Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
SUMMARY
List of Contributors
Cultivation of Edible Algae: Present and Future
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
COLOR MATTERS
ALGAE AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS
SPECIES OF EDIBLE ALGAE AND THEIR CULTIVATION
Microalgae
Spirulina
Dunaliella
Chlorella
Future Prospects for Microalgae
Macroalgae (Seaweeds)
Pyropia (formerly Porphyra) spp.
Saccharina spp.
Undaria pinnatifida
Sargassum spp.
Cladosiphon Okamuranus
Eucheuma Denticulatum, Kappaphycus Alvarezii and K. striatum
Caulerpa spp.
Monostroma (M. nitidum and M. latissimum) and Ulva spp.
Gracilaria spp. and Gelidium spp.
Capsosiphon Fulvescens
Codium spp.
GLOBAL PROSPECT OF ALGAL UTILIZATION IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
THE VALUE OF ALGAE AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD
SUSTAINABLE SEAWEED INDUSTRY THROUGH INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION FOR NEW STRAINS OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Cultivation Techniques to Induce High-Value Nutraceuticals in Microalgae
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MICROALGAE AND THEIR METABOLITES
MICROALGAE CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES
Photobioreactor Systems
Closed PBR Systems
Horizontal Tube PBRs
Flat Panel PBRs
Stirred Tank PBRs
Open-Pond Cultivation Systems
Attached Microalgae Cultivation
Light
Flashing Light
Dark Treatment
Temperature
Cold Treatment
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Environment Impact on Algal Food Quality
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BIOAVAILABILITY OF NUTRITIVE PRODUCTS
PROTEINS
LIPIDS
POLYSACCHARIDES
VITAMINS
FOOD SAFETY
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
SPIRULINA
DUNALIELLA SALINA
Chlorella
OTHER ALGAE
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Habitat and Resources of Edible Seaweeds
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
HABITAT DIVERSITY
Estuaries
Mudflats
Seagrass Meadows
Lagoons
HABITAT PREFERENCES OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
Green Seaweeds
Brown Seaweeds
Red Seaweeds
BIOGEOGRAPHY OF EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
METHODS OF CULTIVATION EMPLOYED FOR EDIBLE SEAWEEDS ACROSS THE WORLD
Farming through Vegetative Propagation
Spore/Zygote Derived Seedlings
Cultivation of Ulva, Monostroma and Codium
Cultivation of Laminaria/Saccharina, Undaria, and Ecklonia
Sargassum Cultivation
Porphyra/Pyropia/Phycocalidia Cultivation
Land-Based Cultivation
FORM OF CONSUMPTION AND OTHER CONSUMABLE PRODUCTS
Green Seaweeds
Brown Seaweeds
Methods of Processing of Undaria
Red Seaweeds
FUTURE PROSPECTS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Algal-Based Nutraceuticals: Application and Potential
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
What are Nutraceuticals?
Importance of Nutraceuticals in Human Health
ALGAL BASED NUTRACEUTICALS
Seaweed Polysaccharides as Nutraceuticals
Applications
Algal Proteins as Nutraceuticals
Applications
Algal Lipids as Nutraceuticals
Applications
Vitamins and Minerals of Algae as Nutraceuticals
Algal Pigments as a Potential Source of Nutraceuticals
ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS IN THE GLOBAL MARKET
POTENTIAL OF ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS AS A SAFE FOOD
CURRENT POTENTIAL FOR USING ALGAL-BASED NUTRACEUTICALS.
