Advanced Welding Technologies E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Advances in Production Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
Advanced Welding Technologies serves as a vital resource that transforms the perception of welding from a mere skill-based practice to a cutting-edge industrial method, offering comprehensive insights into its fundamental processes, research advancements, and diverse applications across technological and biomedical domains.
Welding has traditionally been considered more of a skill-based proficiency than a technological industrial method. The reliance on highly trained human operators, along with the high cost and low reproducibility of many welding processes, has contributed to this perception. Extensive research has now been conducted on the fundamentals of welding processes, and while it remains a complex, multidisciplinary subject, the basic concepts are well understood.
Advanced Welding Technologies is a comprehensive collection of the processes and applications of advanced welding technologies, giving a basic understanding of each process, research advancements, and their applications in various technological and biomedical domains for improving machining accuracy and quality. This volume will extend the possibilities of research in various areas of advanced welding technologies with basic and hybrid approaches, making it an easy reference for students and researchers working in this critical field.
Readers will find the book:
- Covers technologies for successful improvement in advanced processes and the application of advanced welding technologies;
- Serves as a valuable reference to students and researchers involved in working with advanced welding technologies;
- Discusses successful fabrication of multipurpose advanced welding technologies, sustainability of advanced welding technologies, materials and processes, applications of machine learning in advanced welding technologies, and future scopes and challenges of advanced welding technologies.
Audience
Engineers, welders, researchers, academics, and students involved in advanced welding technologies, manufacturing, and materials science.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Part I: Advanced Welding Processes
1 Introduction to Advanced Welding Processes
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Defining Advanced Manufacturing
1.3 Technologies Enabling Sophisticated Manufacturing
1.4 Welding Processes
1.5 Effect of Post Weld Heat Treatment
1.6 Challenges and Future Directions
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Developments and Trends in Welding Development
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Safety and Environmental Factors
2.3 Skill and Training Requirements
2.4 Areas for Development
2.5 Process Application Trends
2.6 Summary
References
3 Welding Power Source Technology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Fundamentals of Welding Power Sources
3.3 Key Parameters and Characteristics
3.4 Types of Welding Power Sources
3.5 Advanced Features and Technologies
3.6 Future Trends and Innovations
3.7 Case Studies and Practical Applications
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Welding Automation and Robotics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Inspection of Welding Performance
4.3 Robotics in Welding
4.4 Modeling of Welding Processes
4.5 Robotics in Different Welding Techniques
4.6 Laser Welding and Laser–Arc Hybrid Welding
4.7 Path/Motion Planning
4.8 Challenges and Future Directions
4.9 Conclusions
References
5 Material Flow and Heat Transfer Analysis in Friction Stir Welding
5.1 Introduction and Background
5.2 Material Flow and Heat Transfer: Review of Basic Principles
5.3 Foundations of Mathematical Modeling
5.4 Analysis of Basic Modes of Thermal Energy Transfer
5.5 Analysis of Material Flow in FSW
5.6 Analysis of Heat Generation in FSW
5.7 Overview of Thermo-Mechanical Process in FSW
5.8 Conclusion: State-of-the Art and Future Directions in FSW
References
6 Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Welding Techniques
6.3 Overview of Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6.4 Operating Principle of Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6.5 Prospects and Limitations of Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6.6 Further Research in Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6.7 Conclusion and Recommendation
Acknowledgment
References
7 Modeling and Designing of Ultrasonic Welding
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Description of Process
7.3 Description of Equipment
7.4 Design of Ultrasonic Horns (Velocity Transformers) for Welding Applications
7.5 Process Parameters
7.6 Process Capability
7.7 Applications of USW
7.8 Advantages of USW
7.9 Disadvantages of USW
7.10 Conclusion
References
8 Microstructural Control and Heat Treatment Effects in Explosion Welding
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Factors Affecting Explosion Welding
8.3 Microstructures at the Junction of Materials Fused by Explosion Welding
8.4 Effect of Heat Treatment on Weld Interfaces
8.5 Underwater Explosion Welding
8.6 Applications of Explosion Welding
8.7 Conclusions
References
9 Hybrid Welding Processes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Hybrid Laser–Arc Welding Process Development
9.3 Hybrid Laser Arc Welding Methods
9.4 Hybrid Laser Arc Welding Process Variables
9.5 Industrial Applications of Hybrid Laser Arc Welding
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Ultrasonic Welding: Foundations, Influential Factors, and Material Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principle of Ultrasonic Welding
10.3 Factors Influencing Ultrasonic Welding
10.4 Ultrasonic Welding on Various Materials
10.5 Applications
10.6 Advantages and Limitations
References
Part II: Applications of Computational Techniques and Sustainability in Welding
11 Review and Analysis of Intelligent Welding Using Automation and Machine Learning Tools
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Review of Welding Techniques and Literature Survey
11.3 Machine Learning Models
11.4 Predicting Current in Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
11.5 Predicting Conditions for Void Formation in Friction Stir Welding
11.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
12 Machine Learning in Welding Technologies
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fundamentals of Welding Technologies
12.3 Basic Concepts of Machine Learning
12.4 Applications of Machine Learning in Welding
12.5 Challenges and Future Directions
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Welding Technologies
13.1 Introduction to AI and ML in Welding
13.2 Quality Control and Defect Detection in Welding
13.3 Automation in Challenging Environments in Welding
13.4 Data-Driven Approach in Welding
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Internet of Things in Welding Industries
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functioning of Arc Welding
14.3 Structure of Welding
14.4 Welding Technologies and Resources
14.5 Monitoring System of IoT-Based Welding
