Agroforestry E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
This book offers comprehensive insights into the management of agroforestry for livelihood security and sustainable development in the tropics, addressing ecological interactions, productivity, and the monetization of carbon credits, while also outlining a future roadmap and policy challenges.
Agroforestry is a brilliant land use farming practice that covers 1.6 billion hectares (78 percent in the tropics and 22 percent in the temperate regions) to enhance plant diversification, productivity, and livelihood across generations, maintaining eco-restoration. It ensures socioeconomic upliftment and a standard livelihood for people along with many ecosystem services for sustainable development under resilient climates, which are today’s key topics popularized among policy makers, stakeholders, scientists, ecologists, and climate supporters in the tropical world. However, more than 75 percent of the world’s poor directly depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. Adopting climate resilient agroforestry not only maximizes productivity and farmers’ socioeconomic status but also mitigates climate change issues through carbon sequestrations for better carbon management in the tropics.
This book addresses agroforestry management for livelihood security and sustainable development in the tropics. Readers will earn about ecological interactions and productivity in tropical agroforestry ensuring greater ecosystem services and livelihood resilience under changing climates, as well as building livelihood resilience through monetization of carbon credits in agroforestry in the tropics. Livelihood and sustainability-based policy in agroforestry, its challenges, and a future roadmap are also covered. This volume provides new insights related to updated research, development and extension activities for combating climate change through carbon sequestration to enhance intensify greater productivity, and livelihood and ecosystem services for ensuring the goals of sustainable development.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Agroforestry: A Sustainable Approach
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Agroforestry in the World
1.3 Tree Crop System in Agroforestry: A View from Ecological Lens
1.4 Agroforestry Services and Its Sustainability
1.5 Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies
1.6 Carbon Credit in Agroforestry for Net Zero Emissions and Its Monetization
1.7 Agroforestry Modeling and Assessment
1.8 Economics and Livelihood Resilience in Agroforestry
1.9 The Challenges and Solutions for Agroforestry Promotions
1.10 Policy and Future Thrust in Agroforestry
1.11 Conclusion
References
2 Outlooks on Major Agroforestry Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Importance of Agroforestry in Sustainable Agriculture and Future
2.3 Classification of Agroforestry System
2.4 Constraints of Agroforestry and Solutions
2.5 Identified Gaps and Prospects
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Synergies Between Tree Crops and Ecosystems in Tropical Agroforestry
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Tree Species Present in Agroforestry Systems
3.3 Selection of Tree Species
3.4 Benefits of Tree Component
3.5 Challenges Implementing Tree-Agroforestry Systems
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Agroforestry System Modeling as a Tool for Sustainability Planning: Current Trends, Limitations, and Way Forward
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Datasets
4.3 Need for Agroforestry System Modeling
4.4 Current Scenario of Agroforestry Modeling
4.5 Major Challenges in Agroforestry Modeling
4.6 Limitations and Way Forward
4.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Revealing the Enigmatic Riches of Bamboo Shoots: An Exemplary Source of Nourishment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Interwoven Symphony: The Symbiotic Relationship Between Agroforestry and Bamboo
5.3 Economic and Social Importance of Agroforestry Systems Utilizing Bamboo
5.4 Social Functions of Agroforestry Systems Utilizing Bamboo
5.5 Overview of Bamboo-Based Agroforestry in India
5.6 Bamboo Shoot: An Overview
5.7 Overview of the Worldwide Situation Regarding Bamboo Shoots
5.8 Overview of the Indian Situation Regarding Bamboo Shoots
5.9 Bamboo Shoot: An Edible Source of Sustenance
5.10 Physical Characteristics of Bamboo Shoots
5.11 Chemical Characteristics of Bamboo Shoots
5.12 Nutritional Characteristics of Bamboo Shoots
5.13 The Value-Added Products Made from Bamboo Shoots
5.14 Utilization of Newly Harvested Bamboo Shoots as a Dietary Source
5.15 Dried and Canned Bamboo Shoots as Food Products
5.16 Utilization of Bamboo Shoots as Fermented Comestibles
5.17 Powder Derived from Bamboo Shoots
5.18 Therapeutic Properties of Bamboo Shoots
5.19 Bamboo Shoots: A Traditional Source of Information
5.20 Investigating the Pharmaceutical Potential of Bamboo Shoots
5.21 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap for Bamboo-Based Agroforestry System
5.22 Conclusion
References
6 Sustainable Spatial Agroforestry in the Context of Forestry Globalization: Strategic Guidelines
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Globalization Processes and Sustainable Spatial Agriculture and Forestry Development
6.3 Sustainable Spatial Forestry in the Context of Rural Agroforestry Development
6.4 Forestry as a Defining Characteristic of the Spatial Forestry and Agriculture Transformation in the Context of Global Environmental Challenges
6.5 Sustainable Spatial Forestry and Agroforestry Transformation: Social, Ecological, Economic, and Institutional Conditions
6.6 Structuring the Economic Forestry Space in View of Global Environmental Challenges
6.7 Agroforestry: Organizational, Environmental, and Economic Aspects
6.8 Economic and Environmental Management of Entrepreneurial Agroforestry: Strategic Guidelines
6.9 Environmentally Oriented Forestry and Agriculture Integration
6.10 Global Agroforestry Policy: Strategic Guidelines
6.11 Conclusions and Future Research Roadmap
References
7 Introduced and Indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizae on Growth and Establishment of
Eucalyptus terreticornis Seedlings in Lateritic Soil
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.3 Result
7.4 Discussion
7.5 Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
Ethical Approval
Funding
Author Contributions
Acknowledgment
References
8 Ecosystem Services Through Agroforestry Systems and Its Sustainability
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Ecosystem Concepts and Their Components
8.3 Effect of Ecosystem
8.4 Ecosystem Services
8.5 Agroforestry System Concept
8.6 Ecosystem Services Through Agroforestry Systems
8.7 Agroforestry Systems and Their Sustainability
8.8 Conclusion
References
9 Agroforestry for Soil Health
