Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management E-Book
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- Sprache: Englisch
Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management Enables readers to strengthen existing agricultural strategies to sustainably solve contemporary problems like food supply chain gaps and food scarcity Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management explains strategies to check the deterioration of soil quality, irrigation water quality, reuse of wastewaters in agriculture after treatment, organic fertigation, and corporate fertigation, to transform current agriculture into sustainable agriculture, and demonstrates cost effective technologies for sustainable development of site-specific ecosystems. Techniques to eradicate malnutrition, such as enhanced biofortification, are also covered. Sample topics covered in Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management include: * Foremost developments in the restoration and utilization of degraded lands through organic farming, precision agriculture, climate-resilient fodder/forage cultivation, and livestock management * Promotion of agro-forestry-based apiculture, silviculture, and sericulture, and corporate fertigation, and reclaiming urban brownfields and industrial areas * Development of diverse products, including biofuel, fiber, fodder, timber, and herbal products leading to the generation of social capitals * Ecology of intercropping systems, tree-cover dynamics of grazing lands, and cover crops for soil management Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management is a comprehensive and authoritative resource on the subject, making it a must-have resource for scientists working in agrobiodiversity, agroecology, bioscience, restoration ecology, soil science, and sustainable science, along with postgraduate students in ecology, environmental sciences, and environmental economics.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management
About the Editors
Academic Honors
Global Recognition
Visiting Assignments in Various Universities – Widely Traveled
1 Soil Degradation: A Major Challenge in the Twenty‐First Century
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Soil Degradation: Start and Consequences
1.3 Soil Protection, Conservation, and Recuperation Strategies
1.4 Challenges for the Twenty‐First Century
1.5 Final Considerations
References
2 Degradation of Agriculture Systems by Invasive Alien Plants and Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Restoration
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Agroecological Solutions
2.3 Biological Control Methods
2.4 Classical or Inoculative Biological Control
2.5 Allelopathy in Agroecosystems
2.6 Restoration and Carbon Sequestration Approaches in Agro/Ecosystem/Forestry Systems
2.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
3 Soil Management for Carbon Sequestration
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Agronomic Management Practices
3.3 Conclusion
References
4 Soil Degradation, Resilience, Restoration, and Sustainable Use
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impacts of Human Activity on Soil Degradation
4.3 Methods to Restore the Soil
4.4 Sustainable Use of the Soil
4.5 Conclusions
References
5 Organic Farming – a Sustainable Option to Reduce Soil Degradation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Land Degradation–What Are we Doing to our Soil?
5.3 Organic Farming–An Environmentally Sustainable Trend Expanding Worldwide
5.4 Organic Farming and Soil Fertility
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Soils Through Protective Afforestation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Importance of Reclamation for the Protection of Post‐Mining Sites
6.3 Soil Reconstruction in Varied Post‐Mine Site Conditions
6.4 Criteria for Assessing the Adaptation of Tree Species to the Conditions of Reclaimed Areas
6.5 The Impact of Tree Species on Soil Properties
6.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
7 Biochar Applications for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Resume of Biochar for Sustainable Soil Management
7.3 Biochar Advantages for Sustainable Soil Management
7.4 Feedstock for Production of Biochar
7.5 Soil Carbon Storage/Sequestration
7.6 Biochar Influence on Detoxification of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soil
7.7 Biochar Mitigates Salinity in Different Crop Fields
7.8 Miscellaneous Benefits of Biochar for Soil Sustainability
References
8 Restoring Ecosystems: Guidance from Agroecology for Sustainability in Thailand
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Importance of Agricultural Strategy and Ecological Restoration in Thailand
8.3 Management of Thailand's Restoration of Agricultural Areas
8.4 Special Cases of Restoration and Sustainable Agriculture in Thailand
8.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
9 Emergy Approach to the Sustainable Use of Ecosystems toward Better Land Management
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Emergy Methodology
9.3 Review Methodology
9.4 Mixed Farming
9.5 Emergy Applied to Mixed Farming
9.6 Emergy Indices and Scope Widening
9.7 Main Findings and Gaps in Literature
9.8 Future Advises
References
10 Agroecological Transformation for Sustainable Food Systems
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agroecology
10.3 Agroecological Approaches
10.4 Limits
10.5 Prospects
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Alternative Production Systems (“Roof‐Top,” Vertical, Hydroponic, and Aeroponic Farming)
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Rooftop Farming/Agriculture (RA) and Vertical Farming
11.3 Hydroponic Farming
11.4 Aeroponic Farming
11.5 Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
12 Regaining the Essential Ecosystem Services in Degraded Lands
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Soil and Water Conservation Techniques
12.3 Soil Management
12.4 Loose Boulder/Stone/Masonry Check Dams/Brushwood Check Dams
12.5 Crop Management
12.6 Soil Erosion Models for Quantification
12.7 Integrated Nutrient Management to Address the Soil Degradation
12.8 Improving Soil Ecosystem Services Through Soil Microorganisms
References
13 Phytochemicals as an Eco‐Friendly Source for Sustainable Management of Soil‐Borne Plant Pathogens in Soil Ecosystem
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Soil‐Borne Pathogens: Major Threat to Agroecosystem
13.3 Green Chemicals as Better Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticides to Combat Soil‐Borne Pests
13.4 Nanoencapsulation as a Booster to Green Pesticides
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Restoration of Saline Soils for Sustainable Crop Production
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Characteristics of Saline Soils
14.3 Impact of Soil Salinization on Plant Growth
14.4 Restoration of Saline Soils
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Conservation Agriculture as Sustainable and Smart Soil Management: When Food Systems Meet Sustainability
15.1 Introduction: Challenging A “Global Syndemic”
15.2 Conservation Agriculture: Exploring Concept, Objectives, and Ambitions
15.3 Harnessing Soil Functioning under Conservation Agriculture
15.4 Food Security Under Conservation Agriculture: From Farm to Fork
15.5 CA Systems as Drivers for Social Development and Economic Growth
15.6 Challenges and Socio‐Economic Barriers for CA Adoption
15.7 Conclusion: Bridging and Bonding CA Science and Policy
References
16 The Ecology of Intercropping Systems, Tree‐Cover Dynamics of Grazing Lands, and Cover Crops for Soil Management
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Intercropping Systems
16.3 Sustainable Forest Management
16.4 Cover Crops for Sustainable Soil Management
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Strategies for Restoration and Utilization of Degraded Lands for Sustainable Oil Palm Plantation and Industry
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Palm Oil Plantations: Characteristics and Issues
17.3 Degraded Land: Definition and Rehabilitation Efforts
17.4 Operation Strategies
17.5 Challenges and Opportunities
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Reclaiming Urban Brownfields and Industrial Areas–Potentials for Agroecology
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Characterizing Urban Brownfields and Industrial Areas
18.3 After Use Options for Urban Brownfields and Industrial Areas
18.4 Role of Soil Management
18.5 Potentials for Agroecology
18.6 Conclusions
18.7 Outlook
References
19 Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Sustaining Saline and Metal Contaminated Soils
19.1 Introduction
19.2 PGPR: Modes of Action to Improve Plant Growth
19.3 Molecular Characterization of PGPRs
19.4 PGPR: A Competent, Facultative, and Intracellular Microorganism
19.5 Signal Exchange between PGPRs and Root Hairs
19.6 Ammonia Production
19.7 Production of IAA and HCN
19.8 Solubilization of Nutrients (P, K, Ca, Zn, and Mg)
19.9 Siderophore Production
19.10 The Phenomenon of Antagonism and Hyperparasitism
19.11 Alleviation of Metal Stress
19.12 Assessment of Plant Growth‐Promoting Activities
19.13 Assessment of Bacterial Reactions to Heavy Metals
19.14 Conclusion
References
20 Internet of Things (IoT) in Soil Management for Achieving Smart Agriculture
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Sensors and Data in IoT‐Based Systems
20.3 The Data
20.4 IoT in Agriculture
20.5 IoT in Soil Science
20.6 IoT Parts: Soil Sensors and Parameter Monitoring with IoT‐Linked Sensors
20.7 A Better Understanding of Soil Conditions (Fertility, Degradation, Irrigation, Detection of Soil‐Borne Diseases, etc.)
