Andrographolide and its Analogs: Botanical Sources, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Biotechnology E-Book
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- Sprache: Englisch
This book provides an in-depth and comprehensive overview of andrographolides and their analogues, highlighting their botanical origins, phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and biotechnological applications. It explores the isolation, purification, and spectroscopic characterization of andrographolides from natural sources, emphasizing their therapeutic potential in antidiabetic studies and other medicinal uses. The book also explains cultivation techniques, agronomic strategies for Andrographis species, genetic improvements, and in vivo extraction methods aimed at enhancing andrographolide yields, with a focus on commercial cultivation and export strategies.
Dedicated chapters, contributed by experts, discuss the ethnobotanical significance of Andrographis species, traditional medicinal formulations, and advanced biotechnological interventions for conservation and utilization. Recent breakthroughs in understanding andrographolides' biosynthesis, metabolism, safety aspects, and promising applications in treating diabetes, cancer, inflammation, liver diseases, and neurological disorders are also covered. Readers will gain insight into how andrographolide analogues can be developed as "lead molecules" for creating next-generation phytodrugs.
Key Features
· Provides a comprehensive account of andrographolide-producing plant sources and their phytochemical and pharmacological properties.
· Explores the role of biotechnology in enhancing andrographolide production through in vivo and in vitro methods.
· Highlights the therapeutic efficacy of andrographolides and analogues in antidiabetic, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory drug development.
· Discusses cutting-edge advancements in the biosynthesis and semisynthetic derivatives of andrographolides.
· Covers cultivation, agronomic techniques, and genetic improvements to optimize andrographolide production for commercial applications.
This book is a valuable resource for researchers, pharmacologists, biotechnologists, and biomedical professionals focused on natural product-based drug discovery involving andrographolide.
Readership
Pharmaceutical chemists, pharmacologists, researchers and biotechnologists.
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Seitenzahl: 645
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
In ancient days, human beings mainly depended on plants and plant-derived compounds for various kinds of treatments. In the intricate tapestry of nature's pharmacy, certain compounds emerge as hidden gems, offering a wealth of potential for human health and well-being. One such compound is andrographolide. This compound is well studied and has shown multiple pharmacological effects, such as anticancer, antidiabetic, antifungal, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective effects. Hence, we aimed to give a comprehensive review of andrographolide and its analogs in different aspects like chemistry, pharmacology, and biotechnology. The book “Andrographolide and its Analogs: Botanical Sources, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Biotechnology” specifically provides updated information on medicinally important andrographolide and its analogs, sources from various species of Andrographis and its botanical identifications, traditional and ethnobotanical uses of Andrographis across the world by different cultures, phytochemical extraction and isolation methods, accounts on the pharmacological benefits of andrographolides, and experimental pharmacology of andrographolides against liver diseases and cancer. The book also focuses on biosynthesis, biotechnological production, bioavailability, and pharmacological actions of the andrographolide drug. The book concentrates explicitly on the current experimental research on molecular mechanisms of drug action and target-based drug delivery through phytonanomedicine. The book is a valuable reference source for cancer researchers, pharmacologists, phytochemists, biotechnologists, and those interested in the biomedical field who will benefit from this ready reference for working on andrographolide drugs. We thank all the contributors for their cooperation and erudition.
List of Contributors
Andrographolides – An Overview
S. Karuppusamy1,*,T. Pullaiah2,Vinod K. Nelson3Abstract
The genus Andrographis is usually bitter and is the source of several diterpenoids, of which water-soluble labdane diterpenoid is andrographolide. Among the various diterpene lactones reported from most of the species of Andrographis, andrographolide is considered one of the major bioactive secondary metabolites. The genus Andrographis possesses diverse phytochemical constituents with significantly interesting biological potentials. Diterpenes, flavonoids, xanthoflavones, iridoids, and other groups of miscellaneous compounds have been characterized from the various species of Andrographis. Andrographolide has been isolated as a notable major phytochemical compound among the andrographolides, which is a common diterpene flavonoid with phytochemical constituents and therapeutic activities.
Introduction
Plant-derived phytochemicals hold a significant role in cancer drug discovery and chemotherapy, addressing numerous challenging human health problems. Remarkably, phytomolecules like vincristine, vinblastine, paclitaxel, camptothecin derivatives, and epipodophyllotxins have been instrumental in modern medicine. The quest for novel potential therapeutic natural compounds from higher plant sources for cancer treatment is ongoing, with numerous plant species continuously screened for discovering effective therapeutic molecules [1].
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees (Acanthaceae) is one such medicinal plant with a prominent position in the traditional healthcare system and
modern drug development. It has been effectively used against cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure, ulcers, leprosy, bronchitis, skin diseases, flatulence, colic, influenza, dysentery, dyspepsia, and malaria across the globe [2]. Andrographis is a native of the tropical Asian genus and represents 26 taxa in India, of which 20 species are endemic to India; among these, 16 species are endemic to the Western Ghats. Most of the Andrographis species are native to Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and West Himalaya, mainly distributed in southern India and Sri Lanka, with the majority of the species confined to India except A. panicualata [3]. All the Andrographis species possess a common medicinal compound known as andrographolide.