14.6 Applications of IoT-Based Welding
14.7 Conclusions
References
15 Evolution of Technology in Testing and Inspection of Welding: From Traditional to Modern Methods
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Stages of Weld Inspection and Testing
15.3 Weld Testing and Inspection After Fabrication Can Be Classified Into Two Main Categories
15.4 Purposes of Material Testing [15]
15.5 Overview of Welding as a Critical Process in Manufacturing and Construction
15.6 Importance of Testing and Inspection in Ensuring Weld Quality and Integrity
15.7 Impact of Technological Advancements
15.8 Conclusions
References
16 Sustainability in Welding Industries
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Strategies for Implementing Environmentally Friendly Welding
16.3 Eco-Friendly Welding Procedures
16.4 Research Advancement in Sustainability in Welding Industries
16.5 Future Scope of Sustainability in Welding
16.6 Conclusion
References
17 Mechanical and Structural Evaluation of Friction Stir Welded AA6063 and AA6069 Aluminum Alloys for Marine and Aerospace Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials and Methodology
17.3 Results and Discussions
17.4 Conclusion
References
18 Experimental Analysis and Optimization of Microwave Welding Parameters for Improved Joint Strength
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Review of MW for Polymer-Based Materials
18.3 Experimental Analysis
18.4 Effect of Input Process Parameters on the Lap Shear Strength and Elongation
18.5 Multi Objective Optimization Using Desirability Analysis
18.6 Conclusion
References
19 Metaheuristic Approaches for the Optimized Friction Stir Welding Process
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Experimental Setup
19.3 Taguchi Analysis
19.4 ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
19.5 PSO
19.6 Conclusion
References
20 Laser–Arc Hybrid Welding
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Laser–Arc Hybrid Welding
20.3 Orientation of LAHW Process
20.4 Classification of LAHW Process
20.5 Parameters of LAHW Process
20.6 Process Capability of LAHW Process
20.7 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
21 Beyond Fumes and Flux: Green Welding for a Sustainable Future
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Green Welding: Techniques and Research Developments
21.3 Exploring the Frontiers of Green Welding: Latest Scientific Studies
21.4 Welding and Industry 4.0
21.5 Welding and Industry 5.0
21.6 Conclusion
21.7 Future Scope of Green Welding Technologies
References
22 Toward a Greener Weld for Integrating Sustainability Into Welding Practices
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Efficient Welding Process Technology in Industry
22.3 Importance of Welding in Industries in India and Worldwide
22.4 Energy Consumption in Welding
22.5 Environmental Impact of Welding
22.6 Industry 4.0 in Welding
22.7 New Welding Techniques to Merge in the Future
22.8 Welding as a Career
22.9 Conclusions
References
23 Advancements in Robotic Welding Sensing Technology: A Review
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Sensing Technology in Robotic Welding
23.3 Integration of Sensing Technology and Artificial Intelligence in Robotic Welding
23.4 Industrial Internet of Things in Robotic Welding
23.5 Future Scope
23.6 Conclusion
References
24 Robotic Welding and Automation: Cutting-Edge Technology for Industry
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Sensing System
24.3 Signal Monitoring
24.4 Supervised Learning Intelligent Robotic Welding
24.5 Adaptive Robotic Welding System
24.6 Path Planning and Trajectory Optimization
24.7 Future Scope
24.8 Conclusion
References
25 Additive Manufacturing Integration with Welding: A Focus on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
25.3 Integration of Automation in WAAM
25.4 Monitoring and Control Methods in WAAM
25.5 Digital Twin in WAAM
25.6 Improving WAAM Outcomes with Digital Twin and Augmented Reality Innovations
25.7 Summary
References
26 Current Scenario, Future Scope, and Challenges in Welding
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Current Trends in Intelligent Welding Systems
26.3 Advances in Welding of High Entropy Alloys (HEAs)
26.4 Advanced Techniques in Welding Defect Identification and Categorization
26.5 Innovations in Vision Technology for Welding Automation
26.6 Integration of Industry 4.0 and Cyber Physical Systems in Welding Technology
26.7 Complexities in Copper Welding: Emphasis on Laser Beam Welding
26.8 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Different instances of common welding safety hazards.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Instance of the dataset [3].
Table 11.2 Validation dataset (
##
: Validation trials).
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 IoT-based technologies.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 % Weight composition of AA6063 aluminum.
Table 17.2 Chemical composition of AA6069 aluminum alloy.
Table 17.3 Probe dimensions.
Table 17.4 Tensile behavior of parent metal and FSW aluminum alloys.
Table 17.5 Force observed in each stroke for aluminum AA6063 alloy.
Table 17.6 Force observed in each stroke for aluminum AA6069 alloy.
Table 17.7 Force observed in each stroke for friction stir-welded aluminum all...
Table 17.8 Bending strength results of aluminum specimen and friction stir-wel...
Table 17.9 Micro–hardness test values.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Input parameters and various levels.
Table 18.2 Input factors and measured output responses.
Table 18.3 Response table for means.
Table 18.4 Response table for means.
Table 18.5 ANOVA for both lap shear strength and elongation.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 The AA2024 and AA6061 aluminum alloys’ chemical structure.
Table 19.2 Process control parameter of friction stir welding.
Table 19.3 ANOVA for maximum ultimate tensile strength.
Table 19.4 ANOVA for maximum tensile elongation.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Comparison between arc welding, LBW, and LAHW processes [10, 12, 19...
Table 20.2 Differences between laser-GTAW and laser-GMAW [12, 13, 19–21, 30–37...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 LCA results with cost analysis of manual welding.
Table 22.2 LCA results with cost analysis of automatic welding.
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Patent landscape analysis for robotic welding sensing technology.
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Sensing methods for defect detection in WAAM [30].
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Laser welding.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Welding costs.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Elements of a power supply for welding (source: Yin, T
et al.
2022)...
Figure 3.2 The welding process parameter [7] (source: Zhang, H
et al.
2023) [8...
Figure 3.3 A typical design of a welding transformer (source: Habjan, G
et al.
Figure 3.4 Transformerless inverter topology (source: Cardoso, J
et al.
2022) ...
Figure 3.5 Hybrid welding power source (a) schematic diagram and (b) distribut...
