recent advancements in nanotechnology: a human health Perspective
2. An exploratory study on characteristics of SWIRL of AlGaAs/GaAs in advanced bio based nanotechnological systems
3. Electronic structure of the half-Heusler ScAuSn, LuAuSn and their superlattice
4. Recent trends in nanosystems
5. Improvement of performance of single and multicrystalline silicon solar cell using low-temperature surface passivation layer and antireflection coating
6. Advanced materials and nanosystems
7. Effect of nanostructure-materials on optical properties of some rare earth ions doped in silica matrix
8. Nd2Fe14B and SmCO5: a permanent magnet for magnetic data storage and data transfer technology
9. Visible light induced photocatalytic activity of MWCNTS decorated sulfide based nano photocatalysts
10. Organic solar cells
11. Neodymium doped lithium borosilicate glasses
12. Comprehensive quantum mechanical study of structural features, reactivity, molecular properties and wave function-based characteristics of capmatinib
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Seitenzahl: 445
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2003
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FOREWORD
First of all, I would like to congratulate Dr Dibya Prakash Rai for successfully publishing the first edited version of the book entitled “Advanced Materials and Nanosystems: Theory and Experiment”. Nothing surprised me more than the fact that, in comparison to his first release, Dr. Rai prepared the second edited book in such a short period. I know Dr. Rai since when he joined MSc. Physics at Mizoram University in 2007 and he has completed his Ph.D. degree under my supervision in 2013. He was a very hardworking student and later he emerged as a promising researcher. He has a dynamic personality with exceptional leadership qualities which reflect his intellectuality in management by coordinating the authors and the publishers, as a result, he could compile two edited books within a short period.
I'm overjoyed today for two reasons. First, my student has followed the route I've shown him. Second, for his achievements and efforts in a subject that I have always been passionate about (R & D). The title of the book makes me very happy. I wanted to read the full book, but I only had time to skim over each chapter of this edited book due to time constraints. All the chapters and the titles are diverse, very attractive, and cover most of the latest research topics. Though I would love to read every chapter thoroughly once it is published.
The content in this book is concise and thorough, and it covers current advanced materials and nanosystems research. This book takes us on a voyage to a newly found mystical realm that allows us to view atoms with the invention of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). We can now manipulate atoms to obtain useful information thanks to technological advancements. Electronics experts working with integrated circuits competed in a size-minimizing race that progressed from micro to submicron dimensions, bringing them closer and closer to the nanoscale. When scientists eventually get to the point where they can use a single electron as the basis of electronics, the entire concept of electronics will have to be rethought.
This evolution is not limited to electronics, since other disciplines of study such as mechanics, optics, chemistry, and biology have begun to develop their nanoworlds, which we now refer to as microsystems. Nanosystems, on the other hand, do not yet exist. It will take some time for them to emerge from the laboratory. As one must read this book to understand the difficulties and latest technical advancements, in the said topics, which raise the curtain from certain unclear concepts. As a result, we must be conscious of the ongoing difficulties and the stakes.
I'd like to encourage Dr. Rai for publishing a series of volumes of such books every year. I also encourage all the material scientists, engineers, and scholars to read this book and contribute to it.
Once again I would like to congratulate & wish you all the good luck !!!
PREFACE
Nanoscience and nanotechnology have emerged out as unique and distinct disciplines in the contemporary field of science and engineering. The size-dependent phenomena of materials when their dimension is reduced below 100nm can be dealt with in Nanoscience. On the other hand, nanotechnology plays an important role in the creation and manipulation of materials at the nanometre scale, either by scaling up from single groups of atoms or by refining or reducing bulk materials. The second edition of the book “Advanced Materials and Nanosystems” covers the advancement of bulk to nanomaterials and their implication in the development of new technology. This book gives a solid understanding regarding the variation of the physical properties of the materials while reducing sizes from bulk to nanoscale. The book helps to give information on the various effects of nanomaterials as bio-sensors, bio-agent, nanocatalysts, nano-robot, etc. The book also covers the various physical, chemical and hybrid methods of nanomaterial synthesis and nanofabrication as well as advanced characterization techniques.
