Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Hazards of Using Antibiotic Growth Promoters in the Poultry Industry
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ANTIBIOTICS AS GROWTH PROMOTERS
LETHAL EFFECTS OF ANTIBIOTICS USED IN POULTRY PRODUCTION
ANTIMICROBIAL RESIDUES IN POULTRY PRODUCTS
PUBLIC HEALTH RISKS RELATED TO ANTIBIOTICS
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Herb and Plant-derived Supplements in Poultry Nutrition
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
PHYTOCHEMICALS
TYPES OF PHYTOCHEMICAL ANTIBIOTIC ALTERNATIVES IN POULTRY
SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF PHYTOCHEMICALS IN POULTRY NUTRITION
HERBS AS GROWTH AND HEALTH PROMOTORS
HEALTH RISKS RELATED TO HERBS UTILIZATION IN POULTRY FEED
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Ginger as a Natural Feed Supplement in Poultry Diets
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
IMPACT OF GINGER OIL
BIOCHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF GINGER EXTRACT
VALUABLE EFFECTS OF GINGER SUPPLEMENTATION IN POULTRY
Impact of Ginger Supplementation on Carcass Weight
Impact of Ginger and its Products on Carcass Characters
Impact of Ginger and its Products on Egg Quality and Production
Impact of Ginger on Reproductive Function
Impact of Ginger on Blood Parameters
Impact of Ginger and its Products on Microbial Infections
Impact of Ginger on Egg and Meat Quality
The Economic Impact of Ginger
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Use of Cinnamon and its Derivatives in Poultry Nutrition
ABSTRACT:
Introduction
Chemical Composition
Effects on Growth Performance
Body Weight and Body Weight Gain
Feed Utilization
Carcass Traits
Blood Parameters
Intestinal Microbiota
Conclusion
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
References
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and its Derivatives in Poultry Feed
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF CLOVE
BENEFICIAL APPLICATION OF CLOVE AND ITS DERIVATIVES
Antimicrobial Properties
Antibacterial Activity of Clove
Antioxidant Activity of Clove
BENEFICIAL APPLICATION OF CLOVE AND ITS DERIVATIVES IN POULTRY
Effect of Clove and its Derivatives on Poultry Performance
Effect of Clove and its Derivatives on Egg Production and Quality
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Pomegranate (Punica Granatum L): Beneficial Impacts, Health Benefits and Uses in Poultry Nutrition
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
PHYTOCHEMICALS IN POMEGRANATE
CONVENTIONAL USES OF POMEGRANATE FRUIT
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF POMEGRANATE
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
Antioxidant Activity
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Glucose and Lipid Metabolism Activities
Antimicrobial Activity
STUDIES ON POULTRY LIVESTOCK
Direct Additive Effects on Meat
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Use of Chicory (Cichorium intybus) and its Derivatives in Poultry Nutrition
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
The Description of Plants and Their Chemical Composition
Advantageous Results of Chicory with Specific Respect to its Function as a Hepatoprotective Agent
BENEFICIAL APPLICATIONS of CHICORY
PRACTICAL USAGE IN THE POULTRY SECTOR
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Use of Psyllium Husk (Plantago ovata) in Poultry Feeding and Possible Application in Organic Production
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Geographical Source of Psyllium
Biological Benefits of Psyllium Husk
The Anti-cholesterol Activity of Psyllium
Psyllium as a Potent Hypocholesterolemic Agent in Humans
Psyllium Husk as a Potent Hypocholesterolemic Agent in Animal and Poultry
Role of Psyllium in the Therapy of other Human Ailments
Digestive Function and Metabolism
Hemorrhoids
Clinical Effect
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Dandelion Herb: Chemical Composition and Use in Poultry Nutrition
Abstract
Introduction
Structure and Chemical Composition
Beneficial Roles of Dandelion for Health
Effect of Dandelion on Performance, Carcass and Meat Quality
Hepatoprotective and Anti-cancer Activities
Antibacterial and Antiparasitic Activities
Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activities
Hypoglycaemic and Hypolipidemic Effects
Immune System Enhancer
Digestion Stimulant
Effect of Dandelion on Hematological and Biochemical Blood Parameters
Conclusion
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Probiotics in Poultry Nutrition as a Natural Alternative for Antibiotics
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
PROBIOTICS TYPES AND SOURCES
MECHANISM OF PROBIOTIC ACTION
ASPECTS OF PROBIOTIC APPLICATIONS IN THE POULTRY
Growth Performance