20.8 The Future Role of IoT in Smart Agriculture
20.9 Technology in Advanced Farming
20.10 Risks of IoT in Land Management and Food Security
20.11 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Soil functions: regulation and/or support, provision,
information
...
Table 1.2 Natural and anthropic factors of soil degradation.
Table 1.3 Research in different fields of phytoremediation.
Table 1.4 Basic ecological principles of Ecological Engineering.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Effects of invasive alien plants (IAPs) on agroecosystems in term...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Effect of some organic amendments on soil carbon sequestration.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Growth parameters of tree species in post‐mining sites of Central...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Biochar assistance for sustainable agriculture and environmental ...
Table 7.2 The most frequently used biodegradable waste and products for deg...
Table 7.3 Biochar influence on detoxification of potentially toxic elements...
Table 7.4 Biochar mitigates salinity in different crop fields.
Table 7.5 Biochar amendment alleviates drought in croplands.
Table 7.6 Miscellaneous functions of biochar for soil sustainability.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Sustainable agriculture systems, according to the policy of the M...
Table 8.2 Role of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) and biochar amendm...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Emergy indices description for evaluating agricultural production...
Table 9.2 Collection of papers with emergetic assessments on integrated cro...
Table 9.3 Emergetic indices for the selected literature.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Advantages of high‐tech vertical farming systems.
Table 11.2 Summary of the benefits of rooftop farms.
Table 11.3 Key sustainable benefits of the vertical farm.
Table 11.4 The environmental and socioeconomic benefits of the Sky Greens v...
Table 11.5 High‐tech indoor farming.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Impact of terracing on soil moisture, runoff, and soil erosion....
Table 12.2 Impact of intercropping on soil conservation and soil health.
Table 12.3 Depth‐wase distribution of site selection criteria.
Table 12.4 Impact of long‐term experiments on soil health.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Some green chemicals as potent biopesticides.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Classification of salt‐affected soils.
Table 14.2 Additional criteria for classification of salt‐affected soils pr...
Table 14.3 Soil salinity classes and crop growth.
Table 14.4 Relative loss in yield of some crop plants due to the increase i...
Table 14.5 Salinity threshold values of some fruit, nut crops, vegetables, ...
Table 14.6 Various roles of PGPR on yield and growth of different plants/cr...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Carbon sequestration due to CA compared to CT under contrasting ...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Increase in soil organic carbon due to intercropping with crops/...
Table 16.2 Increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) due to cover crops under v...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Estimates of total palm oil plantation area and small ownership ...
Table 17.2 Methodology of selected principles, criteria, and indicators to ...
Table 17.3 Classification of risk levels according to the indicators given ...
Table 17.4 Overlap of requirements between RSPO Principles and Criteria, Re...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Types of urban brownfields and industrial areas and respective h...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Alleviation of salt stress in rice using PGPR and RB – Salient r...
Table 19.2 Recent advances in PGPR for sustainable soil management.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Common Wi‐Fi card band designations (based on IEEE standard)
a
Table 20.2 Some examples for recent applications of IoT in agriculture.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Interactions between terrestrial systems and soils responsible fo...
Figure 1.2 Field evidence of soils in the process of degradation. (a) Shallo...
Figure 1.4 Satellite images used to ascertain the extent of the Mariana red ...
Figure 1.5 Processes and types of soil degradation.
Figure 1.6 Photos using the Petrographic Microscope (A) and Scanning Electro...
Figure 1.8 (a, b and c) Colonization of corn roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal...
Figure 1.9 Life cycle of cadmium example in P fertilizers and soils.
Figure 1.10 The Great Red Desert of Australia (Australian Outback).
Figure 1.11 Pollutants and contaminants amenable to bioremediation.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Steps associated with the spread of IAPs in agroecosystems and th...
Figure 2.2 Invasive alien plants influence the above ground crop biomass and...
Figure 2.3 Restoration of IAPs infested agriculture and forestry systems wit...
Figure 2.4 Effects of modern intensive agriculture on spread of IAPs, agroec...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic summarizing the effects of trees and soil microorganism...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Impacts of different human activities on soil degradation.
Figure 4.2 Good soil management practices that allow increasing its health a...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
The role of endophytic microorganisms.
Endophytic microorganisms ...
Figure 5.2 AMF
benefits in organic farming.
AMF improve access to nutrients,...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Development of an ecological concept of the reclamation strategy ...
Photo 6.1 Succession communities as the important supplement to afforestatio...
Photo 6.2 Spreading forest humus on a former sand mine cast to improve its p...
Photo 6.3 Open pit lignite mining and different sediments (mix of Quaternary...
Photo 6.4 Afforestation of hard coal spoil heap with different tree species ...