This book includes chapters from all fields of sciences such as; Nanosciences, Physical sciences, Chemical Sciences, Biosciences, Material Sciences, Engineering sciences etc., is an integrated, multidisciplinary edited book. This book is an amalgamation of diverse chapters from different trending fields from various contributing authors. All the contributing authors systematically discuss the chemistry, physics, and biology etc., aspects of nanoscience, providing a complete picture of the challenges, opportunities, and inspirations posed by each facet before giving a brief glimpse at nanoscience in action: nanotechnology. All the contributing chapters give an overview of the latest research work in their respective field, which has importance in our daily lives. This book highlighted the latest development and the significant role of different new materials for various applications. Here is a brief introduction to each chapter.
Chapter 1, Mandal et al., elucidated the recent advancement of nanotechnology from a human health perspective. They have discussed the crucial points in this chapter and give a brief review of the merit and demerit of nanoparticles in human health. The development of smart nano molecules and nanodevices using molecular and supra-molecular would be a blessing for medical sciences. The nanoparticles like silver nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, etc. are proved to be novel nanoparticles for their applications in biomedicine. While they have also highlighted the adverse effects, risk factors on the human body.
Chapter 2, discussed the optimised characteristics of SWIRL (Short Wave Infra-Red Light) of AlGaAs/GaAs heterogeneous type nanostructure under various GRINSLs (Graded Refractive Index Nano Scale Layers) in advanced bio-based nanotechnological systems. They reported the enhanced performances of SWIRL gain with wavelengths of photons for various GRINSLs. This behaviour can be integrated into medical devices for the treatment of wound, pain and various types of sensitive skin diseases by using the FONSCs (Fibre Optic Nano Scale Cables) through the TIRPs (Total Internal Reflection Processes) without any attenuation in dB/Km due to diminished scattering, dispersion and absorptions in the nanotechnological biosciences and medical sciences. Moreover, SWIRL of wavelength ~ 830 nm has provided the most fabulous role in the proper controlling of inflammation, edema as well as infections of various bacteria in advanced bio-based nanotechnological systems.
Chapter 3, this chapter gives the theoretical analysis of the electronic band structure of the half-Heusler alloys ScAuSn, LuAuSn and their Superlattice using density functional theory (DFT) within the full-potential linearized augmented plane waves (FP-LAPW). They have discussed the inefficiency of generalized gradient approximation (GGA) in opening the electronic bandgap. While they report that Trans and Blaha modified Becke-Johnson potential (TB-mBJ) is more appropriate for calculating the electronic bandgap. Their results revealed that LuAuSn and ScAuSn are indirect bandgap semiconductors while their superlattice is a direct bandgap semiconductor.
Chapter 4, overview the importance of nanotechnology and claim to be a multidisciplinary approach contribution from Physicists, chemists, biologists, material scientists, engineers, and computer scientists. In this chapter, they have discussed the evolving and growing interest in nanotechnology, and its implication in size scale technology to construct a computer that is smaller, faster, and more trustworthy. They prepared nanoparticles from the top-down and bottom-up approaches to have direct impact on the current computer design and architecture.
Chapter 5, herein the authors have deposited the amorphous silicon oxide (a-SiOx:H) and silicon nitride (a-SiNx:H) on the low substrate at 250oC -300oC by the chemical Vapour deposition technique. They have estimated the interface charge density (Dit) and fixed charge density (Qf) using a high frequency (1 MHz) capacitance-voltage measurement on Metal-Insulator–Silicon structure (CV-MIS). They reported the reduction of the surface recombination velocity due to low interface charge density (Dit). An improved efficiency and short circuit current has been reported for a-SiOx:H and a-SiNx:H on the front surface of c-Si solar cells.
Chapter 6, deals with the synthesis and characterization of nanoparticles. This chapter reports the gradual development in the synthesis techniques from the bulk to nanoparticles synthesis. All types of synthesis methods have been discussed here. They found that various bottom-up and top-down approaches are appropriate for the commercial production of nanoparticles. They summarize the basic principle of solid phase, vapour phase and liquid phase synthetic techniques in detail with schematic setup. They focus on the matrix of the activated carbon for nanocomposites synthesis, with large surface area and porosity, offer vivid applications in various fields such as environmental remediation as adsorbents, suitable sorbents in analytical determination of organics, targeted drug delivery, diagnostic agents, fuel cells and sensors, to name a few.