Ethnobotany of Andrographis
Andrographis species, particularly A. paniculata, play a significant role in local traditional systems across several countries, including India, China, Bangladesh, Hong Kong, Pakistan, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. These species are renowned for their therapeutic potential and are utilized for treating a variety of ailments, such as the common cold, diarrhoea, fever, jaundice, tumour, and cancer [4]. In India, A. paniculata is a crucial component of traditional medicinal systems like Unani and Ayurvedic medicine [5]. It is employed for managing conditions like snake bites, bug bites, diabetes, dysentery, fever, and malaria. The extensive use of this plant in traditional practices underscores its importance in primary healthcare, which is closely linked to its local abundance and the prevalence of seasonal diseases. Despite its widespread traditional use and the existence of commercial preparations from its extracts, there is a pressing need for standardizing these crude preparations [6]. Establishing phytochemical and pharmacological standards would significantly enhance the efficacy and reliability of these herbal medicines. Moreover, scientific standardization in terms of dosage, mode of administration, and accurate disease diagnosis is essential to validate traditional knowledge, particularly in developing countries. This would ensure the safe and effective use of A. paniculata and related species in contemporary medicine.
Phytochemistry of Andrographolides
The genus Andrographis contains various phytochemical constituents with significant biological properties, including diterpenes, flavonoids, xanthones, iridoids, and other compounds. Among these, A. paniculata is particularly notable for its andrographolides, which are largely responsible for its therapeutic properties [7]. Other significant diterpenoids isolated from the aerial part of Andrographis include deoxyandrographolide, neoandrographolide, 20 different diterpenoids, and over 10 flavonoids [8, 9]. These diterpenoids and their glycoside derivatives often share a similar carbon skeleton, which is reported from different Andrographis species. The key bitter compounds among them are andrographolide, neoandrographolide, isoandrographanolide, 14-deoxy 11, 12- didehydroandrographolide, and andrograpanin [10]. Some other major diterpenoids have been reported, such as deoxyandrographolide, neoandrogr-apholide, 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographide, and isoandrographolide. Four different xanthones viz ., 1,8-di-hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxy-xanthone, 4,8-dihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-xanthone,1,2-dihydroxy -6,8-dimethoxy-xanthone, and 3,7,8-trimethoxy-1-hydroxy xanthone are isolated from the roots of A. paniculata [11]. Recent combinatorial chemistry libraries of major andrographolide analogs have been synthesised by tailoring the a,b-unsaturated c-butyrolactone moiety, the two double bonds D8 (17) and D12, (13), and the three hydroxyls at C-3 (secondary), C-14 (allylic) and C-19 (primary) positions [12]. In recent days, andrographolides and their derivatives have been effectively quantified by using HPLC coupled with a DAD detector.
Pharmacognosy
The study on botanical pharmacognosy, especially focusing on the various parts of medicinal plants such as the stem, root, leaves, and other useful parts, is crucial for establishing quality control parameters for crude drugs. The utilization of macro and microscopic analysis, powder characteristics, quantitative measurements, and fluorescence standards of plant extracts help in identifying and authenticating plant drugs [13]. A. paniculata exhibits notable morphological and anatomical features. The leaves show eucamptodromous pinnate venation, which is characterized by veins curving towards the margin and not forming a continuous marginal vein. The upper epidermis lacks stomata, while the abaxial surface has diacytic stomata, where a small palisade ratio and less stomatal index are also noted. The presence of large cystoliths in both the upper and lower epidermis is a distinctive feature [14]. The stem of A. paniculata is quadrangular, with dense collenchyma strands located at the angles, providing structural support. Medullary rays are uniseriate, containing significant amounts of lignified fibres. There is an abundant deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in the epidermal tissues of the lamina, as well as in the ground tissues of the petiole and stem. Secondary xylem vessels of the root also show significant deposition of calcium oxalate, contributing to the diagnostic characteristic of the species [15]. The anatomical features are specific to A. paniculata and serve as diagnostic markers. However, similar detailed characterization for other species within the same genus or related taxa is often lacking. Establishing such standards for a wider range of species would enhance the identification and quality control of medicinal plants and their extracts, ensuring their authenticity and therapeutic efficacy.
