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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2003
This reference presents a collection of studies which highlight new developments in improving manufacturing processes and performance. The book includes 11 chapters which cover unique topics of interest to production engineers. These topics include the production of advanced composite materials and alloys to the use of sensors to evaluate production processes, product testing and evaluation (in production and storage environments), and the development and testing of an unmanned aerial vehicle.
Chapters have been contributed by several scholars, who give a unique perspective on specific aspects of manufacturing and industrial production. The book also covers recent technologies such as additive manufacturing. Each chapter presents the study in an experimental manner highlighting the theory, methods, and results, where applicable. References for further reading are also provided.
This book is intended to provide researchers and engineers with new data and cases for industrial manufacturing processes which may be applied in different industrial sectors.
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FOREWORD
Adefemi,OmowoleWith the advent of the elements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and its capability to enhance manufacturing operations, industries are looking for the optimal way to adjust their business models to accommodate some emerging technologies. This is to ensure global competitiveness, increase in productivity, effective response to customers’ and market requirements, and reduction in manufacturing lead-time without sacrificing the quality of the final product.
This book brings together some innovative technologies relating to manufacturing and production engineering with a view to assist industries to gain a competitive edge in the face of dynamic production requirements and environments. It also presents some practical guided approaches that could assist manufacturers in making effective decisions, which can translate to sustainability in terms of profitability, material conservation, optimum energy consumption, safety, as well as environmental friendliness. Alongside the expertise of the contributing authors, my teaching and research experiences in production engineering were harnessed to provide recent research, practice, and theories that are relevant to manufacturing, production, and industrial engineering.
Furthermore, the processing of emerging materials for applications in the rail, aerospace, biomedical automobile, and biomedical industries was also considered in this book. Some of the technologies presented in the book are still emerging and will be of great benefit to production engineers, industrial engineers, and manufacturing industries in the quest to solve some of the challenges relating to manufacturing and production activities.
PREFACE
Dr. Ilesanmi Afolabi DaniyanThis book titled “Advances in Manufacturing Technologies and Production Engineering” uncovers some cutting edge technologies for product development in response to the demands relating to customers’ satisfaction, product quality, productivity, and sustainability. This book offers significant contributions to some emerging manufacturing technologies, and production processes in line with the principles of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
The book covers both the theoretical and practical concepts of manufacturing technologies and production engineering. Interesting topics relating to materials development, composite development, additive manufacturing technology, Lean assessment tools, manufacturing productivity assessment, industrial performance analysis, predictive analysis, as well as assembly operations were covered in this book.
The book also contains notable research findings on innovative approaches for products development and manufacturing technologies. With the increasing need to ensure sustainability in manufacturing or industrial operations in terms of product development, effective material, cost, energy, andenvironmental sustainability, this book reports on notable findings that could offer a realistic possibility in this regard.
The book disseminates knowledge critical for products development and contributes technologically driven novel ideas for promoting efficiency and quality of manufacturing or production processes with regards to environmental and social impacts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to appreciate God Almighty for the grace and privilege to serve as the editor of this book. I wish to thank my precious wife: Oluwatoyin Esther Daniyan, for her invaluable support all the time. I also appreciate God's precious gifts, my dear sons: Daniel and Samuel Daniyan. Many thanks to all the authors who contributed their ideas and findings to this book and to all the reviewers who made time out of their busy schedules to ensure a double blinded review process. My appreciation goes to Dr. Adefemi Adeodu and Dr. Boitumelo Ramatsetse for their professional contributions.
Thank you all.
DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to God Almighty: Most Glorious, Most Magnificent, Immortal, Invisible, and the Only Wise God.
List of Contributors
Introduction
Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan1,*This book propagates some emerging technologies necessary for products development and sustainability. It also highlights some innovations for enhancing manufacturing or production processes. With the increasing complexities of materials, the quest for smart products and changes in production technologies, there is a need for the development of new materials to meet the service and functional requirements. There is also a need to achieve manufacturing sustainability in terms of manufacturing time and cost effectiveness, energy consumption and environmental friendliness. It is necessary for manufacturers to adjust their business models to incorporate the emerging technologies in response to the dynamic market and customer requirements. Hence, the findings of this book are aligned to some of the emerging technologies that characterise the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The book can help manufacturers and production engineers achieve production goals in a smooth, time and cost effective manner.