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Algal Based Nutraceuticals: Trends and Prospects
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
NUTRACEUTICALS FROM ALGAL SOURCE
MICROALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS
Polysaccharides
Proteins
Pigments
Lipids
Sterols
Vitamins
MACROALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS
Polysaccharides
Proteins
Pigments
Lipids
Sterols
EXTRACTION OF ALGAL NUTRACEUTICALS
TRENDS
NUTRACEUTICALS FROM MARINE ALGAE- HEALTH BENEFITS
FUTURE PROSPECTS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Extraction of Microalgal Bioactive Compounds Towards Functional Ingredients: A Biorefinery Approach with Prospects And Challenges
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ALGAL-DERIVED BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS AS FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS
ALGAL-BASED PROCESS AND BIOREFINERY – SOME CONSIDERATIONS
BIOMASS DISRUPTION AND ASSISTED EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES OF ALGAL-BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
Pulse-Electric Field (PEF)
Supercritical-Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Subcritical-Water Extraction (SWE)
Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)
Enzymatic-Assisted Extraction (EAE)
FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
Bioactive Compound Fractionation Process Strategy – GRAS Solvents and Re-use of Biomass
Biorefinery Safety Issues and Economic Considerations
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Bioactive Compounds from Algae: Potential Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ALGAL COMPOUNDS
Lipid-Based Compounds
Fatty Acids (EPA and DHA)
Sterols
Pigment Based Compounds
Phycocyanin
Phycoerythrin
Carotenoids
Beta Carotene
Lutein
Lycopene
Astaxanthin
Fucoxanthin
Canthaxanthin
Carbohydrates Based Compounds
Fucans
Fucoidan
Laminarin Sulfate
Alginate
Rhamnan Sulfate
Ulvan
Agar
Carrageenan
Porphyran
Mycosporine Like Amino Acids (MAAs)
Other Secondary Metabolites
Phenolics
Lectins
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Bioactive Compounds from Edible Seaweeds and their Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
Bioactive Compounds in Macroalgae
Carrageenans and Agarans
Agar
Alginate
Laminarin
Ulvan
Fucoidan
Bioactive Compounds in Microalgae
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Microalgae as a Sustainable Source of Vegan Protein and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
VEGAN PROTEIN
Sustainability of Vegan Protein from Microalgae
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS
Sustainability of Omega-3-Rich Oil from Microalgae
CO-PRODUCTION OF VEGAN PROTEIN AND OMEGA-3 PUFAs
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Micro-Algae as a Source of Food and Bioactive Compounds for Human Health
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM MICRO-ALGAE
Polysaccharides
Phycocolloids
Carrageenan
Agar
Alginate
Lectins
PIGMENTS AND VITAMINS
Phycobiliproteins
Astaxanthin
Canthaxanthin
β -Carotene
Lutein
MICROALGAL FATTY ACIDS
OTHER BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
UV-SCREENING COMPOUNDS
Sporopollenin
Scytonemin
Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids
MICRO-ALGAE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS OF MICRO-ALGAE IN HUMAN HEALTH
Antimicrobial Compounds from Micro-Algae
Micro-Algal Antioxidants
Antitumor Compounds from Micro-Algae
Anti-inflammatory Activity and Antiplatelet Activity
Micro-algal Compounds Against Degenerative Diseases
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF MICRO-ALGAE
Micro-Algae in Biofuels
Micro-Algae as a Feedstock for Bioethanol Production
Micro-Algal Bioactive Compounds in Cosmetic Industry
Moisturizers
Skin Whitening and Hair Care
Anti-Aging
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Dietary Component and Composition of Algal Functional Food
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF ALGAE IN EUROPE
ALGAE AND ITS NUTRIENTS
Dietary Fiber
Protein Content
Essential Elements
ALGAE AS A FUNCTIONAL FOOD
Carotenoids
Fucoxanthin
β-carotene
Polyphenols
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Metabolomics of Different Seaweeds in Functional Food Prospects
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
WORKFLOW OF METABOLOMICS
Sample Collection
Sample Preparation
Techniques Used for Metabolomics Analysis
Mass Spectroscopy
LC-MS
GC-MS
CE-MS
FT-ICR-MS
UPLC-MS
NMR
SEAWEED CLASSIFICATION
SEAWEED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Polysaccharides
Brown Seaweed Polysaccharides
Alginate
Laminarin
Fucoidan
Red Algae Polysaccharides
Galactans
Xylan
Green Algae Polysaccharides
Ulvan
Proteins
Lipids
Dietary Fibre
Vitamins and Minerals
Polyphenols
BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN ALGAE
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
Antibacterial Activity
Antioxidant Activity
Anti-viral Activity
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Anticoagulant Activity
Anticancer Activity
Neuro-protective Activity
Type-II Diabetes
Cardiovascular Diseases
Obesity
Contraceptive Activity Applications
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Probiotics and Algal Functional Food
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
SEAWEEDS