Pharmacology
Andrographolide, a major bioactive constituent of A. paniculata, has been recognized for its diverse therapeutic potential. These include immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, laxative, depurative, prophylactic, hepatoprotective, and cardiovascular effects. Research has confirmed andrographolides’ broad pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, antidiabetic, antimalarial, and hepatoprotective. Due to its impressive range of biological properties, significant efforts have been made to enhance its efficacy through structural modifications, leading to the development of numerous andrographolide derivatives [16]. In recent decades, a plethora of these derivatives have been synthesized, and their pharmacological properties have been systematically screened. However, comprehensive studies focusing solely on A. paniculata and its active compounds remain limited [17]. Continuous investigation into the biological properties of A. paniculata involves analysing both the crude extracts and andrographolide fractions, revealing enhanced efficacy in developing herbal-based medicines [18, 19].
Specific biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, and anti-inflammatory effects, have been evaluated to understand their correlation with the quantification of andrographolide fractions. Among the various extracts, the 50% methanolic fraction of A. paniculata exhibited the highest cytotoxic activities against CACO-2 cells, as well as the most potent anti-inflammatory and antihypertensive effects. This fraction also contained the highest level of andrographolide and its derivatives, such as 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrogra-pholide, neoandrographolide, and andrograpanin [12]. Experimental models have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory effects of andrographolides in conditions like asthma, stroke, and arthritis and in patients with upper respiratory tract infections. These effects are likely mediated through the inhibition of the NF-KB signaling pathway, resulting in reduced production of cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, nitric oxide, and lipid mediators [20].
Moreover, synthetic analogs of andrographolides have been shown to have superior anticancer activity compared to the natural compound. Andrographolide has been proven to inhibit cell cycles [21], induce apoptosis [22, 23], and possess immunomodulating [24] and antineoplastic [25, 26] properties. Notably, 14-aryloxy analogs (ZAD-1 to ZAD-3) have demonstrated significant antiviral activity against Zika virus (ZIKV) and Dengue virus (DENV), with ZAD-1 showing greater efficacy than natural andrographolide [27, 28]. The extensive pharmacological potential of andrographolides and theirderivatives continues to
drive research aimed at enhancing their therapeutic efficacy, particularly in the development of new herbal-based medicines.
Pharmacodynamics
Andrographolide, a bioactive diterpenoid lactone derived from the plant parts of A. paniculata, has demonstrated significant anticancer properties through various molecular mechanisms. Some of the key research findings regarding the anticancer activity of andrographolides are as follows:
1. Inhibition of key signalling pathways: Andrographolide derivatives can inhibit several crucial signalling pathways implicated in cancer progression, including the Janus Tyrosine Kinases-Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway, Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinae (PI3K) pathway, and Nuclear Factor Kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NK-KB) signalling pathway.
2. Targeting of cellular proteins and enzymes: These derivatives also suppress the activity of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDKs), Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and various growth factors.
3. Induction of tumour suppressor proteins: Andrographolide promotes the induction of tumour suppressor proteins such as p53 and p21, which are vital for regulating cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, thereby inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, survival, metastasis, and angiogenesis [29].
4. Mechanism of action of NF-KB: Andrographolide interacts with the nucleophilic cysteine residue (Cys62) of NF-KB p50 through a Michael addition at the Δ12(13) exocyclic double bond, forming a covalent bond. Further research using computer docking, site-directed mutagenesis, and mass spectrometry revealed that noncovalent interactions with additional binding site residues are also crucial for this covalent incorporation.
5. Other therapeutic potentials: Andrographolide has shown promising antiasthmatic properties in various studies [30]. Oral administration of andrographolide in rats indicated pharmacokinetic interactions that correlate with its anti-arthritic effects [31].
There is a need for extensive studies to explore the pharmacodynamic properties of andrographolide across different ailments treated by these derivatives to better understand its therapeutic potential and optimize its clinical applications.
Production methods of Andrographolides
The natural variability in andrographolide content and the low rate of seed setting in the plant present challenges for meeting commercial demand in the pharmaceutical market. To address these challenges, researchers have developed in vitro protocols for increasing andrographolide accumulation in seedling culture [32]. Additionally, techniques such as microfluidization have been employed to enhance the production efficiency of andrographolides. The optimization of isolation factors, such as pressure and homogenization cycles, has also been explored to maximize production yields [33]. The adventitious root culture of A. paniculata has shown promise for higher production and accumulation of andrographolide compared with wild plants [34]. This method, along with other in vitro techniques, offers the potential for mass production of active compounds from medicinal plants like A. paniculata. These advancements in production techniques are essential for meeting the growing demand for andrographolide and other plant-derived pharmaceuticals.
Conclusion
The genus Andrographis, a highly valued medicinal plant group, contains a variety of bioactive compounds, with andrographolide being the most significant due to its abundance and wide range of biological properties. The key compounds of andrographolides and their analogs are 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandro-grapholide, neoandrographolide, and 14-deoxyandrographolide, which have immunostimulatory, anti-infective, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-infective, anti-hepatotoxic and antiatherosclerotic activities. Less abundant compounds in A. paniculata are andrograpanin, 14-deoxy-14,15-dehydroandro-grapholide, isoandro-grapholid, and 3,19-isopropylideneandro-grapholide. These compounds also have proven activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-infective, and tumor-suppressive properties. Various bioactivities of androgra-pholides and their analogs suggest a strong potential for developing new anti-inflammatory and anticancer drugs. The diversity in bioactive properties, ranging from anti-inflammatory to antitherosclerotic effects, highlights the medicinal values of the genus Andrographis and supports further research and drug development initiatives centred on andrographolide and its derivatives.