Antibiotic Alternatives to Counter Infectious Pathogens
Egg Production
Health and Immunity
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Phytogenic Substances: A Promising Approach Towards Sustainable Aquaculture Industry
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
POTENTIAL OF PHYTOGENIC FEED ADDITIVES IN AQUACULTURE
Phytogenic Feed Additives as Appetite Stimulators and Growth Promoters
Phytogenic Feed Additives as Immunostimulants
Phytogenic Feed Additives as Natural Antioxidant Agents
Phytogenic Feed Additives as Modulators of Gut Health and Microbiota
PHYTOTHERAPY AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR TREATING FISH DISEASE
Anti-bacterial Activity
Anti-viral Activity
Anthelminthic [Monogeneans] Activity
Anti-fungal Activity
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
References
The Beneficial Impacts of Essential Oils Application against Parasitic Infestation in Fish Farm
Abstract
Introduction
Essential Oil Resources, Structure and Bioactive Molecules
The Immunostimulatory Role of EOs
The Antioxidant and Protective role of EO
The Antiparasitic Effects of EOs
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
The Role of Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs) in Aquaculture Farming
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs) Types and Structure
Resources of Antimicrobial Peptides
Antimicrobial Peptides Mechanisms, Advantages and Disadvantages
The Application of AMPs Against Fish Diseases
Anti-parasitic and Antifungal Activity of AMPs
The Activity of AMPs Toward Bacterial Fish Diseases
The Antiviral Effects of AMPs
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Antibiotic Alternatives in Poultry and Fish Feed
Edited by
Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack
Department of Poultry
Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University
Zagazig
Egypt
&
Mahmoud Alagawany
Department of Poultry
Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University
Zagazig
Egypt
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FOREWORD
I was glad when I got a request from Dr. Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack and Dr. Mahmoud Alagawany to write a brief foreword to their reprint book. For several years, I have admired their incredible work. Furthermore, poultry and fish products’ consumers always search for organic products. So, the topic of this book is timely and globally needed for all people who produce or consume poultry and fish products.
Looking through this valuable book, I'm pleased with the authors' talent in writing such a useful book. It is a source of inspiration and information for those who work in poultry and fish production.
In conclusion, Dr. Abd El-Hack and Dr. Alagawany's book is peerless and a work to treasure for anyone interested in poultry and fish production. So, it is expected that readers will enjoy reading it and learn from it. Thank you, Dr. Abd El-Hack and Dr. Alagawany, for producing such a masterwork.
Prof. Dr. Vincenzo Tufarelli
DETO - Section of Veterinary Science and Animal Production University of Bari 'Aldo Moro' s.p. Casamassima km 3
70010 Valenzano BA
Italy
PREFACE
For a long time ago, poultry keepers used to add trace levels of antibiotics to poultry feed to act as growth-promoting agents. This practice caused harmful impacts on poultry products’ consumers because of antibiotic resistance. This led the European Union to ban the use of antibiotics in poultry feed. So, this book focuses on the use of antibiotic alternatives in poultry and fish feed. Also, it deals with the different impacts of these natural feed additives in poultry and fish nutrition on growth, production, reproduction and health status. This book contains 13 chapters contributed by 38 experts and scientists of animal, poultry and fish nutrition, poultry and fish physiology, toxicology, pharmacology, and pathology, which highlights the significance of herbal plants and their extracts and derivatives, cold-pressed and essential oils, fruits by-products, immunomodulators, antimicrobial peptides, and probiotics with their role in poultry and fish industry instead of antibiotic growth promoters. This book provides detailed information about using antibiotics in the poultry and fish industry as growth promoters and developing bacterial resistance to antibiotics. All chapters give a holistic approach to how organic feed additives (herbal plants and their extracts, probiotics, peptides, etc.) can positively impact animal health and production. Also, the book chapters cover the main poultry species, including broilers, laying hens, quails, geese, ducks, turkey, and fish. This book will be useful for poultry and fish keepers and research in nutrition, pharmacology, and veterinary sciences.