Photo 6.5 Extremely poor sites on sand mine excavation and afforestation of ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Biochar application in agriculture is a proven technology and acc...
Figure 7.2 Biochar for sustainable soil management.
Figure 7.3 Soil degradation factors and benefits of biochar to soil and atmo...
Figure 7.4 Advantages of a handful of carbon for productivity, reduced emiss...
Figure 7.5 Potential sources of carbon (highlighted in black with white lett...
Figure 7.6 Feedstocks, biochar, and other byproducts of the thermal conversi...
Figure 7.7 Soil microbiology plays a significant role in biogeochemical cycl...
Figure 7.8 Soil carbon sequestration–An interplay between soil microbial com...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 The importance of agriculture in Thailand on politics, environmen...
Figure 8.2 Agricultural system in Thailand according to the 20‐year agricult...
Figure 8.3 The percentage of large‐scale farming classified by product group...
Figure 8.4 King's Philosophy for Sustainable livelihoods, safe food, refores...
Figure 8.5 The saline soil map of northeastern Thailand, estimating from the...
Figure 8.6 Large polder and drainage system for soil salinity restoration in...
Figure 8.7 Restoring degraded and arid areas in Nong Ya Plong District, Phet...
Figure 8.8 Khao Krapuk Agricultural Learning Center, Thayang District, Phetc...
Figure 8.9 The promotion of large organic farming areas, which resulting fro...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Plot of emergetic flow categories: total emergy (sej/yr); feedbac...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The 10 principal elements of agroecology.
Figure 10.2 Agroecological approaches.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 A proposed vertical farm by Plantagon. It comprises a helix stru...
Figure 11.2 One of Plantagon’s prototype for the vertical farm. Seeds are pl...
Figure 11.3
Talinum triangulare
(Jacq.) Wild–Hydroponics.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The major unsustainable and non‐agroecological practices for soi...
Figure 12.2 Various technological interventions to arrest soil erosion.
Figure 12.3 Different types of strip cropping practiced to arrest soil erosi...
Figure 12.4 N content (%) in different concentrated organic sources.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Showing effects of plant products on plant disease management.
Figure 13.2 Diagram showing different nanostructured system.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Salinization factors.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Impact of rye cover crop on total microbial biomass, bacteria, a...
Figure 16.2 A visual presentation of the ecology of forests, intercropping, ...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Possible land use histories prior to establishment of oil palm p...
Figure 17.2 Expanding area of oil palm (and pulpwood) plantations in the who...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Restoring ecosystem structures and functions.
Figure 18.2 ABC model of land recycling – a question of marketability,
Figure 18.3 Interdisciplinary fields of action and links in land management ...
Figure 18.4 Permaculture garden at the Regional Garden Exhibition in Beelitz...
Figure 18.5 Impressions from the LMBV mining land reclamation, East Germany....
Figure 18.6 Agri‐photovoltaic system. Photo credit: Petra Schneider.
Figure 18.7 Lieberose Succession Park, former military site, now administrat...
Figure 18.8 Re‐use of a Lost Place: Beelitz‐Heilstätten, Federal State of Br...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Multitrophic interactions in the agroecosystem within microbiome...
Figure 19.2 Potassium channels in guard cells.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Basic architecture of IoT.
Figure 20.2 The main components of IoT.
Figure 20.3 A small office/ home office (soho) setup with networking. A typi...
Figure 20.4 Block diagram of a modern microprocessor adapted from ATmega328P...
Figure 20.5 Block diagram of ESP32 chip – widely used in low‐power Wi‐Fi dev...
Figure 20.6 A typical temperature sensor. The stainless steel sheath contain...
Figure 20.7 A typical humidity sensor. The device can measure both temperatu...
Figure 20.8 Common soil moisture sensor which able to examine the surface mo...
Figure 20.9 5500 Salinity Bridge devise and its sensor, Soilmoisture Equipme...
Figure 20.10 EM38 instrument, which provides measurements of soil conductivi...
Figure 20.11 IoT‐based lysimeter in IR‐NSRC, Yazd, Iran.
Figure 20.12 The smart composting reactor, which is a smart IoT‐based device...
Figure 20.13 Integration of AI, Robotics and IoT in soil management and smar...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
About the Editors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management
Edited by
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
University of Hyderabad (An Institution of Eminence)
Hyderabad, India
Chitranjan Kumar
Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture
Amity University, Noida, India
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Prasad, M. N. V. (Majeti Narasimha Vara), 1953– editor. | Kumar, Chitranjan, editor.Title: Agroecological approaches for sustainable soil management / edited by Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad and Chitranjan Kumar.Description: Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023007310 (print) | LCCN 2023007311 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119911968 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119911975 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119911982 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Soil management. | Land degradation. | Agricultural ecology.Classification: LCC S591.A59173 2023 (print) | LCC S591 (ebook) | DDC 631.4–dc23/eng/20230512LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023007310LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023007311
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Dr. Chitranjan Kumar
List of Contributors
Yassine AallamLaboratory of Agro‐Industrial and Medical BiotechnologiesFaculty of Science and TechniquesUniversity of Sultan Moulay SlimaneBeni Mellal, Morocco
Sanggono AdisasmitoDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitut Teknologi BandungBandung, Indonesia
Lander de Jesus AlvesPostgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms,State University of Santa Cruz (UESC)Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil
Soumia AmirCentre d’Agrobiotechnologie et BioingénierieUnité de Recherche Labellisée CNRSTCadi Ayyad University, Marrakech
Hossein BeyramiNational Salinity Research Center (NSRC)Agricultural ResearchEducation and Extension Organization (AREEO), Yazd, Iran
Wassila BoutaLaboratory of Agro‐Industrial and Medical BiotechnologiesFaculty of Science and TechniquesUniversity of Sultan Moulay SlimaneBeni Mellal, Morocco; Office de la formation professionnelle et de la promotion du travail (Ofppt)Pole agriculture, La Cité des Métiers et des Compétences de la région Béni Mellal‐KhénifraBéni Mellal, Morocco
Piyapatr BusababodhinIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de CarvalhoDepartment of BiologyState University of AlagoasSantana do Ipanema, Alagoas, Brazil