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S Afr J Bot 2020; 128: 77-86.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.10.015][33]Asasutjarit R, Sooksai N, Fristiohady A, Lairungruang K, Ng SF, Fuongfuchat A. Optimization of production parameters for andrographolide-loaded neoemulsion preparation by microfluidization and evaluations of its bioactivities in skin cancer cells and UVB radiation exposed skin. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13(8): 1290.[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13081290] [PMID: 34452250][34]Praveen N, Handhar SH, Naik PM, Nayeem A, Jeeng JN, Murthy HN. Production of andrographolide form adventitious root culture of Andrographis paniculata. Curr Sci 2009; 96(5): 694-5.Botany of Andrographis Wall. ex Nees (Andrographinae: Acanthaceae)
P. Bharath Simha Yadav1,S. Karuppusamy1,*Abstract
The genus Andrographis Wall. ex Nees is recognized for its potential medicinal properties, playing a vital role in traditional and indigenous medicinal systems, particularly in India. It is used for treating various common ailments such as cold, fever, diarrhea, jaundice, cancer, and tumor. In addition, Andrographis is valued as a health tonic for fever and cardiovascular health as an antioxidant. Its applications extend to improving sexual dysfunctions and acting as a contraceptive. The therapeutic properties of Andrographis are primarily attributed to the major phytochemical andrographolide, although the composition of phytoconstituents can vary significantly among different species. These phytochemical variations are significantly influenced by geographical location, soil types, seasonal changes, and the specific time of harvest. The diversity in chemical composition highlights the importance of understanding the specific context and conditions under which Andrographis species are grown and harvested to optimize their medicinal efficacy. This chapter deals with the botany of andrographolide-yielding Andrographis species and their taxonomy, identification key, citation, description, and distribution for their availability and conservation.
Introduction
Andrographis Wall. ex Nees (Andrographinae: Acanthaceae) is a tropical herbaceous genus [1] native to Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and West Himalayas, mainly distributed in India and Sri Lanka. In India, it is represented by 26 taxa [2], of which 20 species are endemic [3]; among these, 16 species are confined to the Western Ghats [4, 5]. The current research and review provide a thorough examination of Andrographis, relying on a comprehensive field survey reported across their distributional range in India. The descriptions of the majority of species are derived from live collections. The short description, color photographs, distribution, and flowering and fruiting season details are provided here for easy identification and further study.
Species of the genus Andrographis are vastly utilized, effective medicinal plants in the world, especially A. paniculata. Plants of this genus are used traditionally to treat a number of ailments like cold, cough, fever, jaundice, diarrhea, and cardiovascular and hepatic diseases in both codified and noncodified medicinal systems. They are also used against jaundice, liver complaints, stomach infections, and external tumors and as antioxidants. Species of this genus have a major medicinal chemical compound, andrographolide, which is responsible for their medicinal potential [6]. Recent studies showed that A. paniculata extracts have been proven experimentally against inflammatory and infectious diseases with significant results [7]. Andrographolide is a well-known compound from the genus Andrographis with promising therapeutic applications. Many aspects of its bioactivity and mechanisms of action remain to be fully understood. Andrographolide is a major and bioactive diterpene lactone isolated from most species of Andrographis, particularly from A. paniculata. The compound has garnered significant attention due to its pharmacological potential [8]. Therefore, it has attracted considerable attention in several drug discovery laboratories as a lead molecule that is potentially useful for identifying structurally and functionally novel drugs. This chapter summarizes the taxonomy, distribution, and availability of Andrographis species for andrographolide extraction and conservation.
Taxonomic Treatment
Andrographis Wall. ex Nees in Wall., Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 77, 116. 1832. Neesiella Sreem. in Phytologia 15: 270. 1967 non Schiffn., 1893. Indoneesiella Sreem., Phytologia 16:466.1968; Andrographis subgen. Indoneesiella (Sreem.) L.H. Cramer, Kew Bull. 51:555. 1996; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2: 1050. 1924; Mathew: Fl. Tam. Car. 1150.1993; Flw. Pl. Ind. 1: 1. 2009; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4:385. 2011.