Chapter two of this book explores the potentials and the drawbacks of titanium alloy, a potential substitute for steel based materials for use in automobile, aerospace and biomedical, and other engineering fields. Its degree of machinability to meet certain functional requirements was also explored from the literature survey conducted.
Chapter three focuses on composite materials development, specifically tigernut fibres mixed with nanoclay/epoxy polymer composites tailored to automotive applications to mitigate the water absorption challenges of natural fibres.
Chapter four presents the assessment of the microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast magnesium alloys reinforced with organically extracted zinc and calcium. The conventional consideration for selecting Mg alloy elements is based on their corrosion resistance, good hardness, and strength. However, calcium and zinc were added as alloying elements, and the investigation of the
effects of the alloying elements on the mechanical properties of the magnesium alloy was carried out.
Chapter five presents one of the digital technologies of the fourth industrial revolution; additive manufacturing. The aim of the chapter is to investigate the surface finish of products manufactured from titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) powders via selective laser melting. The chapter provides an insight into the feasible combination of process parameters that will produce the best surface finish during the selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V powders.
Chapter six provides an insight into the feasible range of process parameters that will enhance the surface finish of products developed using Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG) filament. Specifically, in this study, the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) of the additive manufacturing technology was employed for the development of radiometer casing. Both the numerical and physical experimentations were carried out, thus leading to the development of a mathematical model for the prediction of the surface roughness of the products produced from the Fused Filament Fabrication.
Chapter seven delves into the possibility of integrating a sensor with a product to enhance condition based and predictive maintenance. This chapter is in line with the growing interest in the use of sensors technology for condition based and predictive maintenance. Other forms of maintenance could be costly with time implications. For instance, in corrective maintenance, where the systems break down before repair, there may be payment for compensation and loss of productive time, making the process cost ineffective. For preventive maintenance carried out at a certain predetermined frequency, the call for maintenance may be excessive and not necessarily required. This chapter demonstrates the concept of condition based and predictive maintenance to achieve a balanced time and cost effectiveness during maintenance operations.
Chapter eight investigates the effect of extrusion variables on the mechanical properties and stress distributions of Aluminum 6063 (Al 6063) produced by the Equal Channel Angular Extrusion (ECAE) approach. Aluminum is a widely used engineering material due to its properties such as strong electrical and thermal conductivity, lightweight, and corrosion resistance, among others. However, efforts are being made to address certain drawbacks of aluminum, such as poor fatigue strength and low heat resistance. Hence, the use of the Equal Channel Angular Extrusion (ECAE) metal forming procedure to address certain limitations of aluminum.
Chapter 9 aims to develop lean assessment tools and techniques for maturity evaluation in a warehouse environment that is mostly used for third-party logistics (3PL).The objective is to examine the performances of the warehouses in terms of productivity, quality, and employee satisfaction.
Chapter ten employs the Markovian analysis of industrial accident data. This study will serve as a guide to manufacturing company stakeholders on the need to create safety awareness among the workforce.
Chapter eleven seeks to survey the key variables that affect the quality of roofing sheets, ascertain their individual and collective roles in quality control, and employ Statistical Process Control (SPC) for quality control. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to sensitise manufacturing firms on the need to adopt good engineering practices in manufacturing and maintenance of production facilities.
The study employs the Kendall Coefficient of Concordance (KCC) and Principal component Analysis (PCA) to investigate the identified factors that influence the production of fibre cement roofing sheets. SPC tools were used to analyse customers’ complaints and preferences.
Chapter twelve focuses on the development, sizing of an engine, and simulation of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), including the assembly of the whole propulsion system in the UAV for short range missions. This work provides design data for the development of the UAV; hence, it is envisaged that the outcome of the study will be of immense guide to industries, which specialize in the development of UAV.