Mohamed E. Abd El Hack
Department of Poultry
Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University
Zagazig
Egypt&Mahmoud Alagawany
Department of Poultry
Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University
List of Contributors
Abdel-Moneim E. Abdel-MoneimBiological Applications Department, Nuclear Research Center, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, 13759, EgyptAbdelrazeq M. ShehataDepartment of Dairy Science & Food Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11651, EgyptAhmed G. A. GewidaDepartment of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11651, EgyptAhmed I. Abo-AhmedDepartment of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,Benha University, Toukh 13736, EgyptAlessandro Di CerboSchool of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Matelica, ItalyAli RazaCenter for Animal Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of Queensland, AustraliaAmjad I. AqibCholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanAmlan Kumar PatraDepartment of Animal Nutrition, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata 700037, IndiaAsghar A. KambohDepartment of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, PakistanAyman A. SwelumDepartment of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
Department of Theriogenology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, EgyptAyman E. TahaDepartment of Animal Husbandry and Animal Wealth Development, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Rasheed, 22758 Edfina, EgyptFaisal SiddiqueCholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanFaiz ul HassanInstitute of Animal & Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, PakistanFiza BatoolDepartment of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, PakistanIqra MuzammilDepartment of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38000, PakistanKarima El NaggarDepartment of Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, EgyptKuldeep DhamaDivision of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly- 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaMahmoud A. EmamDepartment of Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh 13736, EgyptMahmoud AlagawanyDepartment of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, EgyptMahmoud MadkourAnimal Production Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, 12622 Giza, EgyptMajed RafeeqUniversity of Balochistan Quetta, Quetta, PakistanMayada R. FaragDepartment of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Egypt
Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, EgyptMervat A. Abdel-LatifDepartment of Nutrition and Veterinary Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour 22511, EgyptMohammed A. E. NaielDepartment of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, EgyptMohamed AbdoDepartment of Animal Histology and Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Cairo, Egypt
Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, EgyptMohamed E. Abd El-HackDepartment of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, EgyptMuhammad A. NaseerDepartment of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38000, PakistanMuhammad S. KhanCholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanMuhammad SaeedCholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanNader R. AbdelsalamAgricultural Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture (Saba Basha), Alexandria University, 21531 Alexandria, EgyptNahed A. El-ShallDepartment of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Edfina, Elbehira 22758, EgyptRana M. BilalCollege of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanRizwana SultanCholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanSabry A.A. El-SayedDepartment of Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, EgyptSamar S. NegmFish Biology and Ecology Department, Central Lab for Aquaculture Research Abbassa, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza, EgyptSameh A. AbdelnourAnimal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, EgyptSamir MahgoubDepartment of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, EgyptSarah Y.A. AhmedDepartment of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, EgyptShaaban S. ElnesrPoultry Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Fayoum University, Fayoum 63514, EgyptYoussef A. AttiaAnimal and Poultry Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
Department of Agriculture , Faculty of Environmental Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Hazards of Using Antibiotic Growth Promoters in the Poultry Industry
Mahmoud Alagawany1,*,Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack1,*,Muhammad Saeed2,Muhammad S. Khan2,*,Asghar A. Kamboh3,Faisal Siddique2,Ali Raza4,Mayada R. Farag5,Samir Mahgoub6
1 Department of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
2 Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Bahawalpur, 63100, Pakistan
3 Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan
4 Center for Animal Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of Queensland, Australia
5 Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
6 Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
Abstract
The poultry industry is one of the significant hubs of the livestock industry and the world's largest food industry. In the last 50 years, it has become common to observe poultry antibiotic feeding to treat disease and growth. Antibiotics inhibit the growth of toxic and beneficial microorganisms. They are used as growth promoters when given in adjunctive therapy. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that fifty million pounds of antibiotics will be produced each year in the USA. Forty percent of the total antibiotics produced will be used in agriculture. 11 million pounds are used for the poultry sector and 24 million for domestic and wild animals. Ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, tylosin, tetracycline, virginiamycin, tilmicos, nitrofuran and sulfamids are used as growth promoters in the poultry industry globally. Antibacterial residues are found in various parts of poultry birds, e.g., kidney, heart, gizzard, liver, chest, thigh muscles, albumin and egg yolk. These residues may directly or indirectly produce many health concerns in human beings, such as toxic effects in the liver, brain, bone marrow, kidney, allergic reaction, mutagenicity, reproductive abnormalities and gastrointestinal tract leading to indigestion. In addition, resistant strains of pathogenic microbes pose an indirect threat to antibacterial residues that can spread to humans and contaminate residual fertilizers used as plant fertilizers. This chapter describes the benefits and contraindications of
antibiotics used as growth promoters and the toxic effects of antimicrobial residues in poultry and humans.