Herbs or rarely under shrubs; root stock woody; stem and branches terete or angular, glabrous or hairy. Leaves round, lanceolate, ovate, elliptic; apex acute, acuminate, round; margins entire, ciliate, glandular-hairy or revolute; base round, acute, cuneate, base obtuse, subcordate or rarely cuneate. Inflorescence elongate racemes, sometimes subpaniculate, racemes, paniculate, terminal panicles. Calyx lobes 5, glandular-hairy or glabrous, lanceolate or linear, glandular-hairy, pubescent, glabrous. Corolla glabrous, white, with a purple or pink tinge. Anthers bearded or not bearded, glabrous or villous, glandular-hairy. Capsules elliptic or ellipsoid, linear to oblong, glabrous or glandular-hairy, obtuse to attenuate at base, acute at the tip. Seeds ovoid, orbicular, narrowly elliptic to obovoid, rugose, base oblique or rounded, prominently pitted or not pitted, hairy or glabrous.
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS ANDROGRAPHIS IN INDIA
1a.. Capsules linear-oblong .....................................................................................2
1b. Capsules elliptic or ellipsoid .......................................................................... 24
2a. Procumbent herbs or straggling herbs .............................................................. 3
2b. Erect herbs or undershrubs ............................................................................... 8
3a. Racemes longer than 10 cm, many-flowered, unbranched .............................. 4
3b. Racemes shorter than 5 cm, few-flowered, little branched .............................. 5
4a. Racemes, both axillary and terminal, up to 11 cm long ......................A. rothii
4b. Racemes always axillary, up to 14 cm ...................................... A. stenophylla
5a. Inflorescence both axillary and terminal .......................................................... 6
5b. Inflorescence always terminal .......................................................................... 7
6a. Racemes up to 3.8 cm long; leaves glabrous; capsules 1.5 cm long, 8-seeded ..............................................................................................................A. beddomei
6b. Racemes scarcely 2.5 cm long; leaves villous; capsules 1.3 cm long, 4-seeded ............................................................................................................A. glandulosa
7a. Anthers conspicuously white-bearded; corolla pale, distinctly ventricose; anthers woolly at base ........................................................................ A. lobelioides
7b. Anthers not at all bearded; corolla dark, not distinctly ventricose; anthers glaucous at base....................................................................................... A. lowsoni
8a. Flowers in elongate racemes, sometimes subpaniculate but the flowers distant ................................................................................................................................. 9
8b. Flowers in short racemes, paniculate, terminal, and slender axillary racemes ............................................................................................................................... 14
9a. Anthers bearded at the base, filaments more are less hirsute ......................... 10
9b. Anthers not bearded at the base, the filaments nearly glabrous ...............................................................................................................................13
10a. Plant erect; leaves lanceolate, glabrescent above ....................... A. paniculata
10b. Plants trailing or procumbent; leaves ovate or rotundate, hairy above ................................................................................................................................18
12a. Inflorescence axillary and terminal; leaves ovate-lanceolate ..................................................................................................... A. atropurpurea
12b. Inflorescence always axillary; leaves narrowly elliptic-lanceolate ........................................................................................................A. macrobotrys
13a. Pedicels very short or 0; calyx-lobes glandular-pubescent or nearly glabrous ................................................................................................................A. elongata
13b. Pedicels 0.1-0.6 cm. long; calyx-lobes long, glandular-hispid .......................................................................................................................A. alata
14a. Racemes short, forming terminal subcapitate panicles or in short terminal panicles .................................................................................................................15
14b. Racemes long, forming rather large compound terminal ..............................20
15a. Corolla pale pinkish or brownish purple; lower lip prominently tinged ...............................................................................................................................16
15b. Corolla white or purplish white, lower lip tinged or not............................... 17
16a. Leaves elliptic, acute at both ends, glabrous except for scattered jointed hairs...................................................................................................... A. neesiana
16b. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, strigose above, softly fulvous-tomentose beneath.................................................................. A. stellulata
17a. Stem and leaves hairy; corolla purplish white, lower lip prominently purple-tinged..........................................................................................A. megamalayana
17b. Stems and leaves glabrous; corolla white, lower lip yellowish hairy or not prominently tinged .............................................................................A. theniensis
18a. Leaves strigose or puberulous....................................................................... 19
18b. Leaves ovate or rarely lanceolate, glabrous; calyx-lobes 0.3 cm. long; corolla very little ventricose ..............................................................................A. viscosula
19a. Leaves ovate, wedge-shaped or blunt at base, acute or acuminate apex; strigose and black above and grey beneath when dry; calyx lobes glandular hairy.........................................................................................................A. gracilis
19b. Leaves rounded or suborbicular, minutely puberulous on both surfaces; calyx glandular hispid. .............................................................................A. rotundifolia
20a. Leaves thick, subsessile, glabrous, raphides minute or absent ............................................................................................................................... 21
20b. Leaves submembranous, petioled, lanceolate, acuminate at both ends, up to 11 cm long, 4 cm broad, lineolate......................................................................... 22
21a. Racemes up to 15 cm long; corolla prominently ventricose; anthers woolly at base...........................................................................................................A. lineata
21b. Racemes less than 6 cm long; corolla slightly ventricose; anthers pilose at the base ............................................................................................................A. affinis
22a. Corolla prominently ventricose .................................................................... 23
22b. Corolla not ventricose ............................................................A. chendurunii
23a. Calyx-lobes 0.4 cm. long, prominently glandular; leaves glabrous above....................................................................................................A. producta
23b. Calyx-lobes 0.8 cm. long, scarcely glandular; leaves usually strigose above....................................................................................................A. explicata
24a. Capsules hairy, 4-seeded ............................................................................. 25
24b. Capsules glabrous, 8-seeded ...................................................A. serpyllifolia
25a. Inflorescence shorter or equal to the leaves, peduncle less than 1.5 cm long; seeds deeply pitted ............................................................................. A. echioides
25b. Inflorescence longer than the leaves, peduncle up to 4 cm long; seeds deeply pitted ....................................................................................... A. longipedunclata
Systematic Enumeration
Andrographis affinis Nees in Wall. Pl. Rar. 3: 116. 1832; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2:1050.1924; Matthew, Fl. Tam. Car. 1150.1983 & Flow. Pl. Ind. 1: 1. 2009; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4:386. 2011. Andrographis neesiana Wight var. affinis (Nees) C.B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 504. 1884.