Figure 3.6 (a) Magnetic pulse welding setup and (b) the collision point C’s ve...
Figure 3.7 IoT-MAS-based model of systems and manufacturing for intelligent we...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Exhibition of the welding process [4] (reproduced with permission).
Figure 4.2 Illustration of two types of weld defects: (a) A longitudinal surfa...
Figure 4.3 Illustration of two critical aspects: (a) Von Mises stresses derive...
Figure 4.4 Process of spot welding [49] (reproduced with permission).
Figure 4.5 Analysis of the LBR signal involves three steps:
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic of joining dissimilar metals in butt joint by FSW.
Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram representing the solution region (dot-filled doma...
Figure 5.3 Boundary conditions for the calculation of velocity field (top view...
Figure 5.4 Geometrical parameters of an FSW tool of truncated conical shape.
Figure 5.5 Heat flux distribution over the tool–workpiece interface for a cyli...
Figure 5.6 Flow chart schematic of multi-field interactions in friction stir w...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Gas metal arc welding setup.
Figure 6.2 Gas tungsten arc welding setup.
Figure 6.3 Shielded metal arc welding.
Figure 6.4 Atomic hydrogen welding.
Figure 6.5 Working principle of atomic hydrogen welding.
Figure 6.6 Thick metal sections. (a) Metal pipe. (b) Metal angle.
Figure 6.7 Thin metal sheet rolled up.
Figure 6.8 Application of AHW for refractory metal products.
Figure 6.9 Cross-sections of welding arc with the same current intensity but w...
Figure 6.10 Effect of hydrogen content on argon protection of weld and welding...
Figure 6.11 Effect of the hydrogen content in the shielding gas on the welding...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Ultrasonic welding processes.
Figure 7.2 Lateral drive USW unit.
Figure 7.3 (a) Transducer unit. (b) Force balance on the differential element ...
Figure 7.4 First fundamental mode of vibration of a uniform bar.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Different configurations of explosion welding.
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of explosion welding.
Figure 8.3 Explosive welding window.
Figure 8.4 TA2/Q235 explosion welding: (a) setup of apparatus and (b) overview...
Figure 8.5 The microstructural anisotropy of two zones of TA2/Q235 explosion-w...
Figure 8.6 Welding interface microstructure [60].
Figure 8.7 Microstructural evolution: (a) elongated pearlite and Fe on steel s...
Figure 8.8 Variation in mechanical properties of TA1/Q235 composite plate with...
Figure 8.9 Setup for underwater explosion welding [74].
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Hybrid laser arc welding.
Figure 9.2 Patterns of weld bead formation.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Various bench-top ultrasonic welding machines [3].
Figure 10.2 Ultrasonic welding process.
Figure 10.3 Schematic diagram of ultrasonic welding.
Figure 10.4 Ultrasonic generator.
Figure 10.5 Ultrasonic welding transducer with booster.
Figure 10.6 Ultrasonic horns with different profiles [5].
Figure 10.7 Examples of ultrasonic-welded items [19].
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Root gap between metals.
Figure 11.2 Working of friction stirs welding.
Figure 11.3 Resistance welding.
Figure 11.4 The MIG welding.
Figure 11.5 Schematic of decision tree architecture.
Figure 11.6 The support vector machines method: The optimal hyperplane (solid ...
Figure 11.7 Schematic of artificial neural network (ANN) architecture.
Figure 11.8 Predicted current plot versus test current plot in kernel ridge re...
Figure 11.9 Plots of validation current, kernel ridge prediction on validation...
Figure 11.10 Comparison of kernel ridge with other models.
Figure 11.11 Testing versus predicted data.
Figure 11.12 Comparison with other classifiers.
Figure 11.13 Confusion matrix of GPC.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Arc welding process.
Figure 12.2 Welder performing arc welding in the laboratory.
Figure 12.3 Classification of welding processes.
Figure 12.4 Classification of machine learning and its algorithms.
Figure 12.5 Machine learning workflow.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 State of the system during welding [3].
Figure 13.2 Laser opto-ultrasonic setup for online monitoring [16].
Figure 13.3 Sensor-enabled multi-robot welding and in-process NDE system [16].
Figure 13.4 Detection of flaws in welding [17].
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 IoT-based temperature welding sensing system.
Figure 14.2 The schematic operational mechanism of AW.
Figure 14.3 Arc length and cone. (a) Lower arc voltage. (b) Higher arc voltage...
Figure 14.4 VS (a) capacitor type and (b) resistance type.
Figure 14.5 Interconnection of IoT smart factory structure.
Figure 14.6 Circuit diagram of a welding monitoring system.
Figure 14.7 The basic structure of an expert system.
Figure 14.8 Data collected from human–machine interface with IoT-based expert ...
Figure 14.9 Bluetooth-connected WM and helmet.
Figure 14.10 Welding monitoring different conditions.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Weld inspection and testing involve several critical stages to ens...
Figure 15.2 Different classes of destructive testing (DT) of welding.
Figure 15.3 Different classes of non-destructive testing (NDT) of welding.
Figure 15.4 Advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques of welding.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Process methodology.
Figure 17.2 Probe used in friction stir welding machine.
Figure 17.3 The probe and aluminum alloy sheet arrangement.
Figure 17.4 Dimensions of the tensile specimen.
Figure 17.5 Dimensions of the bending test specimen.
Figure 17.6 Specimen for microstructure analysis.
Figure 17.7 Graphical representation of force applied at each stroke for AA606...
Figure 17.8 Graphical representation of force applied at each stroke for AA606...
Figure 17.9 Graphical representation of force applied at each stroke for frict...
Figure 17.10 Optical microscopy images of aluminum alloys and friction stir-we...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Microwave welding.
Figure 18.2 Effect of parameters on means of lap shear strength.
Figure 18.3 Effect of parameters on SN ratios of lap shear strength.
Figure 18.4 Effect of parameters on means of elongation.