Chapter 7 is contributed by S. Rai, and reported the effect of Nanostructure-materials on the optical properties of some rare-earth ions (Eu3+, Sm3+ & Tb3+) doped in the silica matrix. Nanoparticles of CdS incorporating in Rare Earth doped silica xerogel (RE3+:SiO2) matrix have been prepared by sol-gel method. The prepared materials have been characterized by physical and optical techniques, such as XRD, SEM, TEM and Photoluminescence (PL) in which he has reported the particle size of 8 nm and an average particle dimension of 5 nm. He has observed the enhanced luminescence in rare-earth (RE) ions in the presence of CdS NPs in RE3+:SiO2 matrix. A twenty time more intense dominating orange peaks (616 nm) from the characteristic peak of Eu3+ ions are observed for CdS/Eu3+:SiO2 matrix compared to the sample without CdS NPs.
Chapter 8, overviews a description of the Nd2Fe14B and SmCo5 based permanent magnet nanomaterials. The Nd2Fe14B and SmCo5 nanoparticles have been studied using the first principle approach opting for the self-predictable maximum capacity linearized increased plane wave (FPLAPW) strategy as programed in the WIEN2K code. The magnetic moment of BCC Fe and HCP Nd are 2.27µB and 2.65µB, respectively.
Chapter 9, detailed a comparative study on visible-light-induced photocatalytic activity of MWCNTs decorated sulfide-based (ZnS & CdS) nano photocatalysts. ZnS and CdS of different sizes show photocatalytic activities in the visible region due to their appropriate energy bandgap (Eg). They report the multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) intercalated sulfide-based photocatalysts like ZnS/MWCNTs and CdS/MWCNTs composites enhance photocatalytic response in comparison to ZnS and CdS NCs.
Chapter 10, discusses the Organic solar cells and their working principle. Here, the authors have reported the new efficient type of solar cell and photovoltaic energy technology. The bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cells (OSCs) consisting of a mixture of a conjugated donor polymer with a fullerene acceptor are considered a promising approach. They are attractive owing to their mechanical flexibility, lightweight, low cost and environmentally friendly solar cells with highly tunable electrical and chemical properties. This chapter highlights the fundamental Physics of OSCs, working mechanism, novel materials, device architectures, strategies to improve the stability of OSCs and the current status of BHJ solar cells with all critical aspects considered important to understand.
Chapter 11, final chapter which presents synthesis and characterization of Nd2O3 doped lithium borosilicate glasses from melt-quench technique. Electrical conductivity of produced samples was tested in frequency band of 2mHz to 20MHz at 423K to 673K, using Impedance Analyser. From this study it has been reported that conduction is based on the composition and not on the temperature. In the temperature band, 423-673 K, the variance of the dielectric loss (Tan δ), dielectric constant (ε’) and ac conductivity (σ’) with frequency was measured using impedance spectroscopy and discussed at length.
Chapter 12, Thomas et al., shows the comprehensive quantum mechanical study of structural features, reactivity, molecular properties characteristics of capmatinib. They reported that Capmatinib is an effective medicine to fight lung cancer. They used molecular modelling using DFT and TD-DFT methods using B3LYP/CAM-B3LYP/aug-cc-pVDZ level to study the structure, reactivity and other Physico-chemical properties of this compound.
The main goal of the compilation of this edited book was to explain the underlying physics ideas, assumptions often seen in the nano literature to the learner. This book tried to demonstrate and motivate these notions by inviting all the informative chapters from enthusiastic scholars and scientists. The objective is to give the readers a foundation that will allow them to critically examine and perhaps contribute to the growing area of material sciences. It is a dream that this book will one day be turned into an introductory text for many.
DEDICATION
I wholeheartedly dedicate my second edited book to my Guru (Supervisor), retired Professor R. K. Thapa, Vice Chancellor of Sikkim Alpine University, Namchi, Sikkim, who inspired and introduced me to this profession (Teaching & Research).
List of Contributors
Recent Advancements in Nanotechnology: A Human Health Perspectives
Kumaresh Mandal1,Shishir Tamang1,2,Soni Subba1,Biswajit Roy3,Rakesh Tamang1,*Abstract
Nanotechnology came into the limelight during the last decade of the twentieth century. It finds immense application in developing nano molecules and nanodevices using molecular, supra-molecular, and atomic level matters. Its role in biomedical engineering is proving crucial. Nanoparticles like silver nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, etc. have wide implications in biomedicine. Even though there are arguments regarding the side effects, risk factors, removal from the human body, etc., the regular use of nanoparticles has proven cost and time-effective solutions for several human health problems. Due to their small size, nanoparticles have an extended reach in the human body and thus have become effective tools in diagnosis and disease treatment. Most importantly the application of nanotechnology in human health includes drug and protein delivery, treating cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, ophthalmology, etc. Various nanosystems like dendrimers, nanoshells, nanocrystals, and quantum dots are effectively used to examine and cure cancer and other patients with complex health problems. Despite its wide range of applications in human health and diseases, the toxicological risk assessment of the ecosystem and human health itself is necessary for every newly developed nanomedicine. Thus, interdisciplinary understanding and evaluation of nanotechnology-based solution tools are necessary for its judicial use in human health.
