Advances in Nonconventional Machining Processes E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
In the modern era of manufacturing, unconventional machining methods are quite popular due to various advantages such as high accuracy, excellent surface finish, less tool wear, much quieter operations, among others. Moreover, new age and novel materials are sometimes hard to machine with traditional machining processes due of their high strength and brittleness.
Advances in Nonconventional Machining Processes covers recent development in such methods. Chapters have been contributed by many authors and provide detailed information about machining processes (ultrasonic machining, thermally enhanced machining and electronic discharge machining, to name a few). Additional chapters that provide information about novel materials and their fabrication as well as innovations in machining methods (including the use of machine learning techniques) which have long been established in on an industrial scale are also included in the book.
Advances in Nonconventional Machining Processes is a reference work suitable for apprentices and academic scholars studying manufacturing. Industry professionals who wish to know about cutting-edge developments in machining techniques will also find this a useful handbook.
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Seitenzahl: 256
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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PREFACE
Machining is one of the important manufacturing processes. Both conventional and non-conventional machining processes play a vital role in the industry.
In the modern era of manufacturing, Non-Conventional machining methods are quite popular due to various advantages such as high accuracy, excellent surface finish, less tool wear, much quieter operations etc. Moreover, new age and novel materials are sometimes hard to machine with traditional machining processes due of their high hardness, toughness, brittleness etc. Non-Conventional machining methods are now being commonly and frequently used in the industry. Present book ‘Advances in Non-Conventional Machining Processes’ aimed to through light on recent development in these methods.
The major aim of this book is to provide the readers detailed information regarding various advances in the field of Non-Conventional machining. In addition to provide cutting edge information, the book also describes the level of modern technology adopted by various industries.
Many Authors have contributed their ideas on various aspects of Non-Conventional machining processes. The prime focus of all the authors is to provide the latest and exact information regarding various topics. In total, nine chapters have been contributed to this book that touches various fields of Non-Conventional machining such as Abrasive Jet machining, Electrical Discharge Machining, Thermal machining etc. Keeping in view, the trend of this topic for researchers well cited references are given at the end of each chapter for further information of the topic. Relation between Non-Conventional machining and Artificial intelligence and their relationship with modern industry has also been focused in one of the chapters.
An attempt has been made to provide quality research data and this book is intended both for academia and industry. The former refers to pre & post graduate students along with PhD students, who are working on the field of manufacturing while the later refers to the industries in which R& D departments are constantly working towards the betterment of the machining process to produce sophisticated products.
List of Contributors
Ultrasonic Machining Process - A Review
Janender Kumar1,*,Amrinder Pal Singh2,Anurag Thakur3,Munish Mehta4Abstract
The utilization of advanced materials like ceramics, composites etc. has increased these days and simultaneously machining of these hard, brittle and costly materials is very challenging. Industries are relying on non-conventional machining processes because conventional machining processes have many limitations to machine hard and brittle materials. The birth of modern machining processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM) has taken place due to these limitations in conventional machining. In USM, material is removed due to action of abrasive grains and vibrations cutting tool during machining. Up to some extent, it overcomes the problems of conventional machining. Besides USM has some drawbacks e.g. low material removal rate, high wear rate of tool. As it tools continuously strikes on the workpiece, there is oversize in produced cavities and a limit of depth in drilling operation. Optimization of process parameters can improve all these problems. The literature survey study has shown, in drilling and milling operations, a hybrid machining process named Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM) gives tremendous results as compared to ultrasonic machining alone. In recent years, it is gaining popularity due to its intelligent machining in industries. The present paper confers about the technique of parametric optimization of ultrasonic machining and future aspects of rotary ultrasonic machining processes.
INTRODUCTION
In the modern world, due to technological advancements, the needs of industry are continuously changing. Latest and advanced materials, along with their machining, are the requirement of the manufacturing sector. Research is a continuous process and it’s the demand/necessity of growing industries. Truly speaking, change for better is necessary. In earlier days machining of hard and brittle material was a tough job for engineers and was a challenge for the research and design team as well. Conventional machining was used for many years. Newer processes of machining were developed and named as modern machining methods/non-conventional machining. Recent development of these processes opened the way of machining hard and brittle materials. In conventional machining processes, there is direct contact between tool and workpiece and material removed in form of chips i.e. at macroscopic level, whereas in non-conventional machining there is no direct contact between the tool and work piece. In this, the material is removed at microscopic level (dust/powder form). In conventional machining, due to physical contact tools, wear rate is high as compared to non-conventional machining. The increasing utility of hard and brittle materials in recent times has forced the researchers to develop new and advanced machining processes. The materials, difficult to machine through the conventional machining, are machined by unconventional machining processes. The main idea behind the development of newer methods was the replacement of conventional machining methods by more efficient, quicker methods which could achieve accuracies in machining. Ultrasonic machining is one such development in the field of non-conventional methods. In this process, slurry of small abrasive particles is forced against the work by an axially vibrating tool, removing the workpiece material in the form of small particles. The abrasive grain particles may be of silicon carbide, boron carbide and diamond dust. To facilitate/provide high precision machining, when vibration is introduced in a tool workpiece or working medium then it is called vibration assisted machining [13]. In vibration assisted turning, cutting forces reduced up to 40% as compared to conventional machining, hence improving tool life. Less stresses are induced in work and quality of machined surface is improved [15]. Rotary ultrasonic machining is one of the latest processes which are used in industries to overcome the limitations of ultrasonic machining. Higher metal removal rate is observed during drilling operation through rotary ultrasonic machining as compared to ultrasonic machining alone [23].