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Factors Responsible for Soil Nutrient Loss in Conventional Farming
9.3 Agroforestry vs. Conventional Farming on Soil Health Management
9.4 Soil Quality Assessment
9.5 Agroforestry and Sustainability
9.6 Future Emphasis on Priority Sectors for Hill Agriculture for Sustaining Soil Health Quality
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Fostering Food and Nutritional Security Through Agroforestry Practices
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agroforestry Practices and the Food Security Pillars Defined by FAO
10.3 Global Diversity of Agroforestry Practices
10.4 Channel of Agroforestry Practices Involvement in Food and Nutritional Security
10.5 Benefits of Agroforestry Practices to Food and Nutritional Security
10.6 Constraints for Adoption of Agroforestry
10.7 Agroforestry for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Agroforestry for Climate Security
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Agroforestry System’s Main Features
11.3 Agroforestry Benefits
11.4 Climate Security Concept
11.5 Role of Agroforestry as a Climate Smart Technique
11.6 Integrating Agroforestry Into Climate Change Adaptation
11.7 Agroforestry Contribution to Climate Change Mitigation
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Carbon Storage and Dynamics in Different Agroforestry Systems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 History of Agroforestry
12.3 Significance of Agroforestry for Carbon Storage (CS)
12.4 Classification of Agroforestry
12.5 Agroforestry Systems of the World
12.6 Carbon Storage and Dynamics
12.7 Better Use of Land
12.8 A Climate Mitigation Strategy
12.9 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap of CS in Agroforestry System
12.10 Conclusion
References
13 Traditional Agroecosystems of Northeast India and Their Role in Climate Change Mitigation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Extent and Ecological Features of Traditional Agroecosystems
13.3 Major Traditional Agroecosystems of Northeast India
13.4 Performance of Biodiverse Agroecosystems Under Changing Global Climate
13.5 Policy and Future Roadmap for Mitigating Climate Change Through Traditional Agroecosystems
13.6 Conclusions
References
14 Bridging Sustainability: Exploring Carbon Trading in Agroforestry for Climate Resilience and Economic Viability
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Mechanism of Carbon Trading
14.3 Carbon Credit Pricing
14.4 Policy Framework
14.5 Rationale for Implementing Carbon Trading in the Context of Agroforestry
14.6 Current State of Carbon Trading in Agroforestry
14.7 Constraints
14.8 Methodological Approaches for Carbon Credit in Agroforestry
14.9 Prospects of Carbon Trading in Agroforestry
14.10 Policy Strategies for Carbon Trading in Agroforestry for Climate Resilience
14.11 Conclusion
References
15 Economic Studies in Agroforestry for Livelihood Security
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Economic Significance of Agroforestry
15.3 Social Impacts of Agroforestry
15.4 Economic Benefits of Agroforestry in Comparison to Conventional Agriculture
15.5 Market and Value Chains
15.6 Various Analytical Tools to Evaluate Economic Gains
15.7 Emerging Potential of Agroforestry as Business Enterprise for Livelihood Security
15.8 Conclusion
References
16 Impact of Agroforestry Practices on Fauna in Malaysia: From Arthropod to Large Mammal
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Agroforestry System in Malaysia
16.3 The Impact of Agroforestry in Malaysia
16.4 Moving Forward with Agroforestry System in Malaysia
16.5 Conclusion
References
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Agroforestry-based ecosystem services [73, 74].
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Different tree species present in agroforestry systems.
Table 3.2 Carbon sequestration capacity of different agroforestry systems in t...
Table 3.3 Diversity of birds in different land use systems [50].
Table 3.4 Percentage value of soil organic matter (SOM) under different tree-b...
Table 3.5 Nitrogen-fixing potential of N
2
-fixing plants [64].
Table 3.6 Comparison of root strength of different agroforestry trees [79].
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Various kinds of positive and negative effects of agroforestry syste...
Table 4.2 Agroforestry models and its spatial representation, objectives, and ...
Table 4.3 Agroclimatic zones and their extension of AF area (according to ICAR...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Economic value of bamboo.
Table 5.2 Regional distribution of bamboo shoots in India.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparative analysis of globalization processes and sustainable spat...
Table 6.2 The main objectives for the TSAC establishment.
Table 6.3 The upper price level for the creation of erosion control and forest...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Seasonal variation of rhizospheric soil condition and AM status of
E
...
Table 7.2 Effect of three indigenous and one exotic AM fungi on growth of
Euca
...
Table 7.3 AM colonization, spore density, and plant NPK content.
Table 7.4 Effect of inoculation with the three local and one introduced arbusc...
Table 7.5 Correlation coefficient of root AM colonization and MD with growth p...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Ecosystem services offered by agroforestry.
Table 8.2 Agroforestry system used in the world [30, 31].
Table 8.3 Soil chemical fertility improvement in agroforestry system.
Table 8.4 Carbon storage potential in different locations under the agroforest...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Major agroforestry systems of India on soil carbon storage.
Table 9.2 Biological nitrogen fixation by leguminous and actinorhizal trees an...
Table 9.3 Annual leaf litterfall contributed carbon and selected nutrients (me...
Table 9.4 Landuses and carbon sequestration potential [18].
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Classification of major agroforestry systems [9–11].
Table 10.2 Concentrations of soil nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),...
Table 10.3 Variation of soil organic carbon content across different agrofores...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Carbon sequestration potential in different agroecological zones [8...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Carbon pools in agroforestry [89].
Table 12.2 Carbon storage capability of different regions of the world.
Table 12.3 Biomass carbon on agricultural lands [114].
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Agroecosystem and their types and characteristics.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Price of carbon credit in different emission trading systems around...
Table 14.2 Assessment of rate of carbon sequestration capacity in various agro...