A. J. Palace CarvalhoChemistry and Biochemistry DepartmentSchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal; LAQV‐REQUIMTESchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of Évora Évora, Portugal
Wutthisat ChokkueaIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
David E. ClayDepartment of Plant SciencesSouth Dakota State University, USA; American Society of AgronomyMadison, USA
Cláudia Marques‐dos‐SantosSchool of Agriculture, University of LisbonCEF—Forest Research CentreTapada da AjudaLisbon, Portugal
A. V. DordioChemistry and Biochemistry DepartmentSchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal; MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences CentreSchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Nawal K. DubeyLaboratory of Herbal PesticidesCentre of Advanced Study (CAS) in BotanyInstitute of ScienceBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, India
Winya DungkaewIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Jorge M.S. FariaMediterranean Institute for AgricultureEnvironment and DevelopmentMED & Global Change and Sustainability Institute, CHANGEInstitute for Advanced Studies and ResearchUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal; National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinarian Research, INIAVI. P., Quinta do MarquêsOeiras, Portugal
Mohamed FarissiLaboratory of Biotechnology and Sustainable Development of Natural Resources, Polydisciplinary Faculty, USMSBeni Mellal, Morocco
Tino FaukDepartment Water EnvironmentCivil Engineering and SafetyMagdeburg‐Stendal University of Applied Sciences, BreitsscheidstrMagdeburg, Germany
Ana FonsecaSchool of Agriculture, University of LisbonCEF—Forest Research CentreTapada da AjudaLisbon, Portugal
V. GirijaveniCentral Research Institute for DrylandAgriculture, SantoshnagarHyderabad, India
Yolanda González‐GarcíaDepartamento de BotánicaUniversidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio NarroSaltillo, México
Abdelmajid HaddiouiLaboratory of Agro‐Industrial and Medical BiotechnologiesFaculty of Science and TechniquesUniversity of Sultan Moulay SlimaneBeni Mellal, Morocco
Hanane HamdaliLaboratory of Agro‐Industrial and Medical BiotechnologiesFaculty of Science and TechniquesUniversity of Sultan Moulay SlimaneBeni Mellal, Morocco
Ayoub HaouasCentre d’Agrobiotechnologie et BioingénierieUnité de Recherche Labellisée CNRST(Centre Agro Biotech‐URL‐CNRST‐05)Cadi Ayyad University Marrakech, Morocco
Antonius IndartoDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitut Teknologi BandungBandung, Indonesia
Ponlakit JittoFaculty of Environment and Resource StudiesMahasarakham University, KhamriangKantarawichi DistrictMaha Sarakham, Thailand
Deepak R. JoshiDepartment of Plant SciencesSouth Dakota State University, USA
Antonio Juárez‐MaldonadoDepartamento de BotánicaUniversidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio NarroSaltillo, México
Piyanutt KhanemaIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Surasak KhankhumIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Chitranjan KumarAmity Institute of Organic AgricultureAmity University, Uttar Pradesh Noida, India
Mehdi MahbodDepartment of Water Sciences and Engineering, College of AgricultureJahrom University, Jahrom, Iran
Joana MarinheiroSchool of AgricultureUniversity of LisbonCEF—Forest Research CentreTapada da AjudaLisbon, Portugal
Florin‐Constantin MihaiCERNESIM Environmental Research CenterInstitute of Interdisciplinary Research “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of IasiBulevardul Carol IIași, Romania
Chanchal K. MitraSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of HyderabadHyderabad, India
Ahmed El MoukhtariLaboratory of Ecology and EnvironmentFaculty of Sciences Ben MsikHassan II UniversityPO 7955 Sidi OthmaneCasablanca, Morocco;Laboratory of Biotechnology and Sustainable Development of Natural ResourcesPolydisciplinary Faculty, USMSBeni Mellal, Morocco
Rachid MrabetInstitut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)Avenue de la Victoire Morocco
Ruttanakorn MunjitIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Woranan NakbanpoteIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Fábio Carvalho NunesAcademic DepartmentFederal Institute Baiano (IF BAIANO)Santa Inês, Bahia, Brazil
Bülent OKURFaculty of AgricultureSoil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Ege UniversityBornova, İzmir, Turkey
Nur OKURFaculty of AgricultureSoil Science and Plant Nutrition DepartmentEge University, Bornovaİzmir, Turkey
Nesrin ÖRÇENFaculty of Agriculture, Field Crop ScienceEge University, Bornovaİzmir, Turkey
Abdallah OukarroumHigh Throughput Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory University Mohammed VI Polytechnic (UM6P)Ben Guerir, Morocco
Marek PająkDepartment of Ecological Engineering and Forest HydrologyFaculty of ForestryUniversity of Agriculture in KrakowKrakow, Poland
Sangeeta PandeyAmity Institute of Organic AgricultureAmity University, Uttar PradeshNoida, India
Amir ParnianNational Salinity Research Center (NSRC)Agricultural ResearchEducation and Extension Organization (AREEO)Yazd, Iran
Marcin PietrzykowskiDepartment of Ecological Engineering and Forest HydrologyFaculty of ForestryUniversity of Agriculture in KrakowKrakow, Poland
Ana Paula PintoMediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and DevelopmentMED & Global Change and Sustainability Institute, CHANGEInstitute for Advanced Studies and ResearchUniversity of Évora,Évora, Portugal;Chemistry and Biochemistry DepartmentSchool of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of Évora, Évora, Portugal
Daniel PramuditaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitut Teknologi BandungBandung, Indonesia;Department of Food EngineeringInstitut Teknologi Bandung
J. V. N. S. PrasadCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, SantoshnagarHyderabad, India
Majeti Narasimha Vara PrasadSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of HyderabadHyderabad, India
Ronny PurwadiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitut Teknologi BandungBandungIndonesia; Department of Food EngineeringInstitut Teknologi BandungJl. Let. Jend. Purn. Dr. (HC) Mashudi No.1Sumedang, Indonesia
Prabhat Kumar RaiDepartment of Environmental ScienceSchool of Earth Sciences and Natural Resource ManagementMizoram University, AizawlMizoram, India
Taoufik El RasafiHigh Throughput Multidisciplinary Research LaboratoryUniversity Mohammed VI Polytechnic (UM6P)Ben Guerir, Morocco;Laboratory of Health and EnvironmentHassan II UniversityFaculty of Sciences Ain ChockCasablanca, Morocco
K. Sammi ReddyCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, SantoshnagarHyderabad, India
Petra SchneiderDepartment Water EnvironmentCivil Engineering and SafetyMagdeburg‐Stendal University of Applied Sciences, BreitsscheidstrMagdeburg, Germany
João SerraSchool of Agriculture University of LisbonCEF—Forest Research CentreTapada da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal
Tarun SharmaDepartment of AgronomyCSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural UniversityPalampur, India
Akashdeep SinghDepartment of AgronomyCSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural UniversityPalampur, India
Anil K. SinghShri Murli Manohar Town Post Graduate CollegeBallia, India
V. K. SinghCentral Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, SantoshnagarHyderabad, India
Khanitta SomtrakoonIsan Saline Soil Research Unit (ISSRU)Faculty of ScienceMahasarakham UniversityKhamriang, KantarawichiMahasarakham, Thailand