PREBIOTIC PROPERTIES OF THE ALGAL COMPOUNDS
Polysaccharides
Fibers
Lipid
Protein
Phenolic Compounds
Pigments
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Seaweeds Metabolites: Characterization and Applications as Phyco-Nutraceuticals
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
SEAWEEDS AS A SOURCE OF METABOLITES
Primary Metabolites
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Dietary Fibers
Proteins
Pigments
Lipids and Fatty Acids
Secondary Metabolites
Mineral Content of Seaweeds
Proximate Analysis
Moisture Content Analysis
Ash Content
Crude Protein and Total Amino Acid Analysis
Crude Lipid Content Analysis
Crude Fibre Content Analysis
Carbohydrate Content
Determination of Total Phenolic Content
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF METABOLITES
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS) Based Metabolite Profiling
Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) Based Metabolite Profiling
Capillary Electrophoresis Mass Spectrometry (CEMS) Based Metabolic Profiling
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) Based Metabolic Profiling
MALDI-TOF-MS
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
APPLICATIONS OF SEAWEED METABOLITES
Macroalgal Metabolites as Nutraceutical
Metabolites with Anti-Cancer Activities
Metabolites with Anti-Oxidant Activities
Application of Metabolites as Nutricosmetic
Metabolites Showing Activities Against Various Lifestyle Disorders
FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Role of Algal Metabolites and Pigments: Characterization and Application
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MICROALGAL METABOLITES
BIOFUELS
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
ASTAXANTHIN
BETA CAROTENE
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Seaweed in Food Industries: Raw Materials, Processing, Formulations, Packaging
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MACROALGAE AS A SOURCE OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS AND RAW MATERIALS FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Macroalgae Hydrocolloids in Food Industry
SEAWEED-BASED FOOD PACKAGING
Formulation and Processing
Commercially Available Options
CONSUMERS’ ACCEPTANCE
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Edible Seaweed-Based Biodegradable Films and Coatings for Food and Nutraceutical Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
EDIBLE SEAWEEDS VARIETIES FOR FORMING FILMS AND COATINGS
FORMULATION OF SEAWEED-BASED BIODEGRADABLE FILMS AND COATINGS
ALGINATE-BASED FILMS AND COATINGS
Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables
Meats, Poultry, and Seafood
Cheese
Other
AGAR-BASED FILMS AND COATINGS
Fish
Fruits and Vegetables
Cheese
CARRAGEENAN-BASED FILMS AND COATINGS
Fruits
Dairy Products
Other
ADVANTAGES OF USING SEAWEED-BASED COATINGS AND FILMS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Current Applications of Seaweed-Based Polysaccharides in Edible Packaging
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF RED ALGAE-BASED POLYSACCHARIDES IN EDIBLE PACKAGING
Carrageenan
Agar
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF BROWN ALGAE-BASED POLYSACCHARIDES IN EDIBLE PACKAGING
Alginates
Laminaran
Fucoidan
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF GREEN ALGAE-BASED POLYSACCHARIDES IN EDIBLE PACKAGING
Ulvan
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Toxicity of Algal Foods With Respect to Human Health
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
THE BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ALGAE
Algae Classification
ALGAL FOOD AND TOXIC ELEMENTS
Iodine (I)
Aluminium (Al)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Arsenic (As)
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ALGAL FOODS CONSUMERS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Algal Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Benefits, Opportunities and Challenges
Edited by
Avinash Mishra
Applied Phycology and Biotechnology
Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute
Bhavnagar (Gujarat)
India
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FOREWORD
The algae, including seaweeds, have gained significant global importance largely due to their extensive utilization in human foods, feed, nutraceuticals, personal care products and several other industrial products of commercial value. In the COVID pandemic, there is a growing awareness among the consumers to eat healthy diets with functional foods, otherwise known as nutraceuticals, that not only collectively boost the immune system by preventing viral and bacterial infections but also contribute to overall wellness. In recent times, considerable effort has been directed to unlock and harness the potential of algae for functional foods in conventional and modified formats. Since the functional foods represent a tiny fraction of the biomass, the remaining portion is utilized sustainably to produce beneficial commodity value products in the biorefinery model. The primary components produced from biorefinery have attracted innovations in the downstream processing industry for developing high-value niche products to create additional revenue streams and promotet6 inclusive sectoral growth. Also, algae farming is a relatively low carbon footprint activity with many positive environmental impacts.