Introduction
Nanotechnology involves maneuvering particles of sizes less than 100 nanometers [1]. This size is several hundred folds thinner as compared to the width of human hair. Hence, nanotechnology deals with materials or devices invisible to the human eye. The strengths, conductivity, and reactivity of materials radically change when reduced to the nanoscale. These changed properties are useful in providing innovative solutions in medical science and several other industries, through application-specific engineering of nanoscale materials [2, 3]. However, the advantages of nanotechnology must be critically evaluated against potential hazards associated with its development, usage, and clearance as it may pose potential harm to the individual as well as the environmental health. This is the reason why the National Nanotechnology Initiative, USA, critically emphasizes on environmental, health, and safety impacts of nanotechnology [4]. The public acceptance of nanotechnology will depend on our liability to assess and manage its possible risks to human health and the environment.
The neologism “nano-medicine” emerged in the scientific articles at the end of the twentieth century [5]. Subsequently, the innovation and development of brand new drugs, implantable devices, molecular machinery engineered to the nanolevel have facilitated precision in drug delivery and disease diagnosis. In 2009, the National Institutes of Health, USA [http://www.clinicaltrials.gov], conducted almost 600 clinical studies with the application of nano-products following the standard protocol. Nearly 40% of these experiments are mostly in phase I or phase II. Similarly, the other nano-products are at their preclinical phase and some are in vitro use level. Even though there is a huge surge in the novel nano-drugs development, their detailed pharmacokinetic experiments and toxicological knowledge regarding these new drugs are fragmentary. This field lacks efficient prognostic methods and standard protocols for evaluating the toxicological properties of the designed nano molecules in-vivo [6]. The World Health Organization (WHO) precisely emphasized the health risk of nanomaterials and suggested that a pragmatic model of “risk governance” is necessary for its various sittings (WHO report 2012, Bonn, Germany WHO report 2010, Parma, Italy). In this chapter, we attempt to discuss the various implication of nanotechnology in human health and its possible threat to the environment.
Nanomaterials and nanoparticles in medicine
Nanotechnology is promising because it advocates the improvement of existing products and the creation of newer ones with brand new features with massive implications in clinical practices. Biochemical interactions within an organism take place mostly at DNA, RNA, and protein levels. Interventions at these biological units for their efficient functioning can be better comprehended using nanotechnology. Its main applications in medical fields are primarily in disease diagnosis and imaging, disease monitoring, and innovative drug-delivery systems for drugs with possible risks. It is an area with the ability to detect molecules associated with diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes mellitus, and detect harmful microorganisms. For instance, in cancer treatment, effective novel nanoparticles are expected to respond to externally applied stimuli making them proper therapeutics or drug delivery systems [2, 3]. Sufficient knowledge on the associated toxicological risk needs extensive research for the nanotechnology-based product available in markets. This is why the risk assessment strategy is a prerequisite for the biomedical and technological application of nanotechnology. As nanoparticles are small in size, they can easily pass through the blood-brain barrier and can migrate through cell membranes. This characteristic of the nanoparticle is exploited to develop nanoscaled vehicles transporting high potential pharmaceutics precisely to the targeted region. Liposomes are used in delivering the desired genes and drugs. Polymer nanoparticles are used in DNA examination [7]. The “Nanorobots” and other “nano-devices” are the future devices with great benefits for health. The artificially designed spherical red blood cell called “respirocyte” with a 1nm diameter delivers more oxygen in comparison with the natural red blood cells [8], as well as to well to manage carbonic acidity. Blood transfusion, controlling anaemia and lung diseases to a certain extent, artificial breathing, preventing asphyxia, etc., will become more efficient and effective with the application of respirocytes [9].
Some nano-level molecules can be applied as tags and labels. They make biological tests more sensitive and flexible. Two types of nanomedicine that have been already experimented within the mice model and will be tested for human trials are 1) gold nanoshells implicated in cancer diagnosis and cure, and 2) liposomes used as a vaccine adjuvant and as mediators in drug transport [10]. Similarly, another application of nanomedicine is drug detoxification. Small and less invasive devices can be developed and accurately implanted inside the body with the help of nanotechnology. The biochemical reaction time of those nanoparticles is much shorter and more sensitive [11].
Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery
The drug delivery system facilitates transporting drugs to the targeted region in the body, its delivery, and absorption in the site of action. Nanotechnology associated drug delivery depends on three major points: i) proficient drug encapsulation, ii) effective drug delivery to the specific sites in the body, and iii) efficient release of delivered drug at the desired region. Nanoparticles find their application in target-specific drug delivery where the side effects are considerably reduced due to their high accuracy. This ultimately reduces the cost of the drugs and pain for the patients. Thus, various dendrimers and nanoporous materials are used in drug delivery systems. The application of micelles from block co-polymers is effective in encapsulating the drug. It helps in the transportation of smaller drug molecules to the target location. Iron nanoparticles or gold shells are used in the treatment of cancer due to their efficiency, success rate, and minimal side effects. A targeted medicine may reduce drug consumption, side effects, and in turn expenses for disease treatment. Nanomedicines are nanoscaled particles or molecules capable of improving the bioavailability of desired drugs. Molecular targeting is carried out by nano-engineered devices called nanorobots for maximizing bioavailability [12]. In vivo imaging is another broad-spectrum field where nanotools and devices are being illuminated for high-resolution imaging. In MRI and ultrasound, nanoparticles are introduced as contrasting agents. Biocompatible and self-assembled nanodevices can be used for the detection of cancerous cells and disease examination mechanically.
Using lipid and polymer-based nanoparticles, the therapeutic and pharmacological characteristics of drugs can be enhanced with specific drug delivery systems [13, 14]. The potency of the drug delivery system is its ability to modify the pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution of the drug. As the nanoparticles evade the defence mechanisms of the body [15], they are used as the preferred drug delivery vehicle. Novel drug delivery systems are being designed for providing better treatment opportunities. These systems can transport drugs through cellular membranes and cytoplasm precisely enhancing the efficiency of the drugs. The triggered response is one of the major approaches for drugs to be applied more effectively where the drugs which are administered in the body can be activated only with the proper signal or stimuli specified for them. Inadequately soluble drugs will be substituted by a nano-engineered system that results in better solubility owing to the occurrence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic surroundings [16] (Fig. 1). By regulated drug release, tissue damage can be prevented.
Thus, the uses of nanoparticles in diagnostic sensors and bioimaging have resulted in the improvement of a well-organized drug delivery system. The biodistribution of those nanoparticles is still flawed because of the interactions between host and engineered nanoparticles, and the complexities in targeting only the desired tissues in the body accurately. Efforts are being made for optimization and understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of nanoparticle based systems. For studying the excretory system in mice, dendrimers are used as an encapsulation for drug transportation. These were seen to go into the kidneys precisely. However, the negatively charged gold nanoparticles stayed in vital organs. The reason behind this difference is that the positively charged surface of the nanoparticle reduces the nanoparticles’ opsonization rate in the liver which in turn leads to hampering the pathways of the excretory system. Nanoparticles can be stored in the peripheral tissues because of their smallness in size (5 nm), and therefore can accumulate in the body in due course of time. Further research is needed on the toxicity of nanoparticles so that their application in medical science can be enhanced to the maximum level [17].
Fig. (1)) Schematic outline of drug delivery systems designed using nanotechnology. The drug delivery system may be a nanoparticle or a nanodevice attached to the drug. It facilitates the binding of the drug with the epidermal growth factor (EGF) which in turn binds to its receptor (EGFR) on the cell surface thereby assisting the drug’s entry into the target cell.Another type of nanoparticles used in medicine is minicell nanoparticles used in early clinical trials as a drug transporting medium to treat complex and inoperable cancers. The membranes of various mutant bacteria are used to develop minicells. They are loaded with a cetuximab coat and paclitaxel. When minicells enter the tumour cells, the anti-cancer drug loaded in it destroys the tumour cells. Mostly the large-sized minicells provide desired results. The minicell drug delivery system can be used at a lower dose of the drug and thus will have lesser side effects [18]. One more nano-system used in drug delivery is nanosponges [19]. Due to their minute size and porosity, nanosponges can attach less to insoluble drugs within their matrix and recover their bioavailability which was unavailable previously. Hence, they become helpful in preventing drug and protein degradation and facilitating the guided discharge of drugs.