Pranee SrihabanLand Development Regional Office 5Department of Land, DevelopmentMinistry of Agriculture and CooperativesKhon Kaen, Thailand
Ágnes SzepesiDepartment of Plant BiologyInstitute of BiologyFaculty of Science and InformaticsUniversity of SzegedSzeged, Hungary
Anas TallouCentre d’Agrobiotechnologie et BioingénierieUnité de Recherche Labellisée CNRST Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech
Uraiwan TayaLand Development Regional Office 5 Department of Land, DevelopmentMinistry of Agriculture and CooperativesKhon Kaen, Thailand
Shikha TiwariDepartment of BotanyS.S.S.V. S. Government Post Graduate College, Chunar, Mirzapur, India
Ajay TomarAmity Institute of Organic AgricultureAmity University, Uttar PradeshNoida, India
Diana Cota‐UngsonDoctorado en Agricultura ProtegidaUniversidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Saltillo, México
Bartłomiej WośDepartment of Ecological Engineering and Forest Hydrology, Faculty of ForestryUniversity of Agriculture in KrakowKrakow, Poland
Preface
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad and Chitranjan Kumar
Agroecological Approaches for Sustainable Soil Management
Agroecology is a significant part of the global productivity system, and it involves interactions between biotic and abiotic in many different ways. In order to meet the demands of the growing population, it provides a variety of ecosystem services such as halting climate change, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and preserving productivity and output. The management and sustainability of agroecosystems are under danger due to the increase in global food demand. The adoption of modern technology has resulted in increased resource usage, which is slowly increasing the ecological footprints day by day. The food production system is also hampered by problems with food shortages, security, and overproduction beyond the ecosystem’s biocapacity. As a result, the agroecosystem and food production system require urgently adequate management.
Figure 1 A word cloud map was generated using the titles and keywords of papers of this book.
All nations on the planet rely heavily on agriculture, hence appropriate management of it is urgently needed. The book discusses a thorough strategy for managing ecological footprints in the agroecosystem effectively. The book also examines key elements such as energy, carbon, nitrogen, climate, water, land, and livestock footprints using a systematic and scientific approach that paves the way for their efficient management. The present book has also addressed specific strategies, planning, and policy formulation toward mitigating the various forms of ecological footprint based on research and developmental activities within the agroecosystem.
The advancement of agriculture is essential to the progress of humanity as a whole and is essential to the timely achievement of numerous sustainable development goals. Nevertheless, agriculture accounts for 34% of the world’s yearly emissions of greenhouse gases and is the greatest nonpoint source of pollution due to the widespread use of agrochemicals. Agricultural activities account for 70% of the freshwater withdrawn from the planet each year, making them one of the main causes of the loss of biodiversity globally. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations estimates that agricultural production must quadruple by the year 2050 in order to feed a population of 9.7 billion people worldwide. However, this intensification needs to be carried out sustainably (not at the cost of planetary resilience).
However, this intensification must be carried out sustainably (not at the expense of planetary resilience), and fresh approaches must be developed to highlight agriculture’s vital contribution to the achievement of the global goals. In order to improve human well‐being while protecting the life‐supporting systems of a highly polluted, overexploited, and resource‐constrained world, the concept of “planet friendly agriculture,” where food production must be performed within the planetary bounds, is gaining global prominence. The goal of this graphic review was to illustrate different environmentally friendly farming techniques based on resource replenishment and conservation to improve food and nutrition security for the present and future generations while lowering pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, and water footprint, even in the face of changing climatic conditions.
Agroecologists are working hard to provide sustainable food systems for the world’s expanding population while also lowering their environmental carbon impact. Any agricultural system’s sustainability largely depends on soil sustainability, which meets current demand without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to satisfy their own requirements with sustainable soil resources. Scientists studying soil are concerned about an ongoing rise in soil deterioration from prehistoric times.
We choose to incorporate many seasoned as well as aspiring agroecologists and soil scientists working throughout the globe in our dream project in response to a widespread desire for a visionary research experience to close a significant gap between plant ecology and soil biology.
As the greatest hazard of the twenty‐first century, soil degradation caused by alien invading plants, management of the soil via carbon sequestration, restoration of resilience, and sustainable usage ecological restoration via protected restoration and organic farming, biochar incorporation and amendment‐assisted restoration, sustainable control of soil‐borne plant diseases, rooftop vertical hydroponic and aeroponic farming systems, and other agroecological transformation techniques saline soil remediation for sustained crop production, aggravation‐conservation agriculture based on agroecology, cover crops, tree cover dynamics, and intercropping ecology industries and oil‐palm plantations.
Reclaiming urban brownfield and industrial areas, and Internet of things in soil management for smart agriculture, in the structured format of (i) Introduction, (ii) Need for agroecology: Justification, (iii) Restoration of degraded lands, (iv) Agroecology for sustainable food systems, (v) Ecosystem services and conservation agriculture, and (vi) Case studies for restoration of degraded lands.
Editors are indebted to all contributors for their valuable research and work as a chapter for this book. We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Sakeena Quraishi and Dr. Gudrun Walter, the editors of the Wiley publisher team for their keen interest, cooperation, and prompt efforts. We acknowledge the quality work of the production team of John Wiley & Sons, UK, who helped us to bring this book in its final form.
About the Editors
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad is currently Emeritus Professor, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India.
Formerly Dean, School of Life Sciences
Formerly Head, Dept of Plant Sciences
Formerly Coordinator, Biotechnology Program
Formerly Coordinator of PG Diploma in Environmental education and management
M.Sc. (Botany) from Andhra University, Waltair 1973–1975; Ph.D (Botany) Lucknow University, Lucknow 1975–1979 (Research conducted at Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, An autonomous Inst. Under the Dept. of Sci & Tech, Govt. of India).