Subshrub up to 2.5 m tall; rootstock woody. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, to 4.5 × 2 cm, entire, apex acute; petiole to 0.5 cm long. Racemes paniculate, terminal, and axillary, 20 cm long. Flowers many, compact; bracts lanceolate. Calyx lobes 5, glandular‒hispid, 5 mm long. Corolla pale with purple veins, 1.5 cm wide, glandular-hairy, tube 9 mm long, 2-lipped. Stamens 2. Ovary puberulous, 2-celled, ovules 4‒6 per cell. Capsule 1.5 cm long, hairy; seeds ovoid.
Distribution: India (Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering and Fruiting: November-February.
Note: Endemic Western Ghats, India.
Andrographis alata (Vahl) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11:516.1847; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 502. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2: 1049. 1924; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4:386. 2011. Justicia alata Vahl, Enum. Pl. 1: 139. 1084.
A branched subshrub; branches divaricate. Leaves elliptic or obovate, 6.5 × 3 cm, puberulous, base acute, margin entire, acute at apex; petiole 0.6 cm long. Panicles axillary and terminal, 12 cm long; bracts lanceolate, bracteoles 2. Calyx 5‒lobed, glandular hairy. Corolla with white and purple lines. Stamens 2, anther 2.5 mm. Ovary oblong, 1.5 mm, style 1cm, hairy. Capsules oblong, 1.5 × 0.3 cm, acute, glandular-hairy; seeds ovoid.
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka.
Flowering and Fruiting: Throughout the year.
Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.) Alston, Taxon 26: 539. 1977; Mohanan, Fl. Quilon Dist. 299. 1984; Antony, Syst. Stud. Fl. Kottayam Dist. 297. 1989; Subram., Fl. Thenmala Div. 267. 1995; Sivar. & Mathew, Fl. Nilambur 489. 1997; Sasidh., Fl. Periyar Tiger Reserve 291. 1998; Justicia atropurpurea Dennst., Schluss. Hort. Malab. 35. 1818. Andrographis wightiana Anders. ex Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 517. 1847; C.B.Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 503. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1048. 1924; M. Mohanan & Henry, Fl. Thiruvanthapuram 343. 1994.
Suberect under shrubs; stems hairy. Leaves 10 × 4 cm, ovate, acuminate at apex, base broad, glabrous; nerves 4 to 5 pairs, sub-prominent; petiole 0‒4 mm long. Inflorescence panicle with long, lax racemes, scabrid; bracts and bracteoles subulate. Flowers distant. Calyx 4 mm long, subulate, hairy. Corolla 15–18 mm long, glabrous, upper lip orbicular, retuse, dark brown, lower lip shallowly lobed, light pink with brown spots; lower anther bases bearded. Capsule 20 × 3 mm, oblong, glandular-hairy; seeds 8, orbicular, glabrous.
Distribution: India (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering and Fruiting: July-September.
Andrographis beddomei C.B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 506. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras: 1050.1924; M.P. Nayar et al., Indian J. Forest. 7: 37. 1984; Ahmedullah & M.P. Nayar, Endemic Pl. Ind. Reg.:146. 1986; R.R.V. Raju & R.V. Reddy, J. Indian Bot. Soc. 70: 437. 1991; Moulali in Pullaiah & Moulali, Fl. Andhra Pradesh 2: 692. 1997; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4: 386. 2011. Andrographis nallamalayana J.L. Ellis, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8: 362. 1967; M.P. Nayar et al., Indian J. Forest. 7: 37. 1984; Ahmedullah & M.P. Nayar, Endemic Pl. Ind. Reg.: 146. 1986;
Herb, branched; branches terete to angular. Leaves elliptic or obovate, 2.5‒7.5×2.2‒3.7 cm, glabrous, base acute‒cuneate, margins entire, apex acute or obtuse, lateral nerves 2 pairs; petioles sessile or subsessile. Racemes axillary, few-flowered, 0.5 cm long; pedicel and calyx stalked glandular (blackish brown) pubescent; pedicel to 5 mm long. Calyx 5–lobed, 5 mm long, lobes linear-lanceolate. Corolla white with purple spots on the lower lip. Stamens 2, filaments 1.5 mm long, anthers 2.25 mm long, bearded, with villous hairs, tip acute. Ovary 0.5 mm, style 1.5 mm long. Capsules 1.5 cm long, seeds 8 (Fig. 1A).