Figure 18.5 Effect of parameters on SN ratios of elongation.
Figure 18.6 Contour plot for lap shear strength.
Figure 18.7 Contour plot for elongation.
Figure 18.8 Multi objective optimization of lap shear strength and elongation.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Diagrammatic representation of friction stir welding.
Figure 19.2 S/N ratio to maximize ultimate tensile strength.
Figure 19.3 S/N ratio to maximize tensile elongation.
Figure 19.4 Schematic diagram of the ANN model.
Figure 19.5 Performance model for σ.
Figure 19.6 Regression model for σ.
Figure 19.7 Performance plot for σ.
Figure 19.8 Performance model for δl.
Figure 19.9 Regression model for δl.
Figure 19.10 Performance plot for δl.
Figure 19.11 Improvement of multi objective function with number of iterations...
Figure 19.12 Surface plots showing the significance of parameters on the multi...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Schematic of LBW process.
Figure 20.2 LAHW process and its constituents.
Figure 20.3 Orientation of LAHW process.
Figure 20.4 Photographic view of the LAHW process [26].
Figure 20.5 Classification of the LAHW process.
Figures 20.6 (a) Hybrid laser-GTAW process. (b) Laser camera view [30].
Figures 20.7 Schematic diagram of the laser-GTAW process.
Figure 20.8 Laser-GMAW process.
Figure 20.9 Photographic view of the laser-GMAW setup [34].
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Global elector market share in 2023 and expected share % to be in ...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Schematic of arc welding monitoring system [11]. This figure is av...
Figure 23.2 Peak current rectification and arc sound energy in welding via the...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Robotic welding process planning with multiple assignment techniqu...
Figure 24.2 Schematic of hybrid machine learning for adaptive welding speed ad...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Schematic setup of wire arc additive manufacturing.
Figure 25.2 Arc column in welding.
Figure 25.3 Setup for gas metal arc welding [7].
Figure 25.4 Schematics of the setup of GTAW.
Figure 25.5 (a) Submerged arc additive manufacturing (SAAM) setup, (b) SAAM to...
Figure 25.6 (a) Schematic representation of the spin/rotational arc welding pr...
Figure 25.7 Mechanism of cold metal transfer [25].
Figure 25.8 Plasma arc-based WAAM.
Figure 25.9 WAAM process automated by a robotic arm [29].
Figure 25.10 Steel bridge made by WAAM process [7].
Figure 25.11 Common defects in additive manufacturing processes [30].
Figure 25.12 Schematic of the thermal sensing and voltage control system in WA...
Figure 25.13 WAAM system using digital twin [32].
Figure 25.14 Digital twin in WAAM illustrating data collection, simulation, an...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Step-by-step growth of welding technology [1].
Figure 26.2 Evolution of traditional welding system from to intelligent weldin...
Figure 26.3 Number of publication and citations from Welding of HEA’s Material...
Figure 26.4 HEA-related joints under different welding techniques as a functio...
Figure 26.5 Multi-robot welding system [1].
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Advances in Production Engineering
Scope: “Advances in Production Engineering” addresses recent developments and research issues related to the production engineering which necessitates the development of new materials and manufacturing processes in order to produce high-quality products at lower prices and in less time. This series aims to provide a scientific platform for researchers, practitioners, professionals, and academicians to discuss the most recent technological developments in metals, polymers, ceramics, composites, biomaterials, nanomaterials, special materials, metals, micro-forming, powder metallurgy, ceramics processing, non-traditional machining, high speed machining, micro and nanomachining, and laser processing. Tribological analysis, friction behavior, modelling, and optimization techniques in materials, machining, and manufacturing are also covered in the series.
Edited by: Dr. Sandip KunarEmail: [email protected]
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Advanced Welding Technologies
Edited by
Sandip Kunar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya University, Surampalem, India
and
Gurudas Mandal
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kazi Nazrul University, West Bengal, India
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Preface
Welding has traditionally been considered more of a skill-based proficiency than a technological industrial method. The reliance on highly trained human operators, along with the high cost and low reproducibility of many welding processes, has contributed to this perception. As a result, welding is classified as a “Special Process” in international quality standards. Extensive research has now been conducted on the fundamentals of welding processes, and while it remains a complex, multidisciplinary subject, the basic concepts are well understood. Significant technological advancements are built on this solid scientific foundation.
This book covers a range of advanced welding technologies that can be leveraged by the production industry to boost productivity and socioeconomic development. Additionally, it highlights current research in advanced welding technologies and offers insights into the latest advancements in the welding industry.
Chapter 1 explores the crucial role of advanced welding in sophisticated manufacturing, highlighting its potential for future innovation and its transformative impact on various welding industries. Chapter 2 details significant developments and recent progress in the use of advanced welding processes. Chapter 3 covers the key requirements for arc welding power supplies, advancements in power source technology, and the theories behind both traditional and complex power source designs, along with their benefits and challenges.
Chapter 4 examines the evolution of automation and robotics, highlighting their impact on efficiency, precision, and safety in various welding industries. Chapter 5 introduces the macroscopic modeling approach to the friction stir welding process, focusing on material flow and heat transfer analysis. Chapter 6 addresses the efficiency, energy yield, economic and social considerations in protecting people and property, as well as the environmental impact of atomic hydrogen welding. Chapter 7 discusses ultrasonic welding, an advanced technology for joining materials without melting, and explores its benefits, including the ability to join dissimilar metals and work near heat-sensitive components without causing damage.
Chapter 8 provides a thorough analysis of the explosion welding process, focusing on its metallurgical features, key process variables, and inherent constraints. Chapter 9 discusses the progress and applications of hybrid laser arc welding technology. Chapter 10 delves into the core concepts of ultrasonic welding, including the functions of critical components such as the ultrasonic generator, transducer, horn, and booster. The chapter also examines the impact of ultrasonic welding on various materials, including aluminum alloys, steels, titanium, magnesium, and fiber-reinforced composites, highlighting the benefits and challenges associated with each material.