Enhancing the Machinability of Titanium Alloy (TI6AL4V): A Comprehensive Review of Literature
Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan1,*,Adefemi Adeodu2,Khumbulani Mpofu1,Boitumelo Ramatsetse3,Rumbidzai Muvunzi1Abstract
Titanium alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) are alloys, which contain a mixture of titanium and other elements. The alloy boasts excellent mechanical properties such as high toughness, high strength to weight ratio, and good corrosion resistance ability. Its excellent mechanical properties as well as its suitability for high temperature applications, make it fit for many industrial applications. However, titanium alloy has low thermal conductivity, which makes it susceptible to poor machinability and dimensional inaccuracies during machining operations. In this study, a comprehensive review of the literature was carried out in order to identify the various strategies suitable for enhancing the machinability of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). The findings from the survey indicate that the machinability of titanium to the required surface finish can be enhanced in the following ways: use of effective cooling strategies, process design, optimisation of process parameters, selection of appropriate cutting tool, effective process monitoring and control as well as the selection of the optimum range of process parameters, etc. It is envisaged that the findings of this work will assist machinists in their quest to achieve sustainability during the cutting operations of titanium alloy.
INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloys have excellent mechanical properties such as high strength to
weight ratio, good ductility and hardness, as well as excellent corrosion resistance ability. Its application in the automobile, aerospace and biomedical, and other engineering fields have been reported most especially in the areas where special properties such as high strength and low weight are crucial requirements [1-4]. The widely reported classes of titanium alloys are in five categories: alpha (α), near alpha type, alpha-beta (α+β), beta (β), and near beta type. The alpha (α) category is referred to as the hexagonal-closed packed crystalline structure (HCP), while the beta (β) is called the body-centered cubic crystalline structure (BCC) [5]. In order to enhance the mechanical properties of titanium alloy, some alloying elements are usually added. These alloying elements belong to two classes, namely: alpha (α) stabilizers and beta (β) stabilizers. Alpha (α) stabilizers comprise elements, such as aluminum (Al), tin (Sn), Gallium (Ga), Zirconium (Zr), and other interstitial elements such as carbon ©, oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N) [5]. The alpha (α) stabilizers make the titanium alloy fit for high temperature applications [5].
On the other hand, the beta (β) stabilizers consist of elements such as vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb), and chromium (Cr). They are usually added to reduce the phase temperature. Other alloying elements include iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and silicon (Si0 which can be added in order to obtain better mechanical properties such as improved strength and chemical stability as well as improved corrosion resistance and machinability [5].
Comparing the alpha and beta types, the alpha boasts better creep resistance, suitability for cryogenic applications, and high temperature applications. On the other hand, the alpha type boasts better corrosion resistance, better forgeability, work hardening, and cold forming capabilities.
Table 1 summarises the strength of the alpha and beta types of titanium alloys.
Due to the weaknesses inherent in each of the classes of titanium, a carefully formulated class known as alpha-beta (α+β) was developed to compensate for the weaknesses [5]. This makes the alpha-beta (α+β) alloy class find extensive application in the industries. The most common alloy which belongs to this class is the Ti6Al4V. When the amount of alpha (α) exceeds that of beta (β) in the alpha-beta (α+β) formulation, the resulting alloy is known as near alpha (α) type. Conversely, when the amount of beta (β) exceeds that of alpha (α) in the alpha-beta (α+β) formulation, the resulting alloy is known as near beta (β) type [5].
One of the special features of titanium alloy, which makes it a potential replacement for other conventional alloys, is the high strength to weight ratio. This implies that titanium alloy can be employed in the development of lightweight components without necessarily sacrificing the strength of the component in meeting its service requirements. The development of lightweight components boasts several advantages, such as economic and environmental sustainability [6, 7]. There exist a direct relationship between the energy consumption of a system and the weight of the system. The more the weight of a system, the more energy consumed and the less sustainable the system is in terms of environmental friendliness. The quest for the development of sustainable manufacturing systems can be achieved with the use of lightweight materials for product development. Through the implementation of sustainable manufacturing measures such as the development of components with lightweight products that are environmentally friendly, energy and resource efficient can be manufactured for use. This will enhance optimal energy usage with minimal environmental consequences [8-14]. Research have proven that the high strength and poor ther-mal conductivity of titanium alloy contribute to its poor machinability [10-12].