Fig. (1)) A. Andrographis beddomei; B. Andrographis megamalayana; C. Andrographis serpyllifolia; D. Andrographis neesiana.Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana).
Flowering and Fruiting: August-April.
Andrographis chendurunii E.S.S.Kumar et al., Nordic J. Bot. 22: 683. 2002; Karthikeyan et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009.
Perennial herbs or sub-shrubs; stems creeping and rooting at lower nodes, quadrangular. Leaves 6‒12 × 2‒5 cm, broadly ovate‒obovate or elliptic‒oblanceolate, base acute and apex acute to acuminate, glabrous above, minutely pubescent along the nerves beneath; lateral nerves 5‒7 pairs; petiole 2 cm long. Flowers in branched terminal panicles, 20‒45 cm long; bracts and bracteoles ovate‒subulate. Calyx 5-lobed to the base; lobes 2‒3.1 mm long, glandular-hairy without and glabrous within. Corolla bilabiate, greenish-white; tube to 6.5–7 mm long, slightly curved; lower lip of limb to 6.5 × 4.5 mm long; upper lip of limb 7 × 8 mm long; lobes ovate-oblong, to 5 × 3.5 mm, obtuse or rounded at apex, middle lobe larger than others, all spotted reddish-brown at base. Stamens 2, exserted; filaments to 6.5 mm long, not dilated at base, minutely puberulous at base; anthers 2-celled, glabrous. Capsule linear‒obovate, to 1.5 × 0.3 cm; seeds 4-6, brown, to 1.8 × 1 mm, sub-quadrate, rugose, glabrous.
Distribution: Endemic to India (Kerala).
Flowering and Fruiting: December-February.
Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees in Wall., Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 117. 1832; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 505. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1051. 1924; Vajr., Fl. Palghat Dist. 341. 1990. Justicia echioides L., Sp. Pl. 16. 1753. Neesiella echioides (L.) Sreem., Phyt. 15: 271. 1967. Indoneesiella echioides (L.) Sreem., Phytologia 16: 466. 1968; Manilal & Sivar., Fl. Calicut 215. 1982; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4: 435. 2011.
Erect herbs, 10‒60 cm tall, villous. Leaves opposite decussate, 2.5‒5.5 × 0.5‒2 cm, elliptic oblong, apex obtuse to round, base attenuate. Inflorescence axillary, short unilateral racemes, simple or 1‒2-branched, as long as or shorter than leaves. Calyx deeply 5‒lobed; lobes 0.6‒1.1 cm long, linear. Corolla tube 0.7‒1 cm long, white, 2‒lipped; lip with violet blotches; upper lip 2‒lobed, 0.5‒0.8 cm long, lower 0.5‒0.8 cm long, 3‒lobed. Stamens 2; filaments broad, hairy at base; anthers 2‒celled. Style slender; stigma 2‒fid. Capsules 0.6‒1.4 cm long, 0.2‒0.3 cm wide, compressed, broadened towards the tip, attenuated at the base, sparsely hairy towards the tip. Seeds 0.1‒0.2 cm across, black, pitted without spiny retinacula.
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra) and Sri Lanka.
Flowering and Fruiting: April-July.
Andrographis elongata (Vahl) T. And., J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 9: 503. 1867; C.B.Clarke in Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 502. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2: 1048. 1924; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4: 388. 2011. Justicia elongata Vahl, Enum. Pl. 1: 130. 1804.
Erect herb, 65 cm tall, annual, branched; branches divaricate, acutely quadrangular. Leaves chartaceous, ovate-lanceolate, pubescent, 5×2.5 cm, base decurrent, margin entire, apex obtuse or acute; petiole 2.5‒5 mm. Racemes irregular, 30 cm long, bracts in a pair. Calyx 5‒lobed. Corolla white with purple dots and pink lines. Stamens 2, occasionally 4, anther exerted. Capsule linear-lanceolate; seeds rugose.
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering and Fruiting: March-May.
Andrographis explicata (Clarke) Gamble, Fl. Madras 1049. 1924; Sasidh., Fl. Periyar Tiger Reserve 292. 1998; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009; Andrographis viscosula Nees var. explicata C.B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 504. 1884.