Professional experience Lecturer, June 1980–85, Dept. of Botany,
North Eastern Hill University, Shillon, Meghalaya
Lecturer, 1985–86, Lecturer (Senior Scale) 1986–90 University of Hyderabad, School of Life Science; Reader, 1990–98, and Professor since 1998 to May 10, 2018, in the Department of Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad.
Made significant contributions to the field of plant‐metal nteractions, bioremediation, and bioeconomy. Published 221 research articles in peer‐reviewed Journals, 141 book chapters. Edited Books 34: Elsevier [15], JohnWiley [6], Springer [6]; One each by Fizmatlit Russia, Kluwer Academic, Ministry of Environment and Forests, GoI, Marcel Dekker, Narosa, Russian Academy of Sciences and CRCPress, Taylor & Francis
Academic Honors
XIX Int. Bot. Congress Excellent Scholar Awardee, July 23–29, 2017, Shenzhen, China
Pitamber Pant National Environment Fellow 2007 awarded by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India
Recipient of Prof. KS Bilgrami award – 2015 by the Soc for Plant Research, India
Served as COST action 859 (Phytotechnology) working group member, ESF
Elected Fellow – Linnean Society of London, UK
Elected Fellow – National Institute of Ecology, New Delhi
Global Recognition
Based on data compiled and studied by John Ioannidis of Stanford University, Elsevier and SciTech Strategies, MNV Prasad figured in top 2% consecutively for three years (2020–2022).
Visiting Assignments in Various Universities – Widely Traveled
University Quebec INRS‐Eau,
Canada
, NSERC foreign research awardee
1994
Dept of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University, Krakow,
Poland
,
1996
University of Coimbra,
Portugal
,
1999
Stockholm University, Institute of Botany,
Sweden
,
2000
University of Oulu, Oulu by Finnish Academy
Finland
,
2002
University of South Australia, Adelaide,
Australia
,
2005
Al‐Farabi Kazakh National University, Department. of Botany, Almaty,
Kazakhstan
,
2006
Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg,
Russia
,
2007–2015
Ghent University Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Gent,
Belgium
,
2011
Mahasarakham University,
Thailand
,
2013–2014
University of Santa Cruz, Ilheus‐Bahia,
Brazil
,
2015
Govt. of India deputation to Asian Institute of Technology,
Thailand
for one semester
2017
Dr. Chitranjan Kumar (M.Sc. Gold Medalist NET D.Phil.), is Assistant Professor‐III and Program Leader, Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University, Noida, India; Associate Editor, Agronomy Journal, American Society of Agronomy, USA. He is Formerly Technical Editor, The National Academy of Sciences India, Prayagraj. Dr. Chitranjan Kumar is working in the field of phyto‐bio‐remediation/agroecological management of sewage‐irrigated soils/organic fertigation. He is serving Agronomy Journal, American Society of Agronomy, USA as Associate Editor continuously for the last 10 years. He has published 45 research/review articles in journals of national and international repute. He has published five‐books from reputed publishers including John Wiley & Sons, Germany, and Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He has developed an understanding of enhanced phytoremediation of heavy metals through plant species, oilcake, vermicompost, and microbial strains of Pseudomonas sp., Thiobacillus sp., and Glomus sp. as their individual as well as their combinatorial treatments. He presented a systematic collection of data on the Ganges River pollution, its scientific analyses, and its relationship with 6Ps (namely population, poverty, pollution, precipitation, plantation, and periodicity). He presented a noble integrated micro‐biochemical approach through microbe‐nutrient‐ornamental plant‐assisted phytoremediation in sewage‐contaminated soils. Studied long‐term integrated nutrient management and C‐sequestration in soils. The top 12 international papers were published in reputed journals, like Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Land Degradation and Development, Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Agronomy Journal, 3 Biotech, International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, International Journal of Phytoremediation, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, and Agronomy Journal. Edited 12‐Annual Reports of The National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI, Prayagraj) during 2009‐2020. Also edited >1060 Springer articles, 24‐Wiley Articles, 12‐Year Books of NASI as Technical Editor, and reviewed > 240 international articles from 40 international journals.
World Scientist Ranking: One of the top rankings in the field of Agriculture (Organic Agriculture | Environment | Phytoremediation | Bioremediation | Heavy Metal Interaction) as per the link: https://www.adscientificindex.com/scientist/chitranjan-kumar-sharma/352588
1Soil Degradation: A Major Challenge in the Twenty‐First Century
Fábio Carvalho Nunes1, Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho2, Lander de Jesus Alves3, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad4
1 Academic Department, Federal Institute Baiano (IF BAIANO), Santa Inês, Bahia, Brazil
2 Department of Biology, State University of Alagoas, Santana do Ipanema, Alagoas, Brazil
3 Postgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms, State University of Santa Cruz (UESC), Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil
4 School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
1.1 Introduction
Soils are the basis for food production, and, in addition, they perform essential functions for the balance of ecosystems. Although the functions related to material aspects are more emphasized, such as provision, support, and regulation, the environmental functions performed by the soil are much more comprehensive and also include the immaterial dimension, such as information, culture, leisure, and religion (Nunes et al. 2020) (Table 1.1).
Despite the importance of soil, it is often neglected as a non‐renewable and indispensable resource for human and non‐human life. Its degradation has been unfolding year after year due to a combination of processes that range from natural to anthropic factors. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2021) about 34% of soil globally is moderately or highly degraded.
Soil degradation consists of the reduction or loss of its biological or economic productivity due to a process or combination of processes, among which water or wind erosion and deterioration of physical, chemical, and/or biological soil properties stand out. Such processes can be triggered by climate change and direct human actions such as deforestation, fires, mining, irrigation, increased use of machines, plastic deposition, use of fertilizers and pesticides, and such actions can cause erosion, desertification, sandization, salinization, pollution, and soil contamination.
According to FAO (2021), 24 billion tons of fertile soil/year are lost through degradation processes, displacing about 135 million people, mainly from arid, semi‐arid, and sub‐humid to drought areas. Proper soil management is a major challenge in the twenty‐first century, as both an abrupt change in the current production model and its maintenance can cause a collapse that compromises nutritional and food security on a global scale.
Table 1.1 Soil functions: regulation and/or support, provision, information, culture, leisure, and religion
Source: Adapted Nunes et al. (2020).