Table 14.3 Afforestation/reforestation project working under Clean Development...
Table 14.4 Potential carbon credit revenue generation from the agroforestry sy...
Table 14.5 Methodological tools for activities related to A/R CDM projects (re...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Various studies on socio-economic impacts of agroforestry.
Table 15.2 Comprehensive review of economic studies done around the world in r...
Table 15.3 Various valuation methods opted in agroforestry.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Estimated number of flora and fauna species in Malaysia [2, 3].
Table 16.2 Crop yield enhancement as a result of the protection from tree shel...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Agroforestry services and significance and its sustainability [33].
Figure 1.2 Different approaches to reduce climate change and its consequences ...
Figure 1.3 Carbon storage value of different agroforestry system in agroecolog...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Classification of agroforestry systems.
Figure 2.2 Agroforestry system: Shelterbelt (a) showing eucalyptus plants purp...
Figure 2.3 Silvopasture (pine trees, pasture, and goats): The picture was take...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Different tree-based agroforestry systems in the tropical region; (...
Figure 3.2 The scientific basis of basic agronomic practices by households for...
Figure 3.3 Carbon sink capacity of different agroforestry systems in the world...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Medium resolution sub-pixel agroforestry mapping framework.
Figure 4.2 High-resolution object-based agroforestry mapping framework.
Figure 4.3 Various AF zones of India as mentioned in Table 4.3 [12].
Figure 4.4 Agroforestry models and their contributions.
Figure 4.5 Agroforestry models and their complexities.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Bamboo and its commercial uses.
Figure 5.2 Image of bamboo shoot.
Figure 5.3 List of chemical constituents present in bamboo shoots.
Figure 5.4 Bamboo shoots and its medicinal properties.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Forestry classification. *FRP, forest resource potential; FR, fores...
Figure 6.2 Classification of forest functions in view of sustainable spatial f...
Figure 6.3 Interrelation of the agroforestry policy with forestry, agrarian, a...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Shoot height of AMF-treated and non-treated plants in nursery.
Figure 7.2 Leaf area of AMF-treated and non-treated plants in nursery.
Figure 7.3 Collar diameter of area of AMF-treated and non-treated plants in nu...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Components of an ecosystem.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Agroforestry significance in soil health management. (Author's own....
Figure 9.2 Microbial and bacterial response under agroforestry systems (source...
Figure 9.3 Leaf litter and fine root production of prominent MPTs (source: [18...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Major agroforestry systems: (a) Agri-silvicultural systems; (b) si...
Figure 10.2 Visual concept: Interrelated of food security four pillars and def...
Figure 10.3 Diverse tree-based different agroforestry systems in tropical regi...
Figure 10.4 Linkages between agroforestry and food nutrition security [59–61].
Figure 10.5 The variations in soil organic matter content between the mono coc...
Figure 10.6 Sustainable Development Goals under five categories and goals that...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Climate change and possible security threats [54].
Figure 11.2 Agroforestry system as climate-smart technique [38, 41].
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Agroforestry system [45].
Figure 12.2 Agroforestry systems (world).
Figure 12.3 Composition-based classification of agroforestry [46].
Figure 12.4 CS capability of various land use and management practices [125].
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Traditional home garden of Assam, Northeast India, with mixed cult...
Figure 13.2 Bamboo groves common in the backyard of Assamese home garden, Nort...
Figure 13.3 Tea garden of Assam, Northeast India, with shade trees and black p...
Figure 13.4 Commercial plantation of Arecanut and Coconuts with crops.
Figure 13.5 Carbon sequestration process in an agroforestry system [94].
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Types of carbon trading market.
Figure 14.2 Potential benefits of carbon trading in agroforestry.
Figure 14.3 Challenges for carbon trading in agroforestry.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Comprehensive analysis of agroforestry: benefits, opportunities, c...
Figure 15.2 Principles of economics in agroforestry.
Figure 15.3 Comparative analyses of economic realities between agroforestry an...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Ficus
species as epiphytes that act as food source for frugivores ...
Figure 16.2 Oil palm plantations in Selangor, Malaysia, that accommodate under...
Figure 16.3
Polypedates leucomystax.
Figure 16.3
Fejevarya cancrivora.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Agroforestry
Edited by
Abhishek Raj
Manoj Kumar Jhariya
Arnab Banerjee
Ramesh Kumar Jha
and
Krishan Pal Singh
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-23113-3
Front cover images supplied by Wikimedia Commons and Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
List of Contributors
Arnab Banerjee, Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya, Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Abhishek Raj, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, India
Ramesh Kumar Jha, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, India
Krishan Pal Singh, K.D. College of Horticulture and Research Station, MGUHF, Bastar, India
Inna Koblianska, Sumy State University, Ukraine
Kamlesh Verma, ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Zarifa farm, Karnal, India
Prashant Sharma, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
D.R. Bhardwaj, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
Subhashree Patra, Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Shilky, Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Purabi Saikia, Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Amit Kumar, Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
M.L. Khan, Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India
Aakriti Singh Sisodiya, Department of Food Processing and Technology
Atal Bihari, Vajpayee Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Soumitra Tiwari, Department of Food Processing and Technology, Atal Bihari Vajpayee Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Luciana R. Chappa, Department of Economics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Emmanuely Z. Nungula, Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania
Yamikani H. Makwinja, Department of Forestry, Ministry of Natural Resources and Climate Change, Blantyre, Malawi
Shivani Ranjan, Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
Sumit Sow, Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
Ashwaq M. Alnemari, Biology Department, College of Science and Humanities, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia
Sagar Maitra, Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India
Mahmoud F. Seleiman, Plant Production Department, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Riziki Mwadalu, Central Highlands Eco-Region Research Programme, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
Harun I. Gitari, Department of Agricultural Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Enterprise Development, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
Muhammad Ali Raza, College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
Dissanayaka D. M. N. S., Agronomy Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
Udumann S. S., Agronomy Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
T. D. Nuwarapaksha, Agronomy Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
S. S. Udumann, Agronomy Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
Anjana J. Atapattu, Agronomy Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
Upasana Mahato, Cleaner Technology and Modelling Division, CSIRNational Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Rakesh Kadaverugu, Cleaner Technology and Modelling Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Yevhen Mishenin, Institute of Agroecology and Environmental Management of NAAS, Ukraine