In the automobile, rail, and aerospace industries, the development of lightweight components can enhance the speed of the developed system. The quest for high speed automobile, rail, and aerospace systems is another factor that has placed a premium demand on lightweight materials such as titanium alloy as a substitute for the existing materials. Kim and Wallington [15] state that the replacement of conventional materials such as iron and steel with lighter materials can bring about a significant reduction in the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during the use phase of the final product.
However, despite the excellent mechanical properties of titanium alloy, its machinability, most especially at high temperatures, has been a concern. This is due to its low thermal conductivity, which causes high heat retention in the material, thereby making the manufacturing process less sustainable [16, 17]. This makes titanium alloy to be categorised as “difficult to machine materials,” most especially at high temperatures. Furthermore, its low thermal conductivity can also bring about the chemical reactions at elevated temperatures thereby causing the formation of built up edges. The material is prone to adiabatic failure with the development of adiabatic shear bands under a high strain rate machining.
Several challenges have been reported during the machining of titanium alloy at high speed and temperatures, such as tool wear, poor surface finish, low rate of material removal, vibration, chatter, high thermal and pressure loads, spring back, and the development of residual stresses in the work piece material [18, 19]. These challenges can, in turn, affect the sustainability of the machining process as well as the quality and performance of the final product [20, 21].
In a bid to tackle these challenges, many authors have proposed different strategies for sustainable manufacturing such as life cycle assessment, computer aided modelling and simulation, process optimization, development of effective cooling strategies, amongst others [22-29].
METHODOLOGY
This study employs the search technique for obtaining the articles reviewed. The contents of the final articles selected were analysed and discussed, and learnings were derived from the articles. The study followed a systematic review process undertaken by Abdulrahaman et al. [30]. This involves the identification of data sources, keywords search as well as inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Data Sources
The literature survey was carried out in line with the theme of the study, and the literature search was carried from academic research databases. The academic databases consulted were: Scopus, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), IEEE Explore, Springer, Science Direct, Emerald, Sage, Web of Science, Taylor & Francis, Directory of Open Access Repository (OpenDOAR), Researchgate, Google Scholar, and Wiley Online Library. Next, the articles downloaded were screened and the most relevant ones were selected numbering 75.
Keywords Search
The technique of keyword search, as proposed by Kitchenham et al. [31], was used to obtain relevant literature for the review. The keywords considered include: “Titanium alloy- “Machinability of titanium alloy” “Sustainability of titanium alloy” “Cutting operation of titanium alloy- Ti6Al4V” “Classes of titanium alloy”, “Properties of titanium alloy” “Optimisation of cutting parameters of Ti6Al4V” amongst others.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The inclusion criteria for the selected articles were based on the relevance of the articles to the theme of the study, year of publication, empirical results, as well as the nature of the article (peer-reviewed articles). The total number of articles obtained from the database after the search was 8,046. This was followed by the elimination of unrelated articles, and this brought about a reduction in the number of articles to 3,298. Duplicate and old papers (based on the year of publication) were also eliminated. This brought the number of the articles to 1020, and based on the content synthesis of the articles, a total number of 80 written in the English language were finally selected and reviewed. The framework for the inclusion and exclusion of the articles is presented in Fig. (1).
LITERATURE REVIEW
The review covers some aspects such as surface finish and dimensional accuracy of titanium alloy, modelling and simulation of the cutting process of titanium alloy, cooling strategies for enhancing the cutting operation of titanium alloy, power consumption, and energy requirement during the machining operation of titanium alloy as well as the approaches for enhancing the cutting tool life during the cutting operation.