This book gives a most updated account of the global trends and developments in the cultivation of edible algae along with their environmental impacts, trends, potentials, application and health benefits of algal-based nutraceuticals, probiotics and prebiotics, bioactive properties of algal foods, secondary metabolites, culture-induced nutraceutical compounds, algae-based bio packaging materials, biosafety aspects, etc. Further, the methods for extraction of algal metabolites, pigments and bioactive compounds have also been included and presented in this book. Also, how do algal-based foods impact human health, challenges in consumer acceptance of algal food, and industry needs besides a roadmap ahead are also covered. This book comprises 20 chapters by eminent experts in the field, providing deeper insights and newer perspectives of algae-based functional foods, their health benefits to consumers, bioprospecting of primary and secondary metabolites, and extraction methods.
I am sure the contents of this book provide the reader with a great deal of information, further advancing the knowledge in the area of algal functional foods. The researchers working on algal foods and human health will find this book a very useful reference resource.
CRK Reddy
Chief Executive Officer
Indian Centre for Climate and Societal Impacts Research
Mandvi-Katchch, 370465, India
Formerly Divisional Chair and
Chief Scientist at CSIR-CSMCRI
PREFACE
“Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food,” a quote by the Father of Medicine, Hippocrates, extended our quest towards the use of algal resources as a functional food for human health. Algae have been used as food and food ingredients from ancient times. The objective of the book is to present the current knowledge and recent advances in the field of Algal Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals to stimulate further research and to sensitize the exploration of algal-food for novel applications. The benefits of algae-based foods, opportunities in the exploration of value-added functional foods from algae, and challenges to be encountered during nutraceuticals or product development are key topics, which are the genesis of this book. The concept of algae as a source of biologically active ingredients for the formulation of functional foods and nutraceuticals has also been discussed. The book is organized into twenty-one chapters, covering information on algal cultivation, habitat, nutraceuticals, bioactive compounds, metabolites, pigments, food packaging materials, and toxicity.
Chapters introduce the cultivation, habitat and environmental impact of the edible algae. Techniques available for cultivation, different types of habitat, and how the environment influences food quality have been discussed in detail. The next few chapters discuss the potential, trends, application in the present scenario, and prospects of algal-based nutraceuticals. Subsequent chapters discuss the extraction of bioactive compounds, their potential, application, and chemical structures of algal metabolites. Various biological properties, such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic are also discussed in the book. The role of algae as prebiotic and probiotic, and their nutritional values have enlightened their wide range of scope. The role of algal-based value-added products in food packaging, biodegradable film and food coating are also key highlights of the book. Bio-refinery concept and role of different algal metabolites and pigments are discussed in detail. Finally, the toxicity of algal foods to human health is also discussed.
The book covers basic concepts as well as advances in Algal Functional Foods. The book is valuable for algal-farmers, scientists, students, industries and consumers to understand the potential and prospects of algae for Foods and Nutraceuticals. The book will strengthen the concept of readers and also allow them to select an appropriate approach for their research. The book will also enable readers to think differently from the conventional approaches.