Inessa Yarova, Sumy State University, Ukraine
Iqram Ahmed Khan, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Shujaul Mulk Khan, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Sadia Jahangir, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Shahab Ali, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Gulnar Kairzhanovna Tulindinova, Higher School of Natural Sciences, Pavlodar Pedagogical University named after A. Margulan
Alisha Keprate, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India
Vaishali Sharma, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India
Sonaly Bhatnagar, Department of Business Management, College of Horticulture, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India
Ruchi Thakur, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India
Ghazanfer Abbas, Forest College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Mettupalayam, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Nur Nadiah Md Yusof, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Nurulhuda Zakaria, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia
Nurfarah Ain Limin, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Izzati Adilah Azmir, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Muhammad Al Amin Amran, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohammad Shahfiz Azman, Zoology Branch, Fauna Biodiversity Programme, Forest Biodiversity Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
Hamizah Md Rasid, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohd Nazip, Suratman Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Somdatta Ghosh, Dept of Botany (UG & PG), Midnapore College, Midnapur, W.B., India
N. K. Verma, Retd. Professor, Department of Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapur; W.B., India
Nongmaithem Raju Singh, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
Ashish Singh, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
N. Peetambari Devi, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat (Manipur), India
Y. Bijen Kumar, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
Rumki H. Ch. Sangma, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
Philanim W.S., ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
M. Prabha Devi, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, (Meghalaya)
Pempa Lamu Bhutia, ICAR-Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnaphani, Medziphema, Nagaland, India
Satya Prakash Vishwakarma, Department of Forestry, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
Preface
Agroforestry (AF) is a suitable land-use practice covering 1.6 billion hectacres (78% in the tropics and 22% in the temperate regions) that enhances plant diversification and productivity and maintains ecorestoration. It ensures socioeconomic upliftment and people’s livelihoods and various ecosystem services for sustainable development in today’s climate, which is today’s key topic popularized among policymakers, stakeholders, scientists, ecologists, and climate supporters globally. Agroforestry provides tangible and intangible benefits in sustainable ways in the world. Modifying tree–crop interaction also plays a key role in plant productivity in different agroforestry systems (AFs) in the tropics, which further ensure socioeconomic development and livelihood security. However, more than 75% of the world’s poor directly depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. Adopting climate-resilient AF not only maximizes productivity and farmer’s socioeconomic status but also mitigates climate change issues through carbon sequestrations for better carbon management in the tropics. However, various anthropogenic factors lead to natural resources degradations that induce climate change issues with maximizing carbon footprints. Farmers adopting sustainable farming practices especially AFs in the tropics, in the long run, not only are benefitting from the additional income that they can generate via selling these carbon credits but also are improving their soil health, yield quality, acreage, and profitability. The carbon trading in the tropical AF is seen as a way to provide financial incentives for farmers to adopt environmentally friendly practices, which helps to mitigate climate change. Moreover, AF importance and services are not on pause due its huge potentials that fulfill nine out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goald (SDGs). Poverty reduction (SDG-1), zero hunger policy (SDG-2), health improvement and good well-being (SDG-3), gender equality (SDG-5), economic growth and nation development (SDG-8), reduction inequality (SDG-10), greater productivity (SDG-12), climate action plan (SDG-13), and life on land (SDG-15) are the key nine goals addressed in SDGs that can be achieved through sustainable AFs. Therefore, scientific management strategies in AF would maximize plant diversity; intensify ecosystem services, greater plant productivity, and higher socioeconomic and livelihood generation; and maximize carbon restoration along with many other environmental services for sustainable development.
The present book addresses the outlooks on major AFs along with AF management for livelihood security and sustainable development in the world. Ecological interactions and productivity in tropical AFs ensure that greater ecosystem services and livelihood resilience under a changing climate are also discussed. Building livelihood resilience through monetization of carbon credits in AF in the tropics is also discussed. Livelihood and its sustainability-based policy in AF; its challenges and future roadmap are also included. It would also focus on new insights related to updated research, development, and extension activities for combating climate change through carbon sequestration in AF that enhance intensify greater productivity, livelihood, and ecosystem services for ensuring the goal of sustainable development. This further ensures soil, food, and climate security through adoption of sustainable AF management approach.
Textbooks are available on the global market that address specific issues on agriculture, as well as its production and environmental consequences. The present title would integrate all the concepts into a single dimension from which various scientists, research scholars, academicians, and policymakers can benefit, with updated information. New insights are very much important in this particular aspect as our very existence depends on AF sustainability, ecosystem services, and environmental management. The present book consists of some specific research case studies considering traditional agroecosystems of Northeast India and their role in climate change mitigation. Case studies on different AF practices and its impacts on fauna (from arthropod to large mammals) in Malaysia are also included. Different modeling tools for AF management and its sustainability are briefly discussed. Carbon storage and dynamics in different AFs are also incorporated in this book. Carbon trading in AF and its monetization for farmer’s benefits along with various economic studies for livelihood security are especially described. Intensive agriculture practices, deforestation activities, climate change risks, and related consequences along with its mitigation and adaptation are present in this book. These would provide new insights into the field of AF services and environmental management. Some titles update the reader about the current scenario on AFs India/Asia/ Europe/world, afforestation activities, food security, carbon storage, sustainable intensification, resource conservation, sustainability and services, and soil and plant management. Therefore, the present title would help to address current issues and their management holistically. The objectives that will be fulfilled by the present title are as follows: (1) present context of outlooks on major AFs, (2) identify the key areas of research in the field of AF for environmental management, (3) identify the AF services and their potential role for ecosystem sustainability, (4) give global awareness in this context so that future policies can be framed from this for the betterment of human civilization, and (5) address sustainable and climate-resilient AF for land and environmental management and service.