Fig. (1)) The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the articles were obtained.Enhancing the Surface Finish and Dimensional Accuracy of Titanium Alloy
Mhamdi et al. [1] investigated the surface integrity of titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) during an end milling operation under dry machining conditions. The findings indicate that the orientation of the cutting tool is an important factor that influences the degree of surface finish and the micro hardness of the material. A hemispherical tool at upward and downward milling positions produced the best surface finish surface when compared to machining in the top of the concave surface. The process parameters such as cutting feed, speed etc., were also found to influence the degree of surface finish.
Modelling and Simulation of Titanium Alloy Cutting Operation
In order to enhance the surface finish, sustainability, and machinability of titanium alloy, the use of Design of Experiment (DoE) and mathematical modelling have been reported as viable techniques for achieving a feasible combination of process parameters and for correlating the magnitude of an experimental response such as cutting force, temperature and surface roughness as a function of the independent process parameters [4, 32-34].
Cooling Strategies during the Cutting Process of Ti6Al4V
The use of cryogenic MQL cooling during the machining operation of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy has been reported [17, 35]. Shokrani et al. [35] reported that the cryogenic MQL offered a 30-time increase in tool life during the end milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy when compared to flood machining. However, Kishawy et al. [36] evaluated the sustainability of the machining operation of Ti-6Al-4V using the nano-additives based Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL). The sustainability indicators include the environmental, economical, and societal indices. The findings of the study indicate that the cutting operation under the MQL-nanofluid cooling condition offers sustainable performance when compared to that of the classical MQL.
Klocke et al. [37] carried out a comparative analysis of the cryogenic cooling (CO2 & LN2) and conventional flood cooling during the machining of Ti6Al4V. The results obtained indicate the presence of slight notch wear and uniform flank wear for the machining operation under conventional flood cooling. However, the introduction of cryogenic cooling brought about the reduction in the flank wear and the reduction in the magnitude of the cutting temperature. Bermingham et al. [38] reported that the use of high pressure water based emulsion offers improved tool life when compared to cryogenic cooling.
Enhancing the Cutting Process of Titanium Alloy
Arrazola et al. [6] carried out a comparative analysis of the machinability of two types of titanium alloy, namely: Ti555.3 and Ti6Al4V. The analysis of the results obtained indicates that Ti555.3 alloy is more difficult to machine when compared to Ti6Al4V alloy. The results further show that Ti6Al4V alloy can be machined at a higher speed compared to Ti555.3. For both materials, the formation of a layer of adhered material composed of Ti and TiC on the rake face surface of the cutting tool was evidenced due to the diffusion process.
Enhancing the Power Consumption and Energy Requirement During the Machining Operation of Titanium Alloy
Tlhabadira et al. [39] developed a model for the optimisation of energy consumption during the milling operation of Ti6Al4V. The results obtained indicate a direct relationship between the specific cutting energy and process parameters such as cutting speed and depth of cut but an inverse relationship between the specific cutting energy and the feed rate. The study presented a mathematical model for predicting the cutting energy as a function of the independent process parameters during the milling operation of Ti6Al4V.
Enhancing the Tool Life during the Machining Operation of Titanium Alloy
Elmagrabi et al. [40] carried out the investigation of the performance of the coated and uncoated carbide tools under dry slot milling operation of Ti 6Al 4V. The findings of the study indicate that the Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) coated carbide tool improved tool life. In addition, the process parameters such as feed rate and depth of cut were found to have significant effects on the surface finish of the workpiece.
CheHaron [41] and Jawaid et al. [42] investigated the tool life conditions during the turning operation of Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo and Ti-6Al-4V under dry machining conditions with the use of uncoated cemented carbide tools. The results obtained indicate that the failure of the cutting tool is attributed to the formation of chips on the flank edge and faces of the tool under increasing cutting speed and feed rates. Hence, the use of cutting inserts with fine grain size and a honed edge were found to increase the useful life of the cutting tool at a feed rate of 0.25 mm/rev.
In order to enhance the useful life of the cutting tool, Ezugwu et al. [43] performed the turning operation of Ti-6Al-4V with different coolants using uncoated carbide tools and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tool. The uncoated carbide tools showed better performance compared to the CBN tools in terms of surface finish, failure modes of the tool, and tool wear.
Dandekar et al. [44