Erect woody undershrubs, about 1 m tall; stems glabrous. Leaves to 16 × 5 cm, elliptic, acuminate at both ends, strigose; nerves 7‒10 pairs; petiole 2‒2.5 cm long. Panicle 15‒30 × 18 cm, pyramidal; branches glandular‒strigose; bracts and bracteoles minute. Flowers many. Calyx lobes 5 mm long, lanceolate, subulate, glandular hairy. Corolla 15‒20 mm long, tube gradually broadening above, not or slightly bellied; upper lip 2‒lobed, dark‒purple; lobes of lower lip equal, obtuse, hairy. Anthers acute at base, glabrous, filaments attached near the base of the corolla, glabrous. Style puberulous. Capsule 20‒25 × 2‒4 mm, linear‒oblong, hairy, retinacula acute; seeds 12.
Distribution: Endemic to India (Tamil Nadu).
Flowering & Fruiting: June ‒ December.
Andrographis glandulosa Nees in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 115. 1832; C.B. Clarke in Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 505. 1884; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2: 1051. 1924; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009; Pullaiah et al., Fl. East. Ghats 4: 388. 2011.
A straggling herb; branches gray‒pubescent, stem 4‒tetragonous. Leaves elliptic or ovate, 2‒2.5×0.8 cm, subsessile, villous, entire, often minutely lineolate. Flowers pedicellate, axillary, few-flowered racemes. Calyx lobes glandular. Corolla pale purple. Stamens 2, anthers strongly bearded. Capsule linear-oblong, 1.3 cm long; seeds 4‒8.
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh).
Flowering & Fruiting: July ‒ November.
Andrographis gracilis Nees in A.P. de Candolle. 11: 516. 1847; Gnansekaran, J. Jpn. Bot. 91: 351. 2016.
Herb, up to 70 cm high, stems slender, 4‒angled, glabrous. Leaves ovate 3‒8 × 0.5‒2 cm, strigulose and black above and grey beneath when dry. Inflorescence racemose, 3‒10 cm long, flowers borne in leaf axils, axis hairless, 4‒6-flowered, distantly arranged one-sided. Flowers 2-lipped, about 1.3 cm across, white with pink shade; tube prominently ventricose, glandular-hairy, upper lip spoon-shaped, oblong, about 7×2.7 mm, glandular-hairy outside, 5‒veined; lower lip 3‒lobed, 6‒7×5.5 mm, glandular hairy outside, dark purple‒striped; middle lobe narrowly ovate, 2.5‒3 × 2.5 cm, lateral lobes oblong, 1.4‒1.6 mm across. Capsules are inverted, 18‒20 x 3‒3.5 mm, pointed at the tip.
Distribution: Endemic to India (Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering and Fruiting: August -January.
Andrographis lineata Wall. ex Nees in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 116. 1832; C.B.Clarke in Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 504. 1834; Gamble, Fl. Madras 2: 1049. 1924; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 3. 2009. Andrographis lineata var lawii C.B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4: 505. 1884.
Erect branched herb, 1 m tall. Leaves elliptic-oblong, 3‒5 × 2‒2.5 cm, subsessile, base obtuse, margin entire, apex acute; petiole to 0.5 cm long. Panicles terminal or subterminal, bracts lanceolate. Calyx lobes 5, glandular, hispid. Corolla purple, tube 7 mm long, bifid at apex, lower lip 7 mm. Stamens 2, stalk 8 mm long, anther 2 mm, bearded. Capsule linear, glandular hairy (Fig. 2G).
Distribution: India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering and Fruiting: August-May.
Andrographis lawsonii Gamble, Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1923: 375. 1923 & Fl. Madras 1050(736). 1924; Sasidh. & Anto in Manoharan et al., Silent Valley‒Whispers Reason 136. 1999; Biju in Manoharan et al., Silent Valley‒Whispers Reason 162. 1999; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 2. 2009.
Undershrubs, branches erect. Leaves opposite, 1.6 × 1 cm, ovate or elliptic, apex acute, base rounded or cuneate, margins recurved, villous along. Flowers in long paniculate racemes. Calyx lobes 5, lanceolate, 5‒7 mm long, glandular hispid. Corolla slightly ventricose, dark brownish‒purple. Anthers not bearded. Capsule linear-oblong, 1.8 × 3 mm, densely glandular-hispid (Fig. 2E).
Fig. (2)) E. Andrographis lawsonii; F. Androgaphis lobelioides; G. Andrographis lineata; H. Andrographis longipedunculata.Distribution: India (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
Flowering & Fruiting: September to December.
Andrographis lobelioides Wight, Ill. Ind. Bot. t. 164b, f. 11.1850 & Icon. Pl. Ind. Orient. t. 1557. 1850; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 4; 505. 1884; Karthik. et al., Fl. Pl. India – Dicotyl. 1: 3. 2009;