Nanotechnology in Proteins and Peptide Delivery
Protein and peptides are a group of macromolecules with comparatively longer and shorter chains of amino acid, respectively. These macromolecules are used in the treatment of a variety of diseases and malfunctions as they are part of various biological phenomena inside the body. Nanomaterials like nanoparticles and dendrimers noted as nano-biopharmaceuticals are important for the site-specific delivery of needed molecules. Myelin antigens may trigger immune activity in relapsing multiple sclerosis. Their delivery inside the body becomes much more effective with the help of nanomaterials. In this, the biodegradable myelin sheath coated polystyrene microparticles is thought to reorganize the immune system of mouse and thus check the reappearance of disorders. This is because the shielding myelin sheath forms a coat over the nerve fibers of the central nervous system and is useful in treating various autoimmune diseases [20, 21].
Nanopore Sequencing Nanotechnology
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the heritable unit that governs the development, functioning, growth, and propagation of an organism. It consists of four nucleotides namely, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine arranged to form a polynucleotide [22, 23]. The variation in their arrangement in a polynucleotide stretch may change the genetic information that may ultimately change the respective phenotype. DNA sequencing is one of the most powerful techniques to know the exact order of the nucleotides within a stretch of a DNA molecule [24]. DNA sequencing can be categorized into 3 groups [25] viz., First, Second, and Third generation sequencing. First-generation sequencing is mainly amplification-based Sanger sequencing. Second-generation sequencing includes high throughput sequencing techniques such as arrays of microbeads, massively parallelized chips, DNA clusters, Illumina [26-30]. Third-generation sequencing includes nanopore sequencing [31-33], single-molecule sequencing by synthesis [34], single-molecule motion sequencing [35-37], sequencing by tip-enhanced Raman scattering, etc [38-42]. Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) launched the first nanopore sequencer, recognized as MinION in 2012 [43]. Then, ONT launched the project on nanopore sequencing – the MinION Access Program (MAP) [44-46]. In the MinION device, an enzyme unwinds DNA first, feeding one strand inside a protein nanopore [47-49]. The distinct shape of each base produces a typical alteration in the electrical current which provides a readout of the underlying sequence [50-53]. With the impact of nanopore sequencing, the genome sequence of the resistance-causing element in the multidrug-resistant (MDR) strain of E.coli was illustrated [54-56].
Nanotechnology in Cardiovascular Disease
Global health estimates by WHO on 9th December 2020 stated that cardiovascular disease (Ischemic heart disease and stroke) plays the main role in human mortality globally. Minimal invasive treatments for cardiovascular disease are the desirable goal for health workers across the globe. The advancement in nanotechnology to the lesser invasive methods has brought a ray of hope for the cardiovascular patient. The cardiovascular gene therapy system can be understood through the detection of a protein that leads to the formation of blood vessels, packaging, and development of strands of DNA which comprises the gene responsible for the production of the right protein, and delivery of the DNA in heart muscle [9]. Nanotechnology has immense significance in the interventional therapeutics of atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease (CAD). Applications of various nanoparticles improved the biocompatibility of intracoronary stents and regulation of the chief limit factors for Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA). It was noted that overexpression of nanotized PPARα (Peroxisomal Proliferator-Activated Receptor alpha) can ameliorate pathological hypertrophy and improve cardiac activities. Overexpression of myocardium-targeted nanotized PPARα is carried out by using a conjugated carboxymethyl-chitosan nanopolymer (CMC) modified with stearic acid and this reduces apoptosis via downregulation of the p53 acetylation [57].
Nanotechnology in Cancer
Nanoparticles have promising applications in oncology, mostly in imaging. For this, Quantum dots are used. These are nanoparticles that contain quantum confinement characters, like size-tunable light emission. These can be applied in magnetic resonance imaging for the production of very minute and advanced images of the tumour [58]. The fluorescent quantum dots produce a high-resolution image at a cheaper price as compared to the traditional method. Several toxic elements in quantum dots are the only drawback of this method of imaging.
Nanoparticles are comprised of a distinct character of high surface area to volume ratio. This property of nanoparticles facilitates various functional groups to attach to a nanoparticle and thus efficiently fix with specific tumour cells. Multifunctional nanoparticles can be manufactured that would be helpful in detection, imaging, and then treatment of a tumour in the future [59]. In Kanzius RF therapy used in killing cancer cells, the nanoparticles are attached to the cancerous cells that are destroyed through radio waves. Nanowires are used in preparing sensor test chips used in detecting cancer biomarkers. They are also capable of providing an accurate cancer diagnosis at an early stage from blood samples [60, 61].