Chapter 11 introduces a machine learning model using Kernel Ridge Regression to predict the current flow in Tungsten Inert Gas Welding, achieving a notably low root mean squared error (RMSE) of 2.10, outperforming other models in this field. Similarly, a Gaussian Process Classifier model is presented to predict void formation in Friction Stir Welding. Chapter 12 discusses the control and monitoring of real-life welding situations through machine learning-derived Integrated Master Models. Chapter 13 explores the potential of AI and ML in welding technologies to shape the future of smart manufacturing and define new standards in welding processes.
Chapter 14 highlights the IoT-based aspects of welding, emphasizing their role in driving revolutionary changes in smart manufacturing, along with significant improvements in productivity, quality control, and worker safety. Chapter 15 summarizes recent advancements, their impact on industry practices, and potential future projections, providing insight into the current state of welding quality assurance. Chapter 16 discusses the sustainability of welding operations, focusing on environmentally friendly methods that use minimal energy, maximize process efficiency, produce better results with fewer resources, and generate minimal waste during operation.
Chapter 17 examines the ductile strength, bending characteristics, hardness, and microstructural features of specimens produced through the friction stir welding process. Chapter 18 analyzes joint strength during microwave welding of polymer-based materials, focusing on different input process parameter combinations and optimizing these parameters. Chapter 19 explores the use of metaheuristic approaches to optimize key friction stir welding parameters, such as rotational speed, welding speed, and axial force. The study investigates how various factors, including pin shape, axial force, rotational speed, and welding speed, impact the tensile strength and elongation of welded joints.
Chapter 20 discusses the features of welding and laser beam arc welding combined in a single weld pool, known as the laser-arc hybrid welding process. It covers the basic principles, advantages, disadvantages, and applications of this technique. Chapter 21 highlights various green welding processes, emphasizing their advantages in terms of lower energy consumption, reduced emissions, and practical applications. Chapter 22 explores the multifaceted components of sustainability in different welding and processing methods, providing an in-depth analysis of energy conservation, material waste reduction, resource optimization, and process parameters, while underscoring the environmental and cost-efficiency benefits of diverse welding techniques.
Chapter 23 highlights a patent landscape analysis to explore new research directions and emerging trends in robotic welding sensing technology. Chapter 24 explains sensing systems, signal monitoring, supervised learning, adaptive robotic welding, and path planning. Chapter 25 provides an overview of wire arc additive manufacturing and its connection to welding, with a focus on the advancements this technology brings to automated systems, real-time monitoring, and sensing in advanced manufacturing. Chapter 26 discusses major developments and future trends in welding technology, emphasizing how smart manufacturing knowledge is being applied to sustain advanced materials, such as high-entropy alloys, in welded components.
Weldability and metallurgical research have played a major role in advancing welding techniques, enabling the joining of various materials, maintaining joint quality, and ensuring the integrity of welded joints. While further research is needed in materials science, especially for the successful joining of advanced materials, recent efforts have focused on improving our understanding of fundamental processes, equipment and consumable development, as well as automation and control.
The editors are grateful to everyone who has supported their work and research, and also wish to thank Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their support and publication.
February 2025
Acknowledgements
I express my gratitude to my all authors, and colleagues in the welding industry worldwide, and my students, whose work is extensively featured in the pages that follow and who have taught me a great deal. I also thank them for their ongoing support, guidance, and encouragement. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my family members for their patience during the lengthy gestation of this work.
Sandip Kunar
Part IADVANCED WELDING PROCESSES
1Introduction to Advanced Welding Processes
Sandip Kunar1*, Jagadeesha T.2, Chika Oliver Ujah3, Norfazillah Talib4, Gurudas Mandal5, Akhilesh Kumar Singh6 and Aezeden Mohamed7
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya University, Surampalem, Andhra Pradesh, India
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India
3Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
4Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol, India
5Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
6Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya College of Engineering and Technology, Surampalem, Andhra Pradesh, India
7Department of Mechanical Engineering, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea
Abstract
The field of advanced manufacturing has explored a prominent revolution in the techniques of welding. This article reveals the development and importance of welding techniques in relation to state-of-the-art manufacturing practices. Among the cutting-edge technologies, promoting accuracy and efficiency in welding are friction stir, laser, electron beam, and ultrasonic welding. These procedures are essential in some advanced sectors, including aerospace, electronics, and medical device, because they provide benefits like decreased distortion, fewer heat-affected zones, and better weld quality. Combining additive manufacturing with welding opens new opportunities for creating complex structures and strengthening weak spots. Robotic welding systems have improved productivity and worker safety in production by producing uniform, high-quality welds. The qualities of several techniques are combined in hybrid welding procedures, which highlight flexibility and optimization for a range of applications. Although there are many advantages to welding in advanced production, difficulties still exist. Maintaining uniformity and quality throughout large-scale production is still an issue, especially when working with complex designs. Research into more environmental friendly and energy-efficient welding procedures is fueled by the pursuit of sustainability. In conclusion, companies have been able to attain improved precision, efficiency, and quality credits to the evolution of welding processes in tandem with advanced manufacturing techniques. This article clarifies the crucial role that welding plays in the context of sophisticated manufacturing, emphasizing both its potential for future innovation and its revolutionary effect on a variety of industries.