This book will be a standard reference work for the disciplines such as agroforestry, forestry, agriculture, ecology, and environmental science as well as will be a way forward towards strategy formulation for combating climate change. It would help the academicians, researchers, ecologists, environmentalists, students, capacity builders, and, overall, the policymakers to have in-depth knowledge in these diverse fields. Eminent academicians and scientists across the globe are invited to share with the editors their scientific innovation, research outputs, views, and opinions, an experience that would enlighten the academic community. Each of the chapters has good scientific support in terms of scientific database, diagram, tables, graph, image, picture, and flowchart as per the requirement with proper recent updated citation. All the chapters have been thoroughly reviewed by the respective editors in their specific discipline, which enriches the chapter content from a research perspective. This exciting new volume sets a roadmap for the preparation of sustainability in AF, which ensures ecorestoration of land degradation in the future. The editors would appreciate receiving comments from readers that may assist in the development of future editions.
Abhishek Raj
Pusa, Samastipur, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Arnab Banerjee
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Ramesh Kumar Jha
Pusa, Samastipur, India
Krishan Pal Singh
Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India
1Agroforestry: A Sustainable Approach
Abhishek Raj1*, Manoj Kumar Jhariya2, Arnab Banerjee3, Ramesh Kumar Jha1 and Krishan Pal Singh4
1Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture and Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Samastipur, Bihar, India
2Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
3Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
4K.D. College of Horticulture and Research Station, MGUHF, Bastar, India
Abstract
Agroforestry is a suitable land-use farming practice that covers 1.6 billion ha (78% in the tropics and 22% in the temperate regions), which enhance biodiversity, land productiveness, and people’s livelihood and maintains eco-restoration with global sustainability. It is characterized by intentional tree integration into agricultural systems and presents multifaceted advantages. Agroforestry system improves soil fertility, acts as windbreaks, and reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by sequestering atmospheric CO2. It delivers various ecological services and restoring the ability of the ecosystem to tackle various global environmental challenges like GHG emissions, soil erosion air and water pollution, soil fertility decline, floods, and extreme temperatures as well as food insecurity. Further, the prospects of carbon trading in agroforestry lies in its dual role of enhancing climate resilience and generating additional revenue for farmers. Climate-resilient agroforestry technology has tremendous potential to improve productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce GHG emissions in managing ecological balance, economic viability, and social well-being. A constructive policy is needed for promoting agroforestry practices and its diversified models in various ecological regions, which helps in maintaining soil, food, and climate security with strengthening farmer’s livelihood and sustainability.
Keywords: Agroforestry system, climate change mitigation, carbon credit, ecosystem services, greenhouse gases, soil fertility, food security
1.1 Introduction
Agroforestry refers to a land-use approach that integrates (either alternately or simultaneously) trees with livestock or seasonal crops within or outside forest areas through temporal and spatial patterns [1, 2]. It performs various social, economic, and ecological services [3]. This practice transforms agricultural land into more productive agro-ecological land-use system that helps in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [4]. In an agroforestry system, woody perennials are purposefully planted alongside crops and/or animals in a specific temporal or spatial arrangement [5]. It is a traditional land-use system proficient in meeting a broad range of socioeconomic needs sustainably at a variety of agroecological conditions [6]. Leguminous species that are used in agroforestry help in improving the soil nitrogen content and the overall nutrient cycling [7]. The fast-growing tree, Populus deltoides, is commonly planted alongside other crops like wheat and sugarcane at wide spacings on boundaries, within plots, and in woodlots in the alluvial plains of North India. It yields great returns for farmers during a short rotational period of less than 10 years while also providing softwood for the pulp and plywood industries [6]. The prioritization of agroforestry innovations on degraded lands is a strategic endeavor aimed at fostering environmental sustainability, propelling the advancement of food and fodder security, and ultimately attaining the esteemed United Nations’ SDGs. Agroforestry, as an age-old land utilization system, holds the potential to effectively address a multitude of contemporary and forthcoming environmental predicaments. Agroforestry has the potential to assume a significant role in augmenting productivity, fostering sustainability, and conserving resources. Agroforestry is well-known for its ecosystem services potential including carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, improvement of soil productivity, and water cycling, together with boosting agricultural productivity. Potential services offered by agroforestry aim to provide sustainable productivity, increase water quality, improve food security, reduce biodiversity loss, combat climate change, and alleviate poverty, to achieve SDGs by 2030 [8, 9]. The adoption of agroforestry practices is increasingly gaining global popularity as it is being advocated as a tool for combating environmental challenges. Practicing an appropriate agroforestry system will not only reduce the deforestation problem but also offer financial support. Such integration patterns of trees and crops will solve the major issues of food insecurity, fuel wood demand, clean water, and soil nutrient decline. Aji et al. [10] acknowledged the role that forest trees play in producing raw materials, employment, good healthcare, income, and food, among other benefits. The benefits of agroforestry are growing, including the restoration of degraded environments, reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and other co-benefits [11].
This chapter discusses about agroforestry system and practices with area coverage in global perspectives. Tree crop system in agroforestry and related multifarious ecosystem services are also included. Carbon credit and its monetization along with climate change mitigation through agroforestry system are incorporated in the chapter. Agroforestry modeling and its assessment along economics and livelihood resilience in agroforestry are also discussed rigorously. The challenges and constraint of agroforestry promotions and its solutions through adopting constructive policy and related roadmap are discussed in the last part of the chapter.