LITERATURE REVIEW
Kumar and Khamba evaluated the machining performance of ultrasonic machining on titanium-based workpiece. The investigation was carried out for material removal rate, tool wear rate and to know the surface roughness of the workpiece. Taguchi’s method was adopted for performing several experiments, the data was analysed by using ANOVA and optimised parameters were selected which can enhance the performance of ultrasonic machining [1].
B. Lauwers et al. investigated the material removal rate, surface quality, surface cracks in ultrasonic assisted grinding of ZrO2. The paper showed that cutting forces and tool wear were reduced under the influence of vibration during machining. Hence productivity increased [2].
Cong et al. presented the method of measuring vibration amplitude during rotary ultrasonic machining. In this paper, it was concluded that vibration amplitude varies for different conditions. When the dial indicator method was used for measuring vibration amplitude and compared with the novel method, results were the same. But when it was checked with or without rotary ultrasonic machining, using tools with different specifications, results were different [3].
Heise et al. investigated the ultrasonic assisted drilling operation on granite and stone, which is a hybrid machining process. The cutting forces and torques was reduced up to 20% when the ultrasonic process applied. That could be achieved by using robots instead of machining centres [4].
Kei-Lin and Chung-Chen presented the paper on rotary ultrasonic machining, in which glass was utilised for milling operation. The efficiency of operation was evaluated based on surface roughness parameter. It was seen that the surface quality of ultrasonic milling was very poor as compared to non-ultrasonic milling [5].
Liu et al. developed a model for cutting forces during rotary ultrasonic machining. Cutting forces play a very important role during machining of brittle material. A relation between cutting force and input variables like spindle speed, feed rate, amplitude of ultrasonic vibration and abrasive grain particles was developed based on the cutting forces model. The various assumptions were made during research analysis like abrasive particles' shape and its material. Diamond abrasive particles, of octahedron shape, were utilized. The developed model gave information for cutting forces i.e. forces increased as input variables parameters increased and decreased as input variable parameters decreased [6].
Rasheed compared the results of micro-holes produced by micro-EDM and laser beam machining. The machining parameters like material removal rate, taper in hole, entrance and exit diameters of produced holes, concentricity of the produced holes was compared. It was concluded that when surface quality of the workpiece is not so important then for high material removal rate, laser beam machining can be utilised. If surface quality is needed, then micro-EDM can be used but material removal rate will be reduced. So, a hybrid process can be made to take the advantages of both processes [7].
Das et al. investigated the surface roughness of hexagonal shaped hole and material removal rate in Zir-Conia bio-ceramic material after ultrasonic machining. With control parameters, optimised results were obtained by utilising genetic algorithm technique. In the conducted experiment, with optimised para-meters, material removal rate of and surface roughness of 0.2365g/min and 0.58-micron meter were obtained respectively [8].
Lian et al. performed several experiments to analyse the surface roughness of A16061 material by micro-milling with or without the assistance of ultrasonic vibrations. It was observed that better surface finish was obtained in A16061 with ultrasonic vibration assisted machining. Better results were obtained when appropriate ultrasonic vibration amplitude was selected [9].
Cong et al. provided an explanation about surface roughness of hole, in ultrasonic machining, at entrance and exit. The paper considered hypotheses and their testing. The experiment was performed on a stainless-steel workpiece. It concluded that the reason for the difference of surface roughness at entrance and exit of the workpiece depends upon the abrasive bonded part of the tool movement in the workpiece through the entire length [10].
Selvakumar and Arulshri carried out the work to optimise the fixture layout using genetic algorithm and combination of genetic algorithm and artificial neural network approaches. The purpose of investigation was to reduce the deformation of the workpiece after clamping on fixture and machining force during operation. Finally, results of genetic algorithm and artificial neural network approach were compared. It proved that the combination of genetic algorithm and artificial neural network approach was better than genetic algorithm [11].