Keywords: Ultrasonic welding, robotic welding, friction stir welding, additive manufacturing, 3D printing
1.1 Introduction
A variety of cutting-edge methods are included in advanced manufacturing, which aims to maximize production processes’ effectiveness, sustainability, and quality. It improves conventional production techniques by fusing cutting-edge technology including automation, robotics, additive manufacturing, and data analytics. With this strategy, industries may meet market expectations with more flexibility, less waste, and higher precision. Its disruptive impact benefits key industries like electronics, automobiles, and aerospace. Advanced manufacturing is still evolving, and research and development are shaping its uses [1–3]. Advanced manufacturing refers to a collection of state-of-the-art technologies that improve productivity, accuracy, and sustainability in manufacturing operations. In this regard, welding procedures have experienced notable changes that allow industry to push the limits of innovation. This article explores the diverse welding techniques that have surfaced in the field of advanced manufacturing emphasizing their advantages, uses, and contributions to the contemporary industrial environment. Modern industries are being driven by advanced manufacturing, which is transforming production methods, increasing sustainability, and boosting product quality. By optimizing manufacturing operations through the integration of cutting-edge technology and procedures, this transformative strategy helps companies maintain their competitiveness in the ever-evolving market landscape of today. Welding has been a crucial step in the production process joining materials to produce buildings and goods on a range of sizes [4–6]. But as sophisticated manufacturing methods have emerged, welding’s function has changed dramatically. This article explains the critical role that welding plays in the context of advanced manufacturing highlighting the technology’s revolutionary impact on a range of industries as well as its potential for future innovation.
1.2 Defining Advanced Manufacturing
A vast array of cutting-edge methods and tools that improve on conventional production processes are included in advanced manufacturing. To increase productivity, accuracy, and flexibility, it makes use of automation, robotics, additive manufacturing, data analytics, and other cutting-edge technologies. The main objective of advanced manufacturing is to produce goods of a higher caliber while cutting lead times and waste, better satisfying market, and consumer needs.
1.3 Technologies Enabling Sophisticated Manufacturing
1.3.1 Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, is a fundamental component of advanced manufacturing. This method uses computerized designs to build objects layer by layer. It provides unmatched design freedom making it possible to create complex geometries and lightweight structures that were previously impossible to achieve with conventional techniques. Particularly benefiting from additive manufacturing’s capacity to create complicated components with less material waste and quicker production cycles are the aerospace, healthcare, and automotive industries.
1.3.2 Robotics and Automation
Manufacturing has undergone a revolution for transforming to automation and robotics, which have improved production processes’ accuracy, uniformity, and efficiency. An expanding number of functions, from material handling and packaging to assembly and quality control, are being performed by robots. In a variety of industries, collaborative robots, or COBOTS, augment human operators while increasing output and security.
1.3.3 Data Analytics and Industrial IoT
For welding processes to be optimized, data-driven insights are essential. Real-time data gathering and analysis are made possible by the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), which links machinery and devices. With the use of this data, decisions that improve operations and decrease downtime may be made, inefficiencies can be found, and maintenance requirements can be anticipated.
1.3.4 Benefits and Impact
The following numerous significant advantages of advanced welding methods have an impact on various industries:
Better Quality:
By integrating advanced welding technologies, human error is reduced, and product quality is raised, producing output that is more dependable and consistent.
Less Waste and Expense:
Advanced welding methods cut down on material waste, and labor expenses are decreased by automation, which takes the place of labor-intensive jobs.
Greater Customization:
Advanced welding methods can now offer a level of personalization that was previously unfeasible meeting the needs of each consumer.
Quicker Time-to-Market:
Advanced welding methods enable shorter manufacturing cycles, quick product development, and market entry.
1.3.5 Applications and Industries
Many different industries, as follows, are impacted by advanced welding methods:
Aerospace:
The development of lightweight, fuel-efficient components is made possible by advanced welding methods, which are essential for the aerospace industry’s developments.
Automobile:
Production lines have been optimized, robotics and automation have changed the automobile industry, and the development of electric and driverless vehicles has been made possible.
Healthcare:
By creating specialized medical implants and gadgets, additive manufacturing improves surgical techniques and patient care.
Electronics:
The electronics industry depends heavily on precision and miniaturization, which means that sophisticated components must be produced using sophisticated advanced welding methods.
1.4 Welding Processes
1.4.1 Laser Welding
A concentrated laser beam is utilized in the high-precision welding process known as laser welding to produce a concentrated heat source. This method is well-known for producing complex and fine welds, which makes it a preferred option in sectors where accuracy is crucial. Because the laser beam is concentrated, it can be utilized to weld in tight spaces with less heat-affected zones. This makes it especially appropriate for uses involving sensitive materials, such electronics, medical equipment, and aerospace parts. Beyond accuracy, laser welding has many advantages. Less post-welding rework is required because distortion is reduced because of the localized heating. Furthermore, less wear and tear are placed on the equipment because there is no physical contact between the welding tool and the workpiece. Automation is also made possible by laser welding since robots can be trained to repeatedly produce incredibly accurate welds. With its unmatched accuracy and efficiency, laser welding has become a key technique in advanced production. By using a concentrated laser beam to produce high-intensity heat in a specific area, the materials fuse together quickly. Because laser welding can create complex and tiny welds, it is a crucial method in precision-driven industries like the fabrication of medical devices, electronics, and aircraft [7].
Reducing thermal distortion and maintaining material qualities by minimizing the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is one of the many impressive benefits of laser welding. This quality is especially important for maintaining the structural integrity of the finished product when working with delicate or heat-sensitive materials. The laser beam’s focused quality also makes it easier to automate processes and weld in confined spaces, which improves production efficiency. Applications for laser welding can be found in fields that need both speed and accuracy. It is used in the aerospace industry to connect lightweight parts that are essential to aircraft efficiency.
The method’s capacity to make complex connections with little harm to delicate components is advantageous to electronics. Laser welding is used in the production of medical devices to precisely combine tiny components while upholding strict quality and safety requirements [8]. Nonetheless, there are still issues with laser welding, namely, its sensitivity to surface conditions and material characteristics. Changes in the thickness and composition of the material might affect the welding process and lead to uneven weld quality. The goal of ongoing research is to better understand and control these elements to enhance process reliability. In summary, laser welding is a progressive technology in advanced manufacturing that offers the accuracy and productivity needed by contemporary businesses. Its expanding importance in industries that prioritize accuracy and innovation is attributed to its ability to produce precise welds, eliminate thermal distortion, and enable automation [9]. Figure 1.1 shows the picture of laser welding.