Keywords: Antibiotics, Feed, Growth, Poultry, Resistant.
*Corresponding authors Mahmoud Alagawany, Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack & Muhammad S. Khan: Department of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt & Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Bahawalpur, 63100, Pakistan; E-mails:
[email protected],
[email protected] & mmalagwany@ zu.edu.eg
INTRODUCTION
Growth-enhancing effects of in-feed antibiotics were recognized first in the 1940s when dried mycelia of Streptomyces aureofaciens were fed to animals containing chlortetracycline antibiotics [1]. Later, in 1946, Moore and his coworkers reported the growth-promoting effects of antibiotics in commercial poultry [2] that, opened a new era of antibiotics used in poultry feed. The use of antibiotics as a promoter of the growth in the poultry industry has been going on worldwide for over 50 years [1]. In 1981, the American Council for Agricultural Science and Technology published a report on antibiotics in feeding animals [1]. Though the report did not provide any data that the use of antibiotics in animals causes the emergence of resistant microorganisms that may produce drug-resistant infections in human beings, it started a debate on antibiotics in food animals. In 1986, Sweden was the first country that banned antibiotics for growth promotion [3]. Denmark in 1995 and European Union in 1997 banned the Avoparcin (an antibiotic growth promoter) in food-producing animals. Later, in 1999 European Union Commission banned other antimicrobials for use as growth promoters in farm animals [4].
Plenty of evidence establishes that the use of antimicrobials in farm animals for therapeutic purposes and/or growth promotion causes the creation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment that ultimately deteriorate the therapeutic options in human medicine [5-7]. About 7 million deaths in hospitals have been estimated due to antibiotic-resistant infections [8]. Antibiotics used in food-producing animals like poultry led to the transfer of resistant bacteria to human beings via animal food. These bacteria may further transfer resistant genes to the non-pathogenic commensal flora [9]. It is estimated that the antibiotics used in poultry are not completely metabolized in body tissues that accumulate in meat [10] and are also excreted into the environment via poultry droppings [11].
When poultry droppings are used as manure in agriculture fields, these antimicrobials enter the soil ecosystem and significantly alter the soil communities [12]. Moreover, when consumed by humans, crops/vegetables cultivated in such fields transmit antimicrobial-resistant genes to them [8, 13]. This chapter attempted to highlight the hazards of using antimicrobial growth promoters in the poultry industry. It will also illuminate the health risk of antibio-
tic’s use and its residues in poultry products concerning the environment and human health.
ANTIBIOTICS AS GROWTH PROMOTERS
The mechanism of action of antibiotic growth promoters in poultry is illustrated (Fig. 1). Antibiotics are growth-promoting drugs or chemicals that stop the growth of bacteria in low, sub-therapy doses [14, 15]. In recent years, antibiotics as growth promoters have increased dramatically due to increasing consumer demand for fast livestock and animal feed products. Microbial infections can reduce the growth and/ or yield of farm animals raised for food purposes; thus, controlling these infections by adding antibiotics to animal feed has been effective [16]. Antibiotics as growth promoters have several beneficial effects, such as efficient feed digestion in the animal body to achieve better feed-conversion ratios, which allow an animal to grow into a strong and healthy living being. In addition, the use of antibiotics in the feed may also help in controlling zoonotic infectious organisms at an early stage. In addition to the benefits of antibiotics as growth promoters, this practice involves many ecological and ethical concerns [17-19]. For example, antibiotics may be used as growth promoters and may not be cost-effective [20].