Yang et al. performed study on ultrasonic lapping of gears. It is a better process for tooth surface quality of gears as compared to conventional methods of lapping. The purpose of this paper was to finalise the methodology of ultrasonic lapping design for hypoid gear. After experiment, it was concluded that ultrasonic lapping of gear transmission quality was better than conventional lapping method [12].
Feucht et al. presented the machining results of hard and brittle materials or advanced materials such as ceramics and fiber- reinforced materials which are used in medical and aerospace industries using ultrasonic assisted machining. Fibre reinforced material was inhomogeneous in nature. So, it remains difficult to machine this material. But when vibration was produced by transducer superimposed on the spindle of conventional machining process, the cutting forces and tool wear rate were reduced by 20% to 30% as tool periodically lifted from workpiece or job [13].
Muhammad et al. discussed about hybrid machining technique in which ultrasonic assisted turning and hot machining technique were used in combination to machine titanium alloys. As a result, cutting forces was reduced and surface roughness was improved drastically in titanium alloys. In hot ultrasonic assisted turning, 50% excess improvement was noticed in surface roughness [14].
Kumar et al. proposed vibration assisted machining in cutting hard and brittle material. Vibration can be given to tools, workpiece and working medium. During ultrasonic assisted turning, the process parameters improved like 40% to 45% reduction in cutting forces and average cutting forces dropped to 40% as compared to conventional machining. Tool wear rate was reduced, and surface roughness was improved in the workpiece [15].
Bhosale et al. invented the effect of process parameters on alumina-zirconia ceramic composite on material removal rate, tool wear rate and surface topography. The process was analysed through the effect of amplitude, slurry of abrasive particles with carrying fluid etc. The research showed that tool wear rate tends to increase when hard and coarse abrasive was used. High tool wear rate occurred when boron carbide abrasive is utilized as compared to silicon carbide abrasive for similar machining conditions. The study concluded that slurry concentration has less effect on tool wear rate while amplitude increases surface roughness [16].
Silberschmidta et al. performed the experiment on ultrasonic assisted turning in which a combination of cutting parameters were tried on machines for different materials like copper, alloys etc. The cutting forces reduced during machining and surface roughness improved due to on ultrasonic assisted turning. The result obtained, for inconel 718, was better than conventional turning for surface roughness. The Ra value in case of conventional turning was 1.179-micron meter as compared to 0.505-micron meter in case of ultrasonic assisted turning [17].
Goswami and Chakraborty utilized two techniques for parametric optimization of ultrasonic machining processes. These were gravitational research and firework logarithm. Authors developed the best optimal results like high material rate as compared to gravitational research [18].
Agarwal investigated the ultrasonic machining of glass material. The study focused on mechanisms of material removal and material removal rate. It showed that as grit size increases, material removal rate also increases. The shocking force and material removal rate relation was developed. The analysis represented that increasing static load amplitude of tool tip, the material removal rate can be increased. On the other side, with increase in grit size, material removal rate was reduced because debris of the workpiece did not allow the tool to vibrate. Study revealed that proper controlling parameters can improve material removal rate only [19].
Ning discussed the importance of CFRP composites used in aerospace and aircraft industries due to its superior properties. The two drilling methods were compared, rotary ultrasonic machining and grinding. The cutting parameters like cutting forces, surface finish, torque, hole diameter and material removal rate were taken into consideration in the study. The comparison showed that rotary ultrasonic machining performed better in drilling of CFRP than grinding [20].
Wang et al. studied the problem of tearing defects at hole exit during drilling a hole in C/Sic composite material. The new tool was developed and compared with common drill. The result at hole exit was better with using compound step-taper drill. Problem of tearing defects got reduced due to using this drill. The following machining parameters were maintained like a feed rate of 2 mm/min. and spindle speed of 2000 rpm. The results showed that tearing size reduced up to 30% using compound step- taper drill. Defects produced during exit after drilling were burr, edge chipping etc [21].
Aminiet et al. studied tribological properties during ultrasonic vibration assisted turning process. The cutting parameters like friction coefficient and wear rate were considered for evaluation. ANOVA results indicated that effectiveness of 32.32% was observed in respect of friction coefficient [22].
Singh and Singhal reviewed the non-conventional hybrid machining process i.e. rotary ultrasonic machining. As in static ultrasonic machining, abrasive particles insert between tool and workpiece continuously during machining. The vibrating tool strikes on the workpiece and material removal take place. In this process, there was no direct contact between tool and workpiece. So, lesser material removal took place. The result of machining was not as per specifications. Due to which defects produced in drilling such as oversized holes, eccentric holes and erosion of wall surfaces etc. in rotary ultrasonic machining, conventional diamond grinding and ultrasonic machining combined together. Hence higher material removal rate produced as compared to conventional grinding and ultrasonic machining. In rotary ultrasonic machining, rotation was given to vibrating drilling tools and abrasive particles of diamond merged on tool tip during drilling operation. This process gave higher material removal, improved surface roughness and accuracy of machined holes than conventional grinding and static ultrasonic machining [23].