With the grace of Lord Shiva, and the blessing of my parents and family members, I have completed this book. The compilation was made possible only through the voluntary contributions of international experts who provided a valuable and global vision of the edible algae. I express my deep appreciation and gratitude to all the authors for their valuable contributions. My gratitude is also extended to Dr. Kannan Srinivasan, Director CSMCRI, Prof. Bhavanath Jha, former Head of the Division, and all students associated with me. I acknowledge Dr. CRK Reddy, an eminent seaweed-biotechnologist, for forwarding this book. This publication is approved with CSIR-CSMCRI PRIS registration number 02/2021.
I thank my wife, Mrs. Chetna Mishra, for being my strength and daughters Ekisha and Aaral for unconditional love.
Avinash Mishra
Principal Scientist, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Applied Phycology and Biotechnology Division
CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute
Bhavnagar (Gujarat), India
SUMMARY
Marine ecosystem is highly diversified, and edible algae including seaweeds have been considered as a potential source of functional food, dietary supplements, metabolites and bioactive compounds. Algal-based functional foods have potential health benefits, and their commercial value depends on their applications in the food and nutraceutical industries. Seaweed based foods are preferentially selected over other types of marine foods but still they are considered underutilize marine resources. In this book, different aspect of algal based functional foods has been discussed. In brief, cultivation techniques, environmental impact, habitat, nutraceutical potential, extraction of bioactive metabolites, functional-food composition, bio-prospection, culture-induced nutraceutical compounds, algae-based bio-packaging, algal-biorefinery, toxicity, trends and future prospects have been discussed in detail.
List of Contributors
A. Catarina GuedesCIIMAR/CIMAR-LA – Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, PortugalAditya VelidandiDepartment of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana, IndiaAna M.M. GonçalvesDepartment of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
University of Coimbra, MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ ARNET - Aquatic Research Network, Department of Life Sciences, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, PortugalÁngel J. GutiérrezArea of Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, SpainAntony V. SamrotSchool of Bioscience, Faculty of Medicine, Bioscience and Nursing, MAHSA University, Jalan SP2, Bandar Saujana Putra, 42610, Jenjarom, Selangor, MalaysiaAnuruddhika Udayangani RathnayakeDepartment of Marine Biotechnology, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Republic of Korea
Department of Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri LankaArturo HardissonArea of Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, SpainC. KurinjimalarCentre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai-600 025, IndiaCarmen RubioArea of Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, SpainChandrashekar MootapallySchool of Applied Sciences & Technology (SAST-GTU), Gujarat Technological University, Chandkheda Campus, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 382424, IndiaCláudia NunesCICECO, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, PortugalD. InbakandanCentre for Ocean Research (DST-FIST Sponsored Centre), MoES - Earth Science & Technology Cell (Marine Biotechnological Studies), Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 600 119, IndiaDailos González-WellerArea of Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
Health Inspection and Laboratory Service, Canary Health Service, 38006 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, SpainDanilo B. LargoDepartment of Biology, University of San Carlos, Cebu City, PhilippinesDarshita K. PandyaDivision of Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, IndiaEmilin Renitta R.Department of Food Processing, Karunya Institute of Technology and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, IndiaF. Xavier MalcataLEPABE – Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
FEUP – Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
ALICE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, PortugalFernando J.M. GonçalvesDepartment of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, PortugalG. Kavitha AravindProvidence College for Women, Bandishola, Spring Field, Coonoor, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu 643104, IndiaHee-Guk ByunDepartment of Marine Biotechnology, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Republic of KoreaHelena M. AmaroCIIMAR/CIMAR-LA – Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, PortugalIndira WickramasingheDepartment of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri LankaIsuru WijesekaraDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaJayani SamarathungaDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaJayappriyan K.R.Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai-600 025, IndiaJoão C. MarquesUniversity of Coimbra, MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET - Aquatic Research Network, Department of Life Sciences, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, PortugalJoana AssunçãoCIIMAR/CIMAR-LA – Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