Fig. (1))
Beneficial uses of antibiotic growth promoters in poultry.
In the 1950s, antibiotics used in domestic animals were introduced to fulfill the rapidly increasing food demand. Currently, some countries use antibiotics as growth promoters without strict regulation [21], while other regions and countries, such as Europe and America, prohibit their use as agricultural or growth promoters. However, antibiotics at therapeutic doses are allowed for prophylactic and preventive purposes. In fact, the United States (US) and many European countries are the main users of antibiotics in domestic food animals [22], whereas their use is growing rapidly in some developing countries. Antibiotic use is expected to increase 67% by 2030, almost doubling in China, Brazil, India, South Africa, and Russia [23]. The livestock industry is the second-largest consumer of antibiotics after human health care. Although antibiotics are used therapeutically to treat infectious diseases and prevent the spread of disease in poultry, fish, and domestic food animals, forty percent of antimicrobial drugs are used as growth supporters in the livestock sector [17, 19]. Such intensive use raises concerns about using antibiotics in food and food animals. For example, intensive use of antibiotic growth promoters over a while results in increased selection pressure on the local bacterial populations, leading to resistance to these antibiotics [24, 25].
Antibiotics are chemotherapeutic agents used to treat bacterial diseases in humans and animals; however, many antibiotics produced every year are used for other purposes instead of therapeutic [26]. According to the CDC survey, the United States produces more than 50 million pounds of antibiotics each year, out of which 40% of the total antibiotics are used in the agriculture sector. It was estimated that livestock uses 24.6 million pounds of antibiotics each year for non-therapeutic treatment. About 11 million pounds are used for poultry, 9 million pounds for pigs and 3.7 million pounds for cattle [27].
These estimates did not include the therapeutic use of antibiotics to treat sick animals. Thus, most antibiotics in animal agriculture were used as growth promoters. In 2010, thirteen thousand tonnes of antibiotics were administered to animals; however, this was mainly utilized as a growth promoter [28]. In 1940, chlortetracycline antibiotics were first used to promote growth in small doses produced from Streptomyces aureofaciens [29]. This resulted in higher growth rates in the chickens fed with feed containing by-products. Since then, antibiotics have been widely used as a worldwide growth promoter in animal farming [30].
The underlying mechanism of the growth-stimulating effect is unknown. Still, antibiotics are believed to suppress the susceptible microbial population in the gut, which utilizes a significant amount of nutrients during fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract. It turns out that microbial yeast in the gut can waste about 6% of the pure energy of pig feed [31].
It was hypothesized that animals raised in unhealthy environments might carry latent infections that stimulate the immune system. Antibiotics can control such latent infections and reduce the production of cytokines in animals, resulting in a subsequent increase in muscle weight. The resulting cytokines lead to the release of certain catabolic hormones, resulting in muscle wasting by controlling the causative agent of the infection [ 32, 33]. Therefore, lost energy can be redirected
to microbial population growth and better controlled and this is achieved by using antibiotics at low doses in the animal feed.
In addition, the effects of growth promoters have been mediated by their antibacterial effects in the following possible ways; (i) protecting essential micro and macronutrients against bacterial damage (ii) improving nutrient absorption by thinning the epithelial layer of the gut (iii) reduced toxic production by enterobacteria which decrease the subclinical gut infections [34].
There has been a serious concern regarding antimicrobial resistance in the food animal bacterial population due to antimicrobial usage as growth promoters. The rate of antimicrobial resistance directly proportional by the usage in the animals, resulting in an exchange of resistant bacteria between animals, their products and the environment [24]. A recent survey of seven European countries showed the direct relationship between antibacterial usage and Escherichia coli resistance in poultry, pigs and cattle [35]. On the other hand, the intensive use of antibiotics in human medicine to the developing antibiotic resistance cannot be excluded. For example, there is no link between a human and animal resistant strain in some cases. Currently, some countries prohibit antibiotics in food animals [36]. Most of the antibiotics currently used in food animals are the same as those used for the treatment of humans [24]. These antibiotics are used as anti-infective agents to treat many common pathogenic bacterial infections and other procedures such as major surgery, chemotherapy for tumors, organ transplants and premature babies [37].