Figure 1.1 Laser welding.
1.4.2 Electron Beam Welding
Another cutting-edge welding method that uses a concentrated energy beam in this example, a stream of fast electrons, is electron beam welding. The surrounding material is kept mostly intact since this method produces a deep, narrow weld with little heat dispersion. In industries like aerospace and automobile manufacture, where combining high-strength materials is essential, electron beam welding is very useful. Welding produces strong and dependable welds since there is no air interaction throughout the process. To avoid electrons being scattered by air molecules, electron beam welding necessitates a vacuum environment. Its application may be limited in some situations by this restriction. However, the method is a useful tool in advanced manufacturing since it can fuse disparate materials together and create deep welds with little deformation. In the field of advanced manufacturing, electron beam welding (EBW) has become well known for its accuracy and versatility in combining high-strength materials. Using a high-velocity electron stream, this method produces focused heat that allows for narrow, deep welds with little heat dispersion. Because of its special qualities, EBW is a priceless tool for sectors that depend heavily on strong, dependable welds like nuclear power generation, automotive, and aerospace [10].
The capacity of EBW to produce welds without the requirement for a filler material results in joints with fewer impurities and a lower danger of corrosion, which is one of its main advantages. In addition, the procedure is carried out in a vacuum or low-pressure setting to avoid air contamination that can erode the weld. Because of this, EBW is especially well-suited for applications involving materials like titanium alloys and refractory metals, which are difficult to weld using traditional techniques. The deep penetration capabilities of EBW are beneficial to sectors that need reliable and sturdy couplings. For parts like aviation engine turbine blades, EBW is utilized in aerospace to provide high-temperature performance and structural integrity. The capacity of EBW to combine incompatible materials with little distortion helps the automobile industry by enabling the creation of lightweight and fuel-efficient vehicles. EBW is not without difficulties, though. The technique is made more difficult and expensive by the vacuum requirement, which limits its use in some situations. Additionally, complex machinery and trained operators are needed for the accurate management of electron beams. These issues are still being researched to improve EBW’s usability and efficiency in advanced manufacturing. To sum up, electron beam welding is an essential process in advanced manufacturing that allows high-strength materials to be precisely joined for sectors that need durable and dependable components. Its importance in industries where quality and strength are crucial is attributed to its deep penetration capabilities and minimum heat-affected zone [11].
1.4.3 Friction Stir Welding
In the solid-state welding technique known as friction stir welding (FSW), materials are joined without melting. Rather, heat is produced by friction as a rotating tool passes along the material-to-material joint. To create a solid weld, the softened material is then mechanically combined. For materials like aluminum alloys that are difficult to fuse using conventional fusion procedures, FSW is especially helpful. Decrease in thermal distortion and elimination of flaws associated to solidification are two of the main benefits of FSW. Because of this, it can be used in the automotive, aerospace, and shipbuilding industries. Because FSW produces less emissions and uses less energy than other welding techniques, it is also environmentally suitable. In the field of advanced manufacturing, friction stir welding (FSW) has become a suitable welding method transforming the solid-state joining of materials. Using a non-consumable rotating tool that rotates along the joint to create frictional heat, FSW produces plasticized material that is mechanically combined to form a solid weld. Numerous benefits make this novel technique an invaluable tool in a variety of industries, including shipbuilding and aerospace [12].
FSW’s capacity to fuse materials that are typically difficult to combine using fusion techniques, like aluminum alloys and other high-strength materials, is one of its main advantages. By using this procedure, solidification-related problems are resolved, and porosity and other defects that are frequently seen in conventional fusion welding are avoided. Furthermore, by minimizing thermal distortion caused by the lack of a melting phase, complex components can be produced with greater accuracy. The applications of FSW are diverse throughout industry. Lightweight and strong components are essential for fuel efficiency in aircraft, and this technology produces them. The capacity of FSW to join thick plates without additional materials or post-welding procedures is beneficial to the shipbuilding industry. FSW is used by the automobile industry for structural parts improving vehicle performance and safety. Notwithstanding its benefits, FSW is not without difficulties. Precise control over parameters including traverse speed, rotational speed, and tool design is required for the process. These variables affect the weld’s quality and need for knowledgeable operators. The goal of ongoing research is to further improve the efficacy and efficiency of FSW by adjusting its parameters for various materials and applications.
Conclusively, friction stir welding is a fundamental aspect of advanced manufacturing providing solid-state joining with enhanced characteristics above traditional fusion welding. Its minimum deformation properties and capacity to overcome the difficulties presented by hard-to-weld materials make it an essential tool in contemporary industries. FSW plays a significant role in the aviation sector. FSW has become recognized as a unique and important development in the field of welding technology. Weld strength, quality, heat generation, and material mixing are all greatly influenced by several parameters, some of which are as follows: rotation speed, feed rate, weld speed, pin length, pin diameter, tool angle, and shoulder diameter and profile. Investigating the process variables that affect the properties of welded products is the main goal of the current research [13].
1.4.4 Ultrasonic Welding
High-frequency vibrations are used in ultrasonic welding to generate heat at the interface between two materials fusing them together. When precise, quick welding and airtight sealing are required, this method is frequently applied to metals and polymers. Ultrasonic welding is more economical and cleaner because it does not use consumables or open flames.
Ultrasonic welding is useful in industries, like electronics, medical devices, and automobile manufacture, because it can fuse disparate materials together while preserving the integrity of small parts. Because of its efficiency and speed, the technique works well for large-scale production. With the use of high-frequency vibrations, ultrasonic welding has become an essential process in sophisticated production allowing for precise bonding. The two materials fuse together because of the localized heat created by this reaction at their interface. The benefits of ultrasonic welding, including its quick speed, low thermal distortion, and cleanliness, have made it an indispensable instrument for sectors requiring effective and superior connections.