The various types of nanosystems (Fig. 2) used in cancer therapy [62] are 1) Carbon nanotubes: these are of 0.5 nm to 3 nm in diameter, and 20 nm to 1000 nm length and have a usage in the detection of DNA mutation and protein biomarkers associated with diseases, 2) Dendrimers: their size is smaller than 10 nm and are useful in controlled delivery of the drug, and as contrast particles in imaging, 3) Nanocrystals: their size ranges is 2 nm to 9.5 nm. They are helpful in enhanced expression of very less soluble drugs, labelling of HeR2, a marker for breast cancer in the cancer cell surface, 4) Nanoparticles: these are of 10 nm to 1000 nm in size and find their application in ultrasound and MRI as image contrast particles, and for site-specific drug delivery 5) Nanoshells: they are used in imaging associated with tumour, deep tissue thermal ablation, 6) Nanowires: these are helpful for detection of protein biomarker, detection of DNA mutation and gene expression 7) Quantum dots: these are of 2-9.5 nm in size and assists in optically detecting proteins and genes in model animals and cellular experiments, and imaging of tumour and lymph node.
Fig. (2)) Classification of Nanomaterials.The major areas where nanomedicine is being designed in cancer biology are early-stage detection of tumours and cancer treatment. Early-stage detection of tumours can be facilitated by the development of “smart” tissue collection platforms for synchronized investigation of markers related to cancer. This is followed by the treatment process via the creation of nanodevices that are capable of releasing chemotherapeutic agents precisely to the target region. For overcoming cancer, preventing it is the best option. If it happens, early tumour diagnosis and its timely eradication will significantly augment better survival. Nanowires are used in the detection of molecules associated with cancer and thereby contribute to diagnosis at an early stage and detection of tumours [63]. For tumour detection, nanoparticle contrast agents have already been designed. Both labelled and non-labelled nanoparticles have been experimented with as agents for imaging tumours to aid in better diagnosis. Tumour treatment can become effective with silica-coated micelles, liposomes, dendrimers, and ceramic nanoparticles. These particles may be used in vehicles for site-specific drug delivery that carries therapeutic genes or chemotherapeutic agents towards malignant cells [64].
Nanotechnology in the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders
For treating neurodegenerative disorders, application of the nanotechnology is proving advantageous [65]. Several nano-vehicles like dendrimers, nanoemul- sions, nano gels, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and nanosuspensions have been greatly studied for the delivery of the central nervous system (CNS) therapeutics. Efficient transportation of these nano-medicines across a range of in vitro and in vivo BBB (blood-brain barrier) experiments through endocytosis or transcytosis, has shown efficiency at an early stage in preclinical trials for the supervision of various CNS situations like Alzheimer's disease, brain tumours, and HIV encephalopathy. Improvement of their permeability through BBB and reduction in their neurotoxicity are major areas in nanomedicine research in the future with a great promise for combating neurological diseases.
With the application of nanotechnology, a significant improvement in the current approaches in Parkinson's disease (PD) therapy has been achieved. After Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease (PD) which affects persons above 65 years of age at a rate of 0.01, is the second most familiar neurodegenerative disorder. PD is a disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Currently, the available therapies try to improve the functional capacity of the PD patient though they are not able to alter the succession of the neurodegenerative processes. The goal of functional nanotechnology is neuroprotection and regeneration of the CNS to check the neurodegeneration which is a challenging task. A multidisciplinary approach combining nanotechnology, neurophysiology, neuropathology, and cell biology will solve the intricacies of its progression and treatment of neuro- degenerative disease.
Applications of Nanotechnology in Ophthalmology
With the application of nanobiotechnology, extensive progress in several sophisticated fields of ophthalmology has become possible now. Application of nanomedicines, various nanodevices, and regenerative nanomedicine have fetched a new horizon in managing oxidative stress, intraocular pressure measurement, healing choroidal new vessels, and prevention of scarring in patients operated for glaucoma. For the treatment of rigorous evaporative dry eye, a new nanoscale-dispersed eye ointment (NDEO) has been effectively developed [66].
