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- Herausgeber: JH
- Sprache: Englisch
Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of movements or methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are self-propelled, e.g., running, swimming, jumping, flying, hopping, soaring and gliding.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
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PREFACE.
In the present volume I have endeavoured to explain, in simple language, some difficult problems in “Animal Mechanics.” In order to avoid elaborate descriptions, I have introduced a large number of original Drawings and Diagrams, copied for the most part from my Papers and Memoirs “On Flight,” and other forms of “Animal Progression.” I have drawn from the same sources many of the facts to be found in the present work. My best thanks are due to Mr. W. Ballingall, of Edinburgh, for the highly artistic and effective manner in which he has engraved the several subjects. The figures, I am happy to state, have in no way deteriorated in his hands.
Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh,
July 1873.
CONTENTS.
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Motion associated with the life and well-being of animals,
1
Motion not confined to the animal kingdom; all matter in motion; natural and artificial motion; the locomotive, steamboat, etc. A flying machine possible,
2
Weight necessary to flight,
3
The same laws regulate natural and artificial progression,
4
Walking, swimming, and flying correlated,
5
Flight the poetry of motion,
6
Flight a more unstable movement than that of walking and swimming; the travelling surfaces and movements of animals adapted to the earth, the water, and the air,
7
The earth, the water, and the air furnish the fulcra for the levers formed by the travelling surfaces of animals,
8
Weight plays an important part in walking, swimming, and flying,
9
The extremities of animals in walking act as pendulums, and describe figure-of-8 curves,
9
In swimming, the body of the fish is thrown into figure-of-8 curves,
10
The tail of the fish made to vibrate pendulum fashion,
11
The tail of the fish, the wing of the bird, and the extremity of the biped and quadruped are screws structurally and functionally. They describe figure-of-8 and waved tracks,
12
The body and wing reciprocate in flight; the body rising when the wing is falling, and vice versâ,
12
Flight the least fatiguing kind of motion. Aërial creatures not stronger than terrestrial ones,
13
Fins, flippers, and wings form mobile helics or screws,
14
Artificial fins, flippers, and wings adapted for navigating the water and air,
14
History of the figure-of-8 theory of walking, swimming, and flying,
15
Priority of discovery on the part of the Author. Admission to that effect on the part of Professor Marey,
16
Fundamental axioms. Of uniform motion. Motion uniformly varied,
17
The legs move by the force of gravity. Resistance of fluids. Mechanical effects of fluids on animals immersed in them. Centre of gravity,
18
The three orders of lever,
19
Passive organs of locomotion. Bones,
21
Joints,
23
Ligaments. Effects of atmospheric pressure on limbs. Active organs of locomotion. Muscles; their properties, arrangement, modes of action, etc.,
24
Muscular cycles. Centripetal and centrifugal movements of muscles; muscular waves. Muscles arranged in longitudinal, transverse, and oblique spiral lines,25–27
The bones of the extremities twisted and spiral,
28
Muscles take precedence of bones in animal movements,
29
Oblique spiral muscles necessary for spiral bones and joints,
31
The spiral movements of the spine transferred to the extremities,
33
The travelling surfaces of animals variously modified and adapted to the media on or in which they move,34–36
PROGRESSION ON THE LAND.
Walking of the Quadruped, Biped, etc.,
37
Locomotion of the Horse,
39
Locomotion of the Ostrich,
45
Locomotion of Man,
51
PROGRESSION ON AND IN THE WATER.
Swimming of the Fish, Whale, Porpoise, etc.,
66
Swimming of the Seal, Sea-Bear, and Walrus,
74
Swimming of Man,
78
Swimming of the Turtle, Triton, Crocodile, etc.,
89
Flight under water,
90
Difference between sub-aquatic and aërial flight,
92
Flight of the Flying-fish; the kite-like action of the wings,
98
PROGRESSION IN OR THROUGH THE AIR.
The wing a lever of the third order,
103
Weight necessary to flight,
110
Weight contributes to horizontal flight,
112
Weight, momentum and power to a certain extent synonymous in flight,
114
Air-cells in insects and birds not necessary to flight,
115
How balancing is effected in flight,
118
Rapidity of wing movements partly accounted for,
120
The wing area variable and in excess,
124
The wing area decreases as the size and weight of the volant animal increases,
132
Wings, their form, etc. All wings screws, structurally and functionally,
136
The wing, during its action, reverses its planes, and describes a figure-of-8 track in space,
140
The wing, when advancing with the body, describes a looped and waved track,
143
The margins of the wing, thrown into opposite curves during extension and flexion,
146
The tip of the bat and bird’s wing describes an ellipse,
147
The wing capable of change of form in all its parts,
147
The wing during its vibration produces a cross pulsation,
148
Compound rotation of the wing,
149
The wing vibrates unequally with reference to a given line,
150
Points wherein the screws formed by the wings differ from those in common use,
151
The wing at all times thoroughly under control,
154
The natural wing when elevated and depressed must move forwards,
156
The wing ascends when the body descends, and vice versâ,
159
The wing acts upon yielding fulcra,
165
The wing acts as a true kite both during the down and up strokes,
165
Where the kite formed by the wing differs from the boy’s kite,
166
The angles formed by the wing during its vibrations,
167
The body and wings move in opposite curves,
168
The Wings of Insects, Bats, and Birds.