LEPABE – Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, PortugalK. SundarDepartment of Biotechnology, Kalasalingam of Academy of Research and Education, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, IndiaK. VasumathiDepartment of Biotechnology, Kalasalingam of Academy of Research and Education, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, IndiaK.G. KaushaniDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaLuke WebsterAlgae Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, AustraliaM. KavirajCentre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai-600 025, IndiaM.M. JayakodyDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaM.P.G VanniarachchyDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaM. PremalathaDepartment of Energy and Environment, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli-620015, Tamil Nadu, IndiaM. VijayakumarCentre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai-600 025, IndiaMadhura JayasingheDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri LankaMangal S. RathoreDivision of Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad-201002, IndiaManuel A. CoimbraLAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, PortugalMarlene A. TrindadeDepartment of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, PortugalMona M. IsmailNational Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, NIOF, EgyptMonica G. KavaleAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad-201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, IndiaNeelam M. NathaniSchool of Applied Sciences & Technology (SAST-GTU), Gujarat Technological University, Chandkheda Campus, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 382424, IndiaNeha KumariLaboratory of Photobiology and Molecular Microbiology, Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, IndiaNinian P.P. PabbathiDepartment of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana, IndiaPeer M. SchenkAlgae Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, AustraliaPrashakha J. ShuklaParul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University, Vadodara - 391760, Gujarat, IndiaR. RajkumarDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore-641 046, IndiaRajeshwar P. SinhaLaboratory of Photobiology and Molecular Microbiology, Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, IndiaRathinam RajaResearch and Development Wing, Sree Balaji Medical College and Hospital (SBMCH), Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research (BIHER), Chromepet, Chennai - 600 044, IndiaSaigeetha S.Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600119, IndiaSandunika SenarathnaDepartment of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri LankaSeneviratne NavaratneDepartment of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri LankaShahrukh A. SiddiquiDivision of Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad-201002, IndiaSonal MishraLaboratory of Photobiology and Molecular Microbiology, Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, IndiaSoraya PazArea of Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, SpainSurabhi AgrawalDivision of Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad-201002, IndiaTaylor J. WassAlgae Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, AustraliaTejal K. GajariaAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad-201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, IndiaXuan JiAlgae Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
Cultivation of Edible Algae: Present and Future
Danilo B. Largo1,*
1 Department of Biology, University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Cebu 6000, Philippines
Abstract
The use of algae as food by humans started in pre-recorded history and is most widespread in Asia, where algae are used as part of the peoples’ daily diet. Of more than ten thousand species of algae that have been described taxonomically, only about a hundred species are known to be edible and are generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Algae for human consumption come from both natural population and open-sea aquaculture, but with increasing issues of marine pollution, global warming and marine use conflict, the production of some algal species from aquaculture is shifting towards the more controlled condition of land-based production systems or in sea areas far from sources of pollutants. The preparation of edible algae comes in various forms that are either consumed directly as fresh salad or pickled in vinegar for species with foliose, delicate or succulent nature or as blanched or cooked recipes for species with fleshy, rubbery or firm texture, or they are consumed indirectly as an ingredient or additive of some food recipes as gelling, hardening, or thickening agent. Many species of micro- and macroalgae have nutritional profiles that make them a perfect food for individuals who are on a diet or are health conscious. This chapter describes some of the most common algal genera whose biomass is mainly produced from culture systems that involve a land-based culture facility (e.g., photobioreactor) and or seedling collection procedure prior to open sea cultivation.
Keywords: Aquaculture , Edible Algae, Eucheumatoids, Kelps, Macroalgae, Mariculture, Marine Agronomy, Microalgae, Nori, Nutraceutical, Outdoor cultivation, Photobioreactor, Raceways, Seaweed aquaculture, Seaweed cultivation, Seaweed farming, Tank culture.
*Corresponding author Danilo B. Largo: Department of Biology, University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines; Tel: +63 (32) 230-0100; Fax: +63 (32) 255-4341; E-mail:
[email protected]