It uses both natural and synthetic antibiotics to slow down or stop the growth of bacteria. Bacteria and fungus primarily synthesize antibiotics. Antibiotics are frequently used to treat and preclude human and animal infections. However, scientific verification endorses that the overuse of these composites amplifies the hazard of antibiotic resistance as growth enhancers [38]. The use of antibiotics, combined with firm biosecurity and cleanliness procedures, assists the poultry industry to thrive by counteracting the ill effects of many diseases occurring in birds. Broadly, antibiotics are classified according to chemical nature and mode of action. Bactericidal eradicate bacteria by barring cell wall syntheses, such as cephalosporins, carbapenems, vancomycin, and fluoroquinolones. However, the bacteriostatic slows down the growth patterns by inhibiting protein synthesis or weakening the phagocytic processes [12].
Various antibiotics such as tylosin, tetracycline and virginiamycin are widely used on animal farms in the U.S. Of these, two-thirds of tetracyclines are administered to animals, and 37% are used in the European Union [39-41]. European count-
ries do not recommend antibiotics as growth promoters to monitor the European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption [42].
Numerous antibiotics have been used to promote the growth of poultry birds, which mainly act by controlling gastrointestinal infections and changes in the intestinal flora [43, 44]. The administration of virginiamycin antibiotic (90-100 ppm) in broiler as a growth enhancer was directly linked with an enriched frequency of different species of Lactobacillus genus, which depicted that virginiamycin changes the structure of the intestinal flora in chickens [45]. However, different results were observed when using tylosin antibiotics in feed [46, 47]. Tylosin reduces lactic acid bacteria production. The basic properties reduce bile hydrolase production and increase the presence of bile salts, but also promote phospholipid digestion and energy production and increase the weight of animals [48]. Two necessary antibiotics, virginiamycin and bacitracin, have been extensively used as growth promoters in poultry production. S. virginiae produces virginiamycin which inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the 50 S ribosomal subunits. When it's mixed with chicken feed, it decreases the mortality percentage due to infection caused by Clostridium perfringens [49].
LETHAL EFFECTS OF ANTIBIOTICS USED IN POULTRY PRODUCTION
As the world's population grows daily, the demand for chicken meat, eggs and their products increases, making poultry a critical food industry in the world [11]. Rapid development causes environmental problems such as soil and water pollution [50]. Every year, several antibiotics are used worldwide to prevent, eliminate and treat poultry and livestock diseases [51]. Antibiotics are used around 2 million tons annually worldwide [52]. The poultry droppings consist of important nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus), pathogens, hormones, antibiotics, and toxic heavy metals [53]. This suggests a need to study the sources, behavior, fate, risks and control of pollutants from the environment [54, 55].
Many scientists have discovered the remnants of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the soil and water. Antibiotic-resistant germs carry and exchange genes that survive antibiotics and eventually attack humans [56, 57]. Several groups of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria (MARBs) were detected in the soil and plant tissues with poultry manure grown in the soil. These bacteria can colonize deep tissues and pose a potential threat to human health [58].
Several studies have detected antibiotics and other medicines in soil and water [59]. Certain antibiotics in poultry have been used as prophylactic, meta-prophylactic, therapeutic, or dietary supplements or as a drug, particularly in developed countries [60]. These antibiotics can harm humans and the environment in two different ways either directly or indirectly; low levels of antibiotics in animal products can affect endocrine function, metabolism and human development [61]. The presence of antimicrobial residues in water and soil is hazardous for humans and other biotas. The remnants of medicine have a profound effect on the environment, so the world is now thinking of it. Environmental antibiotic residues may be associated with increased toxicity of antibiotic-resistant bacteria via activation of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) [11]. Therefore, antibiotic-resistant bacteria are not killed by using normal doses of antibiotics and could be lethal to human and animal health [6].