1.2 Agroforestry in the World
Agroforestry systems are very adaptable agroecosystem that may be recognized in nearly any region of the world. The percentage of farmland with at least 10% tree cover was determined to be 10.1 million km2 or 46% of all agricultural land worldwide [12]. In addition, agroforestry covers around half of the land area in the Caribbean, Asia, and South and Central America. Dhyani and Handa [13] reported that the estimated extent of agroforestry practices in India found to be 25.31 m ha, which accounts for 8.2% of the country’s recorded geographical extent. Recent estimates from Arunachalam et al. [14] reveal that agroforestry covers a total area of 28.427 million ha across all 15 agro-climatic zones in India. This accounts for around 8.65% of the nation’s land area, which amounts to 328.747 million ha. Furthermore, almost 79.2% of the nation’s whole landmass is classified as highly or somewhat appropriate for the adoption of agroforestry [15].
Agroforestry ensures permanent vegetation cover by “perennialization” of agriculture which protect ecosystem and its sustainability. Paddy with MPTs (multipurpose trees) in Chhattisgarh state is well-known example of agroforestry system [16]. Similarly, West Africa–based Parkland system and Germany-based Streuobst (traditional orchard meadows) are recognized agroforestry system in the world [17]. “Cinderella systems” is also famous agroforestry model and sustainable land-use system that was rediscovered recently [18]. Homegarden is a traditional agroforestry system practiced almost throughout India as it supplies most of the household requirements. In addition to providing food and a source of income for the owner, a home garden can also maintain the hydrological cycle, reduce water scarcity, conserve soil, make desirable-quality water available, and naturally disperse the seeds of beneficial species [19]. Home gardens in Sri Lanka, which are smallholder agroforestry system, play a pivotal role in the overall national crop and timber production. These home gardens are characterized by their practice of cultivating a variety of trees and crops in multiple layers, typically located in close proximity to the family dwelling [20]. Alder-based agriculture is a popular type of agroforestry system prevailing in India in addition to tea plantations, paan jhum, and woodlots [21]. The unique physiography and climatic conditions prefer various traditional agroecosystems including the trees on farmlands for forage, fuelwood, vegetables, and other household utilities in addition to settled agriculture (e.g., paddy cultivation) and hill ecosystems like jhum and taungya cultivation that is generally performed by many tribal communities in Northeast India [22]. In Northeast India, betel leaf farming is a customary agroforestry technique that involves deliberately planting betel vines alongside other tree species on the same piece of land as it is associated with their societies and cultures. Similarly, Bamboo-centric agroforestry systems have been seamlessly incorporated within various agricultural landscapes, including farmlands, homesteads, degraded lands, and riparian filters of the tropical world. At present, the implementation of agroforestry innovations is widely acknowledged and advocated for as a viable means to foster sustainability, guarantee food security, and effectively attain the United Nations’ SDGs [23]. Through the augmentation of livelihood security, the amelioration of quality of life, the preservation of ecosystems, and the promotion of economic growth, the implementation of agroforestry systems centered around bamboo holds the potential to facilitate the attainment of sustainable development. Therefore, agroforestry has become increasingly important in recent times due to its ability to meet the diverse needs of people and sustain the fragile ecosystem for future generations.
1.3 Tree Crop System in Agroforestry: A View from Ecological Lens
The synergy between tree crops and ecosystems provides multifaceted advantages, encompassing ecosystem services, biodiversity enhancement, climate change mitigation, and socioeconomic benefits [24, 25]. Tree crops in agroforestry systems offer numerous pathways for biodiversity conservation, enhancing ecological diversity and supporting various species, contributing to the overall health and resilience of ecosystems [26]. Thus, studying tree–crop system in different agroforestry models at the scientific level entirely affects plants yield and productivity [27]. The cultural and traditional significance of certain tree crops in agroforestry systems is deeply rooted in the history, heritage, and identity of local communities. These trees often play a central role in cultural practices, rituals, and traditions, and their preservation and conservation are essential for maintaining the cultural fabric of these communities. The synergies between tree crops and ecosystems in tropical agroforestry hold immense promise for addressing the pressing challenges. The synergies between tree crops and ecosystems in tropical agroforestry offer a path toward a more harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature in the tropics, where both can flourish together for generations to come. Furthermore, these systems offer vital habitat provisions with diverse vegetation, nurturing various species and fostering ecological equilibrium, acting as critical biodiversity corridors that connect fragmented habitats and facilitate genetic diversity.
1.4 Agroforestry Services and Its Sustainability
Provisioning services includes forest wood, timber, fuelwood, fodder, medicine, cash crop, and bioenergy. Soil fertility maintenance, carbon sequestration, pollination services, climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and disease and pest management are important regulating services. However, many past and recent studies are available on multifarious benefits provided by agroforestry at different landscape levels. These benefits and services are based on social, economic, cultural, and environmental scale [28]. Agroforestry represents domestication of both woody perennial trees and herbaceous crops. This is a sustainable land-use farming system practiced by ancient humans in the tropical regions. However, it is problem-solving science recognized during last three decades due to multiple benefits and service functions. A 20% of global population (approximately 1.20 billion people) depends on agroforestry practices and related products and services in urban and rural areas of developing countries [29]. Biodiversity conservation, bio-drainage, erosion control, carbon sequestration, soil improvement, land restoration, and climate change mitigation are key important service functions provided by agroforestry system. Restoration of degraded land through agroforestry practices can offer many potential benefits for local communities as food production and livelihood security [30]. Reconciling agroforestry production with greater biodiversity maximizes service functions at the landscape level [31]. Moreover, agroforestry reduce carbon footprints and climate change issue due to greater potential of carbon sequestration and landscape restoration [32]. Agroforestry services and significance and its sustainability are depicted in Figure 1.1 [33]. Therefore, different agroforestry models deliver variety of ecological functions, which represent its greater multifunctional role in ecosystem management.
Figure 1.1 Agroforestry services and significance and its sustainability [33].