The capacity of ultrasonic welding to produce hermetic and airtight seals is one of its main advantages; this is important for applications in sectors like electronics, medical devices, and automotive manufacture. This method works especially well for putting different materials together, such as metals and polymers, without the need for extra consumables or adhesives. Furthermore, ultrasonic welding is a clean and environmentally friendly method because it does not involve open flames or outside heat sources. Ultrasonic welding is used in many different industries. It guarantees dependable connections for fragile components in the electronic production process. Ultrasonic welding is used in the medical business to create precise and sterile medical devices. Its efficiency and speed are advantageous to automotive manufacturers, particularly for applications requiring high-volume production. There are restrictions with ultrasonic welding, though. Because the heat generation is localized, the technique works best for smaller components. For a strong bond, larger components may need more than one weld point. The growing use of fiber-reinforced thermoplastic (FRTP) in industries has led numerous researchers to concentrate on the welding of hybrid constructions made of both metal and FRTP. One economical and effective way to combine metal and FRTP dissimilar materials is via ultrasonic welding. The current state of knowledge regarding metal/FRTP ultrasonic welding is compiled in this work from four perspectives as follows: mechanical properties, joining mechanism, welding process, and galvanic corrosion [14]. Solid-state ultrasonic spot welding was used to weld 2024Al alloy to SiC/2009Al composite in a dissimilar manner. It was possible to obtain sound spot welds that were flawless. During the strong high-frequency rubbing, it was observed that SiCp particles migrated from the composite side to the 2024Al side in tandem with the interfacial interlocking. This migration was observed to increase with increasing welding energy. Nearly continuous microhardness was observed across the ultrasonic spot-welded joints, both identical and different [15].
Furthermore, since certain materials could not react well to ultrasonic vibrations, the materials being welded must be compatible with the technique. Research is still being conducted to improve the parameters of ultrasonic welding and provide methods for a wider range of materials, which will increase the technology’s usefulness in advanced manufacturing. In summary, ultrasonic welding is a crucial process in advanced manufacturing that offers dependable and effective bonding for sectors that need accuracy and speed. Its importance in contemporary production is highlighted by its capacity to produce airtight seals, operate with different materials, and reduce environmental effect.
1.4.5 Additive Manufacturing and Welding
The process of designing and creating items is being revolutionized by additive manufacturing, also referred to as 3D printing. Additive manufacturing (AM) can be combined with welding techniques, even though it is not a typical welding process, to build complex and useful objects. Larger and more intricate constructions can be created by occasionally using welding to attach 3D-printed components. With this hybrid method, a 3D-printed object’s structural integrity can be improved by using welding to strengthen important sections. Furthermore, new design options may arise from the combination of welding and additive manufacturing enabling the construction of optimal, light-weight structures with little material waste. There is a steady rise in the application of welding processes in additive manufacturing [16]. Thin material layers are added to parts made with additive manufacturing (AM) using various welding techniques. Laser beam welding, gas metal arc welding (GMAW/MIG), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW/TIG), plasma arc welding (PAW), friction stir welding (FSW), ultrasonic welding, and electron beam welding are a few of the most used metal AM welding techniques.
1.4.6 Robotic Welding and Automation
Automation is frequently associated with advanced manufacturing, and welding is no exception. Robotic welding technologies are now essential in businesses that demand consistent and high-quality welds. These systems can be programmed to execute complex welds with accuracy and swiftness minimizing human mistakes and enhancing production efficiency. Robotic welding is especially advantageous in businesses that need repetitive welding processes such as car manufacture and heavy machinery production. Additionally, it improves worker safety by minimizing their contact with perilous welding settings. With the continuous advancement in technology, collaborative robots (COBOTS) are being implemented to operate alongside human operators enhancing manufacturing processes. Robotic welding is a revolutionary technology in advanced manufacturing that provides exceptional accuracy and productivity by using automated welding methods. This method entails employing robotic systems that are equipped with welding equipment to execute complicated welds with exceptional precision. The use of robotics into welding processes has brought about a significant transformation in industries, as it has improved production efficiency, uniformity, and worker protection. Robotic welding offers a notable benefit in its capacity to carry out repetitive tasks with unwavering accuracy, hence minimizing human mistakes and fluctuations in the quality of welds. Robots can operate without interruption resulting in increased output and reduced production time, thereby improving efficiency in sectors including automotive, aerospace, and heavy machinery manufacture. Moreover, robotic welding systems have the capability to function in perilous surroundings, so protecting human workers from potential harm caused by extreme temperatures, noxious fumes, and other occupational hazards. Robotic welding enables the application of elaborate welding patterns and processes ensuring precise and consistent execution of complex welds. Robots possess a high degree of programming flexibility enabling manufacturers to swiftly adjust to evolving production needs and create tailored solutions for different welding tasks. Although there are benefits to adopting robotic welding, it necessitates investments in equipment, programming, and worker training. Achieving a smooth and efficient connection between the robotic system and the welding process is essential for achieving the best possible performance. Ongoing research and development efforts aim to improve the accessibility and effectiveness of robotic welding in advanced manufacturing settings. Robotic welding is a revolutionary technology in advanced manufacturing that combines automation and accuracy to consistently produce high-quality welds. The impact of AI on sectors ranges from automotive to aerospace enhancing productivity, quality, and worker safety. In the production process of welding, two parts are connected using filler material. The fusion process produces a pool of weld that, when cooled, turns into a fixed junction. There are many other kinds and classifications of welding. A versatile manipulator that can be controlled and programmed to carry out several tasks, and that can move tools, materials, or parts along different trajectories for use in industrial automation applications, is what is known as an industrial robot. Put differently, industrial robots may be programmed to perform a variety of tasks since they are multipurpose. Because of this, the primary factors to consider while designing industrial robots are degrees of freedom (number of axes), action speed, weight capacity, workspace area, and programming level [17].