ANTIMICROBIAL RESIDUES IN POULTRY PRODUCTS
Detection of antibiotic residues in poultry products by different techniques is illustrated in Table 1. Chicken meat is a substitute for beef and mutton in terms of cost and affordability; however, the irrational use of antimicrobial drugs and the lack of adequate biosecurity measures have decreased meat quality [62, 63]. Researchers have identified the presence of different antibiotic residues in the edible tissue of chicken [64-66]. For example, the concentration of quinolones, enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline and chloramphenicol was observed at 30.81 μg kg−1, 18.32 ng g−1, 88.217 ng g−1, and 89.33–223.05 µg kg−1, respectively in chicken meat [64, 67, 68]. Furthermore, a high quantity of enrofloxacin was observed in broiler meat [69]. Antimicrobial residues such as 22% enrofloxacin, 20% tetracycline and 34% ciprofloxacin are present in thigh muscles and 26% amoxicillin, 30% ciprofloxacin, 24% tetracycline residues in breast muscles of poultry broiler birds [70]. The existence of many antimicrobial residues such as quinolone, aminoglycoside, β-lactam, sulfonamide and tetracycline residues in breast and thigh muscles of chickens was also reported by Hakem et al. [71].
Table 1Detection of antibiotic residues in poultry products by different techniques.LiteraturesResidue (ppb)SampleAntibiotic FoundDetection Method10430.81ChickenQuinoloneELISA10510-10690Liver-PoultryEnrofloxacin10612.64- 226.62ChickenChloramphenicol10742-360Cured meatOxytetracyclineHPLC108176.3Triceps muscleTetracyclineHPLC-FL405.3Gluteal muscle96.8Diaphragm672.40Kidney651.30Liver104-ChickenEnrofloxacin and
TetracyclineLC-MS109847.7Poultry muscleDoxycyclineLC-MS/MS
Antimicrobial residues have been reported in edible poultry tissues, including the kidney, heart, gizzard, and liver [72-75]. The high concentration of levamisole, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, enrofloxacin and oxytetracycline residues was observed in the liver and kidney of broiler as compared to thigh muscles [69]. Chloramphenicol and enrofloxacin levels exceeded the maximum residue levels (MRL) in the liver and kidney of broiler meat [76]. The highest concentrations of amoxicillin (42%), tetracycline (48%), enrofloxacin (40%) and ciprofloxacin (44%) residues were also found in the liver of broiler and layer chicken. On the other hand, 30%, 24%, 34%, and 42% of each antibiotic remained in the kidney [70]. In addition, it was reported that high amounts of residues of nicarbazin were found in the liver of the boiler [77, 78].
Sipramycin antibiotic belongs to the macrolide group and is commonly used in poultry as a growth promoter. Its residues were present in thigh, gizzard, and liver tissues [79]. A higher concentration was reported in the liver (40%), followed by the gizzard (10%) [80]. Another study reported the presence of sulphaquinoxaline and amoxicillin residues in chicken liver and gizzard [81]. In addition, tilmicosin, nitrofuran, sulfamids, tetracycline, furaltadone, nifursol and chloramphenicol residues were also present in the liver and gizzard samples [73, 82-84].
Similarly, the accumulation of antimicrobial residues in the various components of the egg is of great concern [85]. After the antibiotic has been absorbed through the blood in the intestine, it enters the bird's ovaries and is deposited in the egg yolk and albumin [86]. Many factors, such as the chemical structure of antimicrobial agents, bird physiology, and the egg structure, were affected by the egg's accumulation and distribution residues [87]. The antimicrobial drug residues were reported to deposit faster with egg yolk and albumin protein [88]. High nitrofuran residues (268.25 ng kg-1) were detected in eggs that treated salmonellosis [74]. Similarly, the presence of residues of many drugs, including furaprol, streptomycin, sulfonamide, amprolium, and tylosin has been confirmed in other studies [62, 63, 89].
When a laying bird is given a high dose of amoxicillin, it is transmitted and accumulates in the yolk and egg white [86]. Cooking, and cooling (40°C) for 10 minutes did not help minimize the effects of these residues. However, boiling at 10 minutes and storing at 4°C-25°C did not help minimize amoxicillin residues' effect [86]. Likewise, when gentamicin was administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly, there was variability in the retention between protein and yolk even after withdrawal of the drug, in contrast to albumin, gentamicin residues accumulated in the egg yolk in significantly higher concentrations (90%) [88]. The egg white albumin contained a high concentration of sulfonamide and chlortetracycline residues compared to egg yolk [89, 90]. Therefore, it has been found that various egg compartments collect antimicrobial residues and eating these contaminated eggs can pose a serious health risk to the consumers [63].