Elytra or wing cases and membranous wings; their shape and uses,
170
The Wings of Bats.
The bones of the wing of the bat; the spiral configuration of their articular surfaces,
176
The Wings of Birds.
The bones of the wing of the bird; their articular surfaces, movements, etc.,
178
Traces of design in the wing of the bird; the arrangement of the primary, secondary, and tertiary feathers, etc.,
180
The wing of the bird not always opened up to the same extent in the up stroke,
182
Flexion of the wing necessary to the flight of birds,
183
Consideration of the forces which propel the wings of insects,
186
Speed attained by insects,
188
Consideration of the forces which propel the wings of bats and birds,
189
Lax condition of the shoulder-joint in bats and birds,
190
The wing flexed and partly elevated by the action of elastic ligaments; the nature and position of said ligaments in the Pheasant, Snipe, Crested Crane, Swan, etc.,
191
The elastic ligaments more highly differentiated in wings which vibrate rapidly,
193
Power of the wing, to what owing,
194
Reasons why the effective stroke should be delivered downwards and forwards,
195
The wing acts as an elevator, propeller, and sustainer, both during extension and flexion,
197
Flight divisible into four kinds,
197
The flight of the Albatross compared to the movements of a compass set upon gimbals,
199
The regular and irregular in flight,
201
Mode of ascending, descending, turning, etc.,
201
The flight of birds referable to muscular exertion and weight,
204
Lifting capacity of birds,
205
AËRONAUTICS.
The balloon,
210
The inclined plane,
211
The aërial screw,
215
Artificial wings (Borelli’s views),
219
Marey’s views,
226
Chabrier’s views,
233
Straus-Durckheim’s views,
233
The Author’s views; his method of constructing and applying artificial wings, as contra-distinguished from that of Borelli, Chabrier, Durckheim, and Marey,
235
The wave wing of the Author,
236
How to construct an artificial wave wing on the insect type,
240
How to construct a wave wing which shall evade the superimposed air during the up stroke,
241
Compound wave wing of the Author,
242
How to apply artificial wings to the air,
245
As to the nature of the forces required for propelling artificial wings,
246
Necessity for supplying the roots of artificial wings with elastic structures in imitation of the muscles and elastic ligaments of flying animals,
247
The artificial wave wing can be driven at any speed—it can make its own currents or utilize existing ones,
251
Compound rotation of the artificial wave wing. The different parts of the wing travel at different speeds,
252
How the wave wing creates currents and rises upon them, and how the air assists in elevating the wing,
253
The artificial wing propelled at various degrees of speed during the down and up strokes,
255
The artificial wave wing as a propeller,
256
A new form of aërial screw,
256
The aërial wave screw operates upon water,
257
The sculling action of the wing,
231
Concluding Remarks,
258
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Engravings are, with few exceptions, from Photographs, Drawings, and Designs by Mr. Charles Berjeau and the Author. Such as are not original are duly acknowledged.
PAGE
Frontispiece.
In the clutch of the enemy—(The Graphic).
The three orders of lever—(Bishop),
19, 20
The skeleton of a Deer—(Pander and D’Alton),
21
Muscular cycle in the act of flexing the arm,
25
Screws formed by the bones of the wing of the bird, the bones of the anterior extremity of the Elephant, and the cast of the interior of the left ventricle of the heart,
28
The muscular system of the Horse—(Bagg),
30
The feet of the Deer, Ornithorhynchus, Otter, Frog, and Seal,
34
The Red-throated Dragon,
35
The Flying Lemur,
35
The Bat,
36
Chillingham Bull with extremities describing figure-of-8 movements,
37
Double waved tracks described by Man in walking,
39
Horse in the act of trotting,
41
Footprints of the Horse in the walk, trot, and gallop—(Gamgee),
43
Skeleton of the Ostrich—(Dallas),
47
Ostriches pursued by a hunter,
48
Skeleton of Man,
55
The positions assumed by the extremities and feet in walking—(Weber),
59
Preparing to run—(Flaxman),
62
The skeleton of a Perch—(Dallas),
65
The Salmon swimming leisurely,
65
Swimming of the fish according to Borelli,
67
Swimming of the fish according to the Author,
68
The Porpoise and Manatee,
73
The skeleton of the Dugong—(Dallas),
74
The Seal,
74
The Sea-Bear,
76
The elliptical, looped, and spiral tracks made in swimming,
81
The several attitudes assumed by the extremities in swimming in the prone position,
82
Overhand swimming,
85
Side swimming,
86
Swimming of the Turtle and Triton,
89
Swimming of the Little Penguin,
91
Sub-aquatic flight or diving,
94
The feet of the Swan as seen in the open and closed condition,
96
The foot of the Grebe with swimming membrane—(Dallas),
97
Double waved track described by the feet of swimming birds,
97
The flight of the Flying-fish,