Regulation and/or support functions
References
Recharge of aquifers, control, and storage of water
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), van Leeuwen et al. (2017)
Water purification, assimilation, and recycling of pollutants
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), van Leeuwen et al. (2017)
Regulation of floods
FAO (
2015
)
Provide refuge, nurseries, and habitats for organisms
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), Schulte et al. (2015)
Support engineering works
FAO (
2015
)
Support bacterial culture for antibiotics production
Ling et al. (
2015
)
a
Support raising livestock
Schulte et al. (
2015
), Volchko et al. (
2014
)
Nutrient cycling
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), Schulte et al. (
2015
)
Climate regulation
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), Volchko et al. (
2014
)
Provision functions
Natural production of foods, fibers, and medicines
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), FAO (
2015
)
Crops for food, fiber, and crop production in cultivated areas
Ghaley et al. (
2018
), FAO (
2015
)
Crops for the production of energy
FAO (
2015
)
Materials for ornaments, handicrafts, and household items
Alves et al. (
2005
)
b
Genetic resources
Schaefer (
2011
)
c
, FAO (
2015
)
Materials for construction
FAO (
2015
)
Materials for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
FAO (
2015
)
Functions of information, culture, leisure, and religion
Plaeoenvironmental information
Inda, Fink and Santos (
2018
), Ladeira (
2010
)
Cultural heritage
Capra et al. (
2017
), Alves et al. (
2005
)
Recreation and leisure
Sindelar (
2015
)
Religious rituals
Barrera‐Bassols and Zinck (
2003
), Minami (
2009
)
d
Educational activities
Hayhoe et al. (
2016
), Hartemink et al. (
2014
)
a The authors do not mention soil functioning in support of bacterial culture for the production of antibiotics, but do reference soil as a culture medium in the production of antibiotics.
b The authors make no reference to soil functioning as a medium for the provision of materials for ornaments, handicrafts, and domestic utensils, but present a study that documented indigenous communities using soil for such purposes,
c The authors make no reference to soil functioning as a means for acquiring genetic resources, but emphasizes that soil has such resources.
d The authors make no reference to soil functioning as a means of performing religious rituals, but show that soil is used for such purposes.
Furthermore, as the soil is a complex ecological system, therefore interdependent and full of non‐linear responses (Nunes et al. 2021), its degradation can cause negative impacts on the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Figure 1.1 shows, in a non‐exhaustive way, examples of interactions between these systems, responsible for soil fertility and fundamental for the balance of the planet and, therefore, for humanity; hence, the importance of conservation and recovery of pedological covers.
Figure 1.1 Interactions between terrestrial systems and soils responsible for their fertility.
Source: Adapted from Weil and Brady (2017).
A more gradual change in the productive system associated with research for the recovery of degraded areas and for increasing productivity using green technologies seems to be a good path. Numerous studies have been carried out on the subject in recent decades and the results are promising, however, the application of green techniques on a large scale is still a challenge, as demonstrated by the work carried out by Prasad et al. (2021).
1.2 Soil Degradation: Start and Consequences
Soil degradation is the decrease or loss of its physical, chemical, and/or biological qualities, either by natural or anthropic processes, which affects its ecosystem functions (Nunes et al. 2020). The factors responsible for soil degradation can be categorized into direct and facilitating factors, such as torrential rains, strong winds, use of machinery, animal trampling, shortening of fallow, excessive irrigation and fertilization, pesticides, disposal of domestic, urban, and industrial waste (Table 1.2).
The aforementioned factors trigger a series of physical and chemical processes that favor erosion, depletion of organic matter, loss of biodiversity, compaction, sealing, point and diffuse contamination, pollution, and salinization. These processes are evidence of degraded soils (Montanarella 2007).
We can suggest different indicators for soil degradation, namely visual, physical, chemical, biological, and integrative (Ribeiro et al. 2009; Lal 2018), which in this text we will call ecological. Visual indicators can be obtained from field observation, analysis of satellite images, radar, or aerial photographs (Figures 1.2–1.4). Examples include changes in soil color, evidence of furrows, ravines and gullies, presence of weeds, monitoring of plant development, transport, and sediment deposition (Nunes et al. 2020), which represent the visual aspects arising from degradation. Physical, chemical, biological, ecological, or the integration of several factors (Figure 1.5).
Physical indicators can be measured by analyzing the disposition of solid soil fractions (Ribeiro et al. 2009), such as sand, silt, clay, and organic matter. These are mainly manifested through the decline of aggregation of solid fractions, plasma‐skeletal disjunction of the soil, formation of crust, compaction, and increase in density, which hinder plant development, reduce infiltration, increase surface runoff, and favor erosion. It is important to emphasize that the physical degradation of the soil can be evidenced from the microscopic to the macroscopic scale (Figure 1.6) and ends up affecting the chemical, biological, ecological attributes, and vice versa, as suggested in Figure 1.5.
Table 1.2 Natural and anthropic factors of soil degradation.
Factors
Natural
Anthropics
Direct
Torrential rains, strong winds
Use of machinery, animal trampling, shortening of fallow, excessive irrigation or inefficient drainage, over‐fertilization, pesticides, inadequate waste disposal
Facilitators
Topography, granulometry, and chemical and mineralogical composition of the soil, vegetation cover, water regime
Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of vegetation, cut slopes
Figure 1.2 Field evidence of soils in the process of degradation. (a) Shallow, stony soils with little vegetation cover in a semi‐arid environment. Municipality of Gentio do Ouro, Bahia, Brazil. (b) Shallow soils, with loss of surface horizons and exposed due to suppression of vegetation. Semi‐arid region, municipality of Gentio do Ouro, Bahia, Brazil.
Figure 1.3 Vegetation suppression and susceptibility to soil degradation. Municipality of Igaporã, Bahia, Brazil.
Figure 1.4 Satellite images used to ascertain the extent of the Mariana red mud disaster, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Source: Adapted from Nunes et al. (2022).
Chemical indicators can be measured by monitoring soil pH, salinity, organic matter content, cation, and anion exchange capacity, nutrient cycling and the presence of toxic or radioactive elements (Figure 1.7), while biological indicators can include measurements the presence or absence of macro and microorganisms, as well as their activities and by‐products (Figure 1.8).
Figure 1.5 Processes and types of soil degradation.
Source: Adapted from Lal (2018), Elsevier, CC BY‐NC‐ND 4.0.
Figure 1.6 Photos using the Petrographic Microscope (A) and Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM) of soil that is undergoing plasma‐skeleton disjunction, making it more susceptible to erosion. Arrows indicate clay slurry (cutãs) in subsurface soil horizons. Photomicrograph (B) was adapted from Nunes et al. (2020) Caminhos de Geografia, CC BY‐NC‐ND 4.0.