PUBLIC HEALTH RISKS RELATED TO ANTIBIOTICS
In the USA, it has been reported that 80% of all sold antibiotics are used on healthy food-producing animals to promote growth performance. This unfair use results in major health concerns in the human population in the form of antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms [91]. Antibiotics commonly used in food-producing animals include aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, β-lactams, pleuromutilins, sulfonamides, lincosamides, and macrolides. Thus the residues of such antibiotics could be easily detected in animal products, viz ., milk and meat [92]. These residues could be in a parent compound or its metabolites [93]. Antimicrobial residues may produce several health consequences in humans, including immunopathological diseases, allergic disorders, cancer-causing effects, hepatotoxicity, bone marrow toxicity, nephropathy, mutagenicity, reproductive disorders, and damage to the damage beneficial bacteria existing in the gastrointestinal tract, mainly to teen-agers leading to gastritis [94, 95]. Antibiotic residues may produce chronic toxicity to several multicellular organisms and break down the gut's fatty acids made by supportive microbes [96]. In addition, resistant strains of antimicrobial microflora pose an indirect risk of antibacterial residues that can spread to humans and contaminate residues used as fertilizers for crops [97, 98]. The harmful effects of antibiotics and hormones are also observed on aquatic animals like [99] reported reduced testicular growth in rainbow trout and the small size of ovary and testis in zebrafish.
Unethical usage of antimicrobials results in the development of resistant bacteria in humans and animals, which cause infections that do not respond to usual antibiotic treatments. Such strong infection persists in the body for a long time and does not recover with common antibiotic options. The growing number of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms derived from animals associated with antibiotic residues, and their subsequent effects on human health, make important claims for the treatment of antimicrobial drugs [100].
Common bacterial organisms, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus were recognized as antimicrobial-resistant foodborne pathogens of animal-origin food [101]. Contaminated water used for washing foods and crop cultivation is recognized as the main source of antibiotic resistance and a potential threat to human health [102]. Poultry meat and eggs and pork and beef are considered vital factors for the transmission of antimicrobial resistance genes.
Research showed that resistance genes are transmitted from animals to humans through food, meat and waste [10, 21]. Antimicrobial-resistant genes in soil have been observed to enter the food chain and act as a possible cause of antimicrobial-resistant genes in human organisms via polluted crops and groundwater, thus affecting human and animal health. As soon as an antimicrobial-resistant gene enters an animal's body, it can remain in the body for a long time before it is measured. Therefore, antibiotic resistance should be considered a multifaceted public health challenge affecting health professionals in the medical, veterinary, medical and environmental fields. Thus, the “concept of health” was introduced [103].
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION
The use of antibiotics as a growth promoter is a feature of the modern poultry industry, but it is not widespread. Initially, all antibiotics could be used, but some did not promote growth and were very expensive. The use of antibiotics, especially those of medical importance, should be prohibited as growth promoters in livestock. The Food and Agriculture Organization has banned antibiotics as growth enhancers because of their harmful effects on human health. Various side effects, e.g., allergic reaction, poisonous effects in vital organs of humans, inhibition of methane production and increased drug-resistant pathogens, have been observed during feeding as growth promoters. Only prudent use and effective regulation can balance the benefits and risks of using antimicrobials in animal production. However, international regulation of antibiotics in poultry birds will require long-term policies.
To best understand factors that promote the dissemination of resistance genes and to elucidate relationships between producer, environmental, and pathogenic bacteria, new and improved strategies for screening different microbial populations, sampling procedures and metagenomic libraries are prerequisites. Moreover, better algorithms and, therefore, bioinformatic approaches for determining relationships between resistance determinants of various environmental niches will be highly beneficial. Additional genome sequencing data will also help fill the knowledge gaps in intermediate stages and carriers for mobilization. It is expected that these bioinformatic tools will unify information on resistance genes and their products found in thousands of bacterial species isolated from the clinic or the environment as their associated mobile genetic elements and allow this information to be quickly mined by researchers in this field.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
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