Nanotechnology in Immunological Perspective
The nanodevice buckyballs find their application to modify the allergy or immune reaction. Because of their better attachment with free radicals than vitamin E or any available anti-oxidant, they can check mast cells from secreting histamine in the body especially in blood and tissue [67]. Through the interference with different proteins implicated in the resistance to antibiotics and pharmacological processes of drugs, zinc oxide nanoparticles are capable of decreasing antibiotic resistance and augmenting the antibacterial action of Ciprofloxacin over other microorganisms [68]. With the application of nanotechnology in tissue engineering, the reproduction or repair of damaged tissues can be possible. In organ transplants, cell proliferation due to artificial stimuli in or simulated implant therapy, nanotechnology may help provide suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth factors. This ultimately may lead to the patient’s life extension.
Nanopharmaceuticals
Nanopharmaceuticals are useful in detecting diseases at early stages. It is an emerging field where nanoscaled drug particle or nano-level therapeutic delivery systems are used. the delivery of a particular active agent with a suitable dose to a specific disease region is vital and complicated in the pharmaceutical industry. Nanopharmaceuticals have huge potential in increasing precision and accuracy in site-specific targeting of active agents. Also, it plays a significant role in the reduction of noxious side effects. Further to delivering high-quality products to patients after maintaining profitability, the pharmaceutical industry faces enormous pressure. Thus, to improve drug target discovery and drug formulation,
companies are taking advantage of nanotechnology. Nanopharmaceuticals are vital in making the drug discovery procedure cost-effective.
Possible Risks for Human Health and Ethical Questions
The literature on toxicological risks of nanotechnology in the field of medicine is inadequate. Size reduction of structures to nanolevel alters various distinct characteristics [69]. For the toxic effects of particles, the dominant indicator is the smallness in size. Hence, nano-formulation requires a proper evaluation in terms of its activity, reactivity, and toxicity. Chemical property dictating the fundamental toxic natures of the chemical is important in the determination of the particles’ toxicity. The detailed mechanism of nanoparticle elimination from the human body is still not well-known. The studies so far indicate the way of elimination of nanoparticles via liver sinusoids, space of Disse, hepatocytes, bile ducts, and intestines. However, their transport processes are not well studied [70].
Nanotechnology in therapeutics: drawback and prospective
Theoretically, many regular substances can be used as medicines. Whether they precisely reach the unhealthy organs or tissues in the body [71] is still investigated. These substances are hardly soluble in water. They are susceptible to breakage or get inactivated before reaching the target region. Their capability to pass through several biological barriers (blood-brain barrier, placenta, cell membranes, etc.) is lower, and is generally released non-specifically to almost all types of organs and tissues. There are several requirements that a delivery system has to fulfill, such as the residence time of the delivery systems in blood should be longer for the deposition in the specific site, they should have the capability to contain adequate active material, the systems, and the degraded products should comprise a complimentary toxicity outline, their shelf-life should be long enough to permit proper distribution and storage, the efficiency of delivery systems must be in proportion to the cost of production and treatment [72-75].
Conclusion
Nanomaterials have increased surface area and are comprised of nanoscale effects. These properties make them a potential tool for drug development, gene delivery systems, imaging in biomedical fields, and biosensor particles. Nanomaterials pose distinctive biological and physicochemical characteristic features than regular materials. The characteristics of nanomaterials can significantly control their connections with biomolecules and cells. These interactions occur due to their unusual shape, size, surface property, chemical structure, charge, and solubility. With the usage of nanoparticles, exceptional images of tumour sites can be constructed. Due to their high efficiency in delivery and transportation, single-walled carbon nanotubes can be used in transporting molecules inside the cellular bodies. Several highly sophisticated biological technologies are intertwined with nanotechnology for better results. Nanotechnology is capable to engineer a phenomenon at the smallest scale and thus has a strong role in the advancement of broad-spectrum areas like information technology, cognitive science, biotechnology, and other integrative biological fields. With the advancement of futuristic research in nanotechnology, its influence on human health is prominent. Personalization in various highly developed fields in biomedical technology, regenerative medicine, stem cell, and nutraceuticals will be materialized and glorified by nanotechnology innovations and progressions.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by SERB, the Government of India through SERB-Core grant (CRG/2018/001727) and SERB-Empowerment and Equity Grant (EEQ/2019/000750). KM was supported by UGC JRF (649/CSIR-UGC NET JUNE 2019). ST was supported by a grant (Memo No. 215(Sanc.)/ST/P/S&T/5G-9/2018) from the Department of Science and Technology, Government of West Bengal. Financial assistance to SS from SERB, the Government of India is acknowledged.