1.5 Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies
The most significant environmental problem facing all living things, including humans, is climate change, which disrupts natural ecosystems, agroecosystem, and human health. Deforestation, land degradation, water scarcity, and a host of health problems are frequently brought on by climate change. The threat posed by climate change has drastically altered the agricultural system and food security globally. Agroforestry offers a range of practices and techniques that can effectively mitigate climate change in several ways [34, 35]. Different approaches to reduce climate change and its consequences are depicted in Figure 1.2 [36]. Sustainable practices of agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, and grassland/pastureland have a greater sequestration of carbon that ensures climate security and maintains carbon storage and flux in the ecosystem [37–42]. Agroforestry is gaining more attention as a means for addressing changing climate by capturing carbon and decreasing the release of GHGs, in addition to its widespread use [43]. Based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC’s) land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) assessment from 2000, agroforestry practices have been recognized as the most effective land use in terms of rate of carbon storage by 2040, surpassing other evaluated land uses. The carbon stocks in agroforestry practices can vary from 29 t C ha-1 and 228 t C ha-1 [44]. Moreover, agroforestry has the ability to reduce 1.1–2.2 petagrams of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems for next three decades [45, 46]. Furthermore, tree-bearing dry agro-ecosystems in Rajasthan sequester between 23.46 t C ha-1 yr-1 and 47.36 t C ha-1 yr-1, whereas agroforests in northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh sequester 19.56 t C ha-1 yr-1 [47]. Unlike typical agroforestry practices, bamboo-based systems exhibited rate of carbon sequestration varied from 6 t ha-1 yr-1 to 13 t ha-1 yr-1, representing a significant disparity [48]. Carbon storage value of different agroforestry system in agroecological regions is depicted in Figure 1.3 [49]. Agroforestry tree components act as windbreaks and shelterbelts to help in reducing the intensity of extreme weather events like floods, hurricanes, and tropical storms. Agroforestry systems appear to be the best option for reducing atmospheric carbon while also providing opportunities for biodiversity conservation and societal economic benefits. Agro-silvipastoral systems have the potential to be GHG producers, and agro-silvicultural systems, which grow crops and trees together, are net sinks. Moreover, the ability of agroforestry to mitigate climate change is influenced by a complex interaction of factors, including tree species, management practices, land history, climate, soil conditions, policy support, and community involvement. Maximizing its potential requires careful planning, proper management, and a holistic approach considering multiple factors to optimize carbon sequestration potential. Better agroforestry (AF) management can ensure C restoration in both plants and soils that enhance productivity. Cseq into the plant and soil can also be through a sustainable agroforestry system that promotes decarbonization and mitigate C footprints and climate change issues. Integrating fast-growing legume–based MPTs in any component of AFs enhances the sequestration of C and stores within the tree-soil system as biomass [50]. C farming practices in AFs reduce GHGs emissions that also enhance biomass and replenish soil fertility and SOC pool [51]. Alley cropping, home gardens, woodlots, protein banks, shelterbelt, windbreaks, taungya system, multifunctional improved fallow, and shifting cultivation perform major functions including greater potentials of Cseq. Similarly, drumstick-based cropping system becomes remunerative as tobacco along with greater provision of environmental services including higher soil organic carbon (SOC) pools with efficient nutrient management [52]. AFs potentially sequester more C than other agricultural systems due to higher diversification and variability [53]. Therefore, sustainable land-use system includes AFs, and conservation agriculture improves input use efficiency and resource conservation, which mitigate C footprints by enhancing C sequestration and decarbonization [54].
Figure 1.2 Different approaches to reduce climate change and its consequences [36].
Figure 1.3 Carbon storage value of different agroforestry system in agroecological regions [49].
1.6 Carbon Credit in Agroforestry for Net Zero Emissions and Its Monetization
Carbon management through C credit concept and its trading in agroforestry systems under changing climate are key topic today which popularized among policy makers, stakeholders, scientists, ecologists, and climate supporters in the world. Practicing sustainable or climate-resilient agroforestry ensures C storage that enhances C credits, and its monetization ensures high income to farmers. The scope of C credit markets continued to grow as more governments explored the implementation of domestic crediting mechanisms. However, there was a decrease in the issuance and retirement of C credits worldwide compared to the peak levels observed in 2021 [55]. Moreover, Minoli et al. [56] stated that, although C credit prices decreased in 2023, they anticipate a general increase in future costs, particularly for high-quality C credits. Agroforestry practices have gained recognition in C trading for generation of C credit because of their efficacy in mitigating emissions or sequestering C through storage [48]. Similarly, a better agroforestry management can ensure C restoration in both plants and soils that enhance C credits of land owner (farmers) along with greater productivity. Modifying tree–crop interaction maximize C sequestration in different agroforestry systems, which affects C credits values that can be used by many companies or government organizations for offsetting GHG emissions. Therefore, practicing sustainable or climate-resilient agroforestry maximizes plant diversity and C storage that enhance C credits, and its monetization ensures high income to farmers. These practices ensure ecosystem management that intensity various environmental services and ecological stability at the global scale.