Figure 1.7 (a and b) Treatments with 100 and 200 ppm of U, respectively, without mycorrhiza. (c and d) Treatments with 100 and 200 ppm of U, respectively, with mycorrhiza.
Source: Adapted from Alves et al. (2018).
Figure 1.8 (a, b and c) Colonization of corn roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
Source: Adapted from Alves et al. (2018) UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE SANTA CRUZ.
Figure 1.9 Life cycle of cadmium example in P fertilizers and soils.
Source: Adapted from FAO and UNEP. 2021. Global assessment of soil pollution: Summary for policymakers. Rome, Italy, FAO. 84 pp. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4827en.
Ascertaining the chemical and biological health of soils ensures nutritional and food security, as we must ensure that everyone has access to sufficient nutritious food free from organic and inorganic contaminants. It is necessary to guarantee the production of an adequate quantity and quality of food through uses and management systems that do not degrade the soil and do not harm the health of producers and consumers (Nunes et al. 2020; FAO 2018).
It is not possible to guarantee food and nutrition security through land use and management systems that mainly compromise their regulatory, support, and provision functions. This is especially true for functions related to primary productivity, carbon sequestration and regulation, nutrient cycling and supply, water control and purification, and the provision of habitats for living organisms. Conventional agriculture, for example, can cause adverse effects on important soil functions, giving rise to degradation processes that also impact other environments. In addition, there are many examples of contamination of producers and consumers due to the use of pesticides (Nunes et al. 2020).
Ecological indicators must gather basic information about the composition, structure, and interactions of the soil system, such as inputs and outputs of matter and energy and nutrient cycling, aiming to understand and reflect on the interactions between different biotic and abiotic processes that express transformations in space and in time.
The measurement of each indicator must express the direction, magnitude of variation, intensity, duration, and extent of variation, so that the stages of soil degradation can be measured (Ribeiro et al. 2009). These stages can be classified as: not degraded; weakly degraded; moderately degraded; highly degraded and extremely run down (Snakin et al. 1996).
The physical, chemical, biological, and ecological degradation of soils can cause negative impacts on the performance of their functions, which will have effects on the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere systems, and certainly, on the cultural and technical‐scientific systems (Nunes et al. 2021). Understanding the impacts of soil degradation on the functions performed by them is essential to understand its importance in environmental balance. Inadequate uses and management can progressively reduce the soil's ecological memory and make it more fragile. This, then, can contribute to increasing the susceptibility of the soil to degradation or reducing the capacity for regeneration, which would lead to environmental disasters, such as the effects caused by desertification (Nunes et al. 2020).
In arid, semi‐arid and sub‐humid regions, for example, the inappropriate use and exploitation of soils have been triggering changes over time in the various systems and leading to a strong environmental degradation called desertification. Desertification is a term that became widespread in the 1970s, especially from 1977 when the United Nations Environment Program held the Nairobi Conference in Kenya. In the 1990s, the discussion increased due to the tragic consequences that the phenomenon unleashed in some countries of the world, mainly in Africa, but it was from the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994) that desertification was recognized as a problem environment with high human, social, and economic cost (Suertegaray 1996).
Desertification is a notable example of the impacts of land degradation on climate and society. According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi‐arid and sub‐humid regions to drought resulting from various factors, ranging from natural causes such as climate change and variability, to activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, and agriculture (UE 2018).
Desertification results in socioeconomic deterioration through the progressive reduction of biomass, reduction of rainfall, increase in average temperature, soil infertility, intensification of erosion processes, reduction of the natural resilience of the land, reduction of water quality, decrease in food supply, increased malnutrition and hunger, economic stagnation, and rural exodus (EU 2018; Geist e Lambin 2004).
Figure 1.10 The Great Red Desert of Australia (Australian Outback).
Source: Photo courtesy of Érica C. Nolasco.
It is estimated that each year around 20,000 km2 of productive land will be destroyed by desertification (estimates from the United Nations Environmental Program–UNEP) and that the Sahara Desert has advanced, in some stretches, up to 100 km, which may also be happening in other deserts such as the Great Red Desert of Australia (Australian Outback), Atacama in Chile, and Uyuni in Bolivia (Figure 1.10). However, it is also important to emphasize the reduction of decertified areas in different areas, making the global assessment complex (Conti, 2002).
Soil degradation and soil sensitivity to desertification seem to have intensified in recent decades in many parts of the world. There are estimates suggesting a potential global increase in soil erosion driven by the expansion of agricultural land (Borrelli et al. 2017), which will produce heterogeneous spatial patterns determined by the interaction of factors such as climate, changes in land use, and human pressures. Increasing levels of soil degradation and soil sensitivity to desertification are reflected in increasingly complex (and non‐linear) relationships between environmental and socioeconomic variables (Salvati et al. 2015).
1.3 Soil Protection, Conservation, and Recuperation Strategies
Due to the complexity and amplitude of soil degradation processes, before adopting protection, conservation, and recovery measures, it is necessary to identify, understand, and measure them (Salvati et al. 2015), using visual, physical, chemical, biological, and ecological variables, as presented in the previous item. Different authors have applied analytical strategies and statistical methodologies capable of approaching and quantifying the spatio‐temporal evolution of degraded areas, among them Nicholson (2005), Salvati et al. (2015), and Nunes et al. (2022).
Nicholson (2005) used the vegetation index to study desertification in the Sahel between 1981 and 2005 and observed pulsating vegetation cover across seasons. The author emphasized that placing plant growth data side by side with rainfall data is a good method for assessing whether a productive area is becoming desert or not. It is important, however, to be cautious, as the use of vegetation can also represent shallow soils, rocky outcrops and fields that are no longer being cultivated. Fieldwork and using satellite images with higher spatial resolution are necessary for further clarification, but the vegetation index certainly helps to select places where studies should be conducted (Nicholson 2005; Nunes et al. 2022).
Salvati et al. (2015) used an approach in the study of soil degradation that considers integrated biophysical and socioeconomic aspects, called the complex adaptive systems approach (CAS). CAS simulate the non‐linear relationships between its components, characterized by positive and negative feedback mechanisms. They are adaptive because system elements self‐organize according to external and internal inputs that are both determinants and products of system function (Salvati and Zitti 2008). It is believed that due to these characteristics, CAS can better simulate the dynamics of complex systems such as the soil.