Zhen et al. carried out research on ceramic matrix composites. In the study, it was observed that rotary ultrasonic machining increased the efficiency of machining 5.8 times more and surface quality improved by 54% as compared to conventional milling [24].
Ning et al. presented the comparison between rotary ultrasonic surface machining and conventional surface grinding of CFRP composite material. The kinematics motion of abrasive particles was studied, and its comparison was also carried out. During analysis of kinematic motion of abrasive particles, it was assumed that abrasive particles are spherical in shape with the same diameter. The shape remains the same during machining. The experiment results indicated that rotary ultrasonic surface machining produced lower values of infeed cutting forces, axial cutting force and also torque. Rotary ultrasonic surface machining besides this gave larger surface roughness as compared to conventional surface grinding. The reason for this was vertically ultrasonic vibration [25].
Feng et al. discussed the tearing defect at hole exit during drilling. The experiment showed that the defect was due to large thrust forces. Rotary ultrasonic machining reduces the thrust force and 60% reduction has been observed in tearing defects. Experiment results indicated that it reduces the thrust force approximately 55% in the study. The grain size has much more influence on thrust force and it was decreasing up to some extent [26].
Wang et al. studied the tool wear mechanism and its relation to material removal rate. In the trial, three different material tools are used, named 304 stainless steel, 1045 carbon steel and tungsten. The influence of tool wear shows low MRR and inaccuracy in machining. During machining, it was observed that 304 stainless steel tools are best for micro USM. The tool wear and abrasive particle wear was low which helps to remove more material. The 304 stainless steel tool has low internal surface hardness as compared to external surface. The combined surface material (soft & hard) gave insurance of low tool wear and particle wear [27].
Wang et al. studied the potential of ultrasonic machining and investigated on the shape of abrasive particles. In the research, two different shaped abrasive particles were taken. The shapes were cubicle and spherical which were filled with silicon carbide and aluminum oxide materials. The result suggested that hard abrasive particles with spherical shape (Al2O3) resisted the tool wear in a nice way as shown in Fig. (1). This improves the material removal efficiency during ultrasonic machining and also its performance [28].
Fig. (1)) Trend of tool wear rate with different abrasive particles used during drilling.Wang et al. presented the cutting force and material removal mechanism in rotary ultrasonic machining. The defect produced drilling briefed like edge chipping, tearing defect and subsurface damage. The damage reduction technique and optimization of processing parameters were also described. During machining, damages was produced at hole exit. This could be reduced if cutting forces were less than critical cutting forces. By optimizing process parameters, damage during machining can be reduced [29].
Wang et al. investigated the critical cutting forces in rotary ultrasonic machining. The cutting forces were analyzed to develop a novel index which was required for design and manufacturing of an ultrasonic machine tool. In the paper, the effect of cutting force was analysed on processing parameters and ultrasonic amplitude. Also, critical cutting forces effect on rotary ultrasonic m/c tools were analysed & method of improvement discussed [30].
Popli & Gupta investigated edge chipping problems during drilling with rotary ultrasonic machining. An experiment was designed to remove the edges produced during drilling at hole exit by increasing the support length. It helped in reducing the edge chipping size up to 50%. The relation between chipping size and support length was given by chipping size proportional to 1/support length [31].
Mikhailova et al. presented the results of drilling techniques of conventional drilling and ultrasonic assisted drilling in marble. Experiment’s results are in favor of ultrasonic assisted drilling. It was observed that jobbler drill bit is preferable for drilling in marble also, but the feed rate has certain limits [32].
Wang et al. developed a surface model depending upon kinematics analysis and fracture mechanics of brittle materials. This model helped in predicting that at which parameters surface roughness will increase or decrease. In this paper when spindle speed was 2000 rpm, surface roughness was very low and surface topography was better but when spindle speed was between 2500-3000 rpm, surface roughness was high [33].
Wang et al. investigated the problem of high cutting forces, high surface roughness during machining of hard and brittle material like CFRP composite. Rotary ultrasonic surface machining, with vertical ultrasonic vibrations up to some extent, reduced the cutting forces but produced higher surface roughness than conventional surface grinding. To improve this parameter, experiment on rotary ultrasonic surface machining with horizontal ultrasonic vibrations was performed. This helped in reducing cutting forces and improved surface roughness than conventional surface grinding [34].
Wang et al.