1.7 Agroforestry Modeling and Assessment
Various kinds of models of AF are there with different levels of complications and dimensions. An ideal model for researchers should be able to optimize various products like total yield from trees and crops, fruits, and different woody products from AFs [57]. So, modeling platforms that have an embedded structure mimics various events belonging to various levels of complexity. Some basic functional tree branch analysis models are included for estimation of biomass from tree’s diameter. Some other AFs models have been developed for various impacts on surrounding environmental factors. The list of models (EPIC, Hi-sAFe, WaNuLCAS, SCUAF, and APSIM), which includes generic growth models in detail, covers various crops and trees. Specifically, SCUAF, Hi-sAFe, and WaNuLCAS have been developed for agroforestry systems [58, 59], whereas EPIC and APSIM are simple growth models of plants that have later been adapted to optimize the agroforestry systems. SCUAF (“Soil Changes under Agro-Forestry”) model is a remarkable instance of this, as both crop and tree growth observations as the first input data are utilized by this model and, after that, optimize various effects of AFs on different soil characteristics like soil erosion, nutrients, and total organic matter presents on soil. APSIM, a full framework of mechanistic optimization model, explains AFs in depth [60]. Many AFs models do not simulate carbon cycle of soil properly. Whereas, when it comes to carbon storage of plants (considering roots), most of the models estimate at least some aspects. More than half of AF models utilize the idea of efficiency of light use by plants for understanding accumulation rate of biomass and coefficients of various partitions to gather various organs of trees and crops of AF land [61, 62]. There are very few AF models (like WaNuLCAS and Hi-sAFE) that have a broader area of application for general optimization of AFs. Other models (such as HyCAS, SCUAF, and HyPAR) have never been utilized and not even tested, and these models have not been got regular basis maintenance. Although, WaNuLCAS and Hi-SAFE have been widely utilized and updated continuously. A good modeling framework can be designed by integrating various promising modules of each group. To address various problems, a longevity-based, compatible, and simple modular modeling approach is needed, which should consider various coupling models to meet the goal of innovative system frameworks and optimization of different interaction’s strategies in some conditional situation.
1.8 Economics and Livelihood Resilience in Agroforestry
The convergence of economic studies and agroforestry holds potential for augmenting livelihood security, a fundamental component of sustainable development in agrarian societies. Economic advantages encompass increased income, expanded employment opportunities, heightened resilience in livelihoods, and elevated living standards. The concept of livelihood security relates to the potential of people and communities to get necessary resources, produce revenue, and withstand financial crises. AFs are considered the cornerstone of the upland agricultural community for livelihood security in the Himalayas [63]. Various practices of agroforestry such as improved fallows improve on farm environment quality as well as help in the sustenance of soil fertility and economic sustainability [64]. Maximizing the financial gains from agroforestry through effective market integration greatly enhances livelihood security. Furthermore, growing high-value tree crops in AFs might help the economic status of farmers. By intentionally growing tree crops in AFs, communities gain a mix of income sources. This mix acts as an indispensable safety net, protecting individuals and families from economic turmoil linked to market changes or the variabilities associated with traditional crop yields. The economic robustness of agroforestry emanates from its inherent capability to yield diverse revenue streams through the cultivation of an amalgamation of trees, crops, and potentially livestock. This diversification operates as a risk mitigation strategy, diminishing exposure to market oscillations and fortifying overall economic resilience. Cultivation of ‘Cinderella’ species into traditional agricultural practices as novel crops is significantly contributing to enhancing the yield of essential food crops and uplifting the well-being of economically weaker sections of farmer community [65]. Similarly, bamboos play a crucial role in the livelihoods of rural communities within AFs. They provide employment opportunities, serve as a source of energy, offer nutritious foods, and contribute to a diverse range of goods. Notably, the shade provided by bamboo contributes to the augmentation of crop yields, whereas its capacity to shield against wind further enhances this effect [66, 67]. Moreover, integrating leguminous and gum producing tree species in AFs play key role in yield diversification and greater productivity, which augments farmer’s income along with ecosystem sustainability [68–72].
1.9 The Challenges and Solutions for Agroforestry Promotions
Agroforestry acceptance varies from old farming, particularly concerning the role of risk and uncertainty. There are a lot of challenges in the AFs such as lack of knowledge and lack of awareness among farmers; unsustainable agricultural practices; overharvesting of natural resources, deforestation, and forest degradation; inadequate skills among farmers; lack of organized markets for agroforestry products; lack of experts; sustainability issues; limited agroforestry understanding; financial and economic challenges; lack of primary investment budget; limited approach to funding option; technical difficulties; inadequate training among farmers; refusal to accept change; and lack of residential public interest. In addition, the farmers face other challenges, including the lack of a clearly established institutional framework, disputes regarding payments, inadequate farmer expertise, and constitutional amendments that may cause policy alterations. The primary challenges encountered by farmers during the shift from monocropping to agroforestry include financial limitations, shortage of labor, limited availability of land, household size, income from non-farm sources, gender considerations, and access to roads. There are numerous solutions; some are given below such as awareness and education campaigns, planning for agroforestry and its implementation, best practices of agroforestry, supportive mechanisms and economic encouragement, government funds for agroforestry programs, and guidance events for farmers. Participation and community engagement/support from the local community, participation of local societies in decision-making policies, a platform for skill sharing and cooperation, effective implementation of policies, use of modern machinery in AFs, providing resources to farmers for AFs, increase in employment opportunities, and political role in agroforestry promotion are important steps; agroforestry challenges will go down, and it will become successful AFs. Furthermore, the implementation of policies and incentives aimed at promoting agroforestry, enhancing market access, and facilitating resource availability can serve to overcome some of these barriers and encourage the adoption of sustainable AFs.
1.10 Policy and Future Thrust in Agroforestry
Existing policies can pose obstacles to adopting agroforestry, particularly those that endorse the widespread free distribution of seeds to farmers through non-governmental organizations and government extension services. The absence of public policy support for such systems is a significant obstacle to the expansion of agroforestry techniques. During the initial years of agroforestry, research policy is essential to help farmers before agroforestry becomes productive and applies its positive ecological function. Integrating agroforestry into regional and national land use is a great policy decision. Providing education and training programs to farmers is necessary for effective agroforestry techniques. Various climate smart technologies are being developed such as agroforestry, climate smart agriculture, polyculture system, permaculture system, and agroforestry to mitigate climate change. Policymakers may construct a network of qualified professionals who can promote agroforestry by investing in capacity building. Policymakers must recognize the value of agroforestry systems and provide incentives and support for their adoption. Agroforestry provides various ecosystem services at provisioning, regulating, and cultural aspects that improve soil, climate, and farmers’ livelihood. Agroforestrybased ecosystem services and their ecological significance are depicted in Table 1.1 [73, 74
