Applied Superconductivity E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Encyclopedia of Applied Physics
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2499

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

This wide-ranging presentation of applied superconductivity, from fundamentals and materials right up to the latest applications, is an essential reference for physicists and engineers in academic research as well as in the field. Readers looking for a systematic overview on superconducting materials will expand their knowledge and understanding of both low and high Tc superconductors, including organic and magnetic materials. Technology, preparation and characterization are covered for several geometries, but the main benefit of this work lies in its broad coverage of significant applications in power engineering or passive devices, such as filter and antenna or magnetic shields. The reader will also find information on superconducting magnets for diverse applications in mechanical engineering, particle physics, fusion research, medicine and biomagnetism, as well as materials processing. SQUIDS and their usage in medicine or geophysics are thoroughly covered as are applications in quantum metrology, and, last but not least, superconductor digital electronics is addressed, leading readers from fundamentals to quantum computing and new devices.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Related Titles

Title Page

Copyright

Conductorart by Claus Grupen (drawing)

Preface

List of Contributors

Volume 1

Chapter 1: Fundamentals

1.1 Superconductivity

References

References

1.2 Main Related Effects

References

References

References

References

Chapter 2: Superconducting Materials

2.1 Low-Temperature Superconductors

References

References

2.2 High-Temperature Superconductors

References

References

Chapter 3: Technology, Preparation, and Characterization

3.1 Bulk Materials

References

References

References

3.2 Thin Films and Multilayers

References

3.3 Josephson Junctions and Circuits

References

References

3.4 Wires and Tapes

References

References

3.5 Cooling

References

References

References

Chapter 4: Superconducting Magnets

4.1 Bulk Superconducting Magnets for Bearings and Levitation

References

4.2 Fundamentals of Superconducting Magnets

References

4.3 Magnets for Particle Accelerators and Colliders

References

4.4 Superconducting Detector Magnets for Particle Physics

References

4.5 Magnets for NMR and MRI

References

4.6 Superconducting Magnets for Fusion

References

4.7 High-Temperature Superconducting (HTS) Magnets

References

4.8 Magnetic Levitation and Transportation

References

Volume 2

Chapter 5: Power Applications

5.1 Superconducting Cables

References

5.2 Practical Design of High-Temperature Superconducting Current Leads

References

5.3 Fault Current Limiters

References

Chapter 5: Power Applications

5.4 Transformers

References

5.5 Energy Storage (SMES and Flywheels)

References

5.6 Rotating Machines

References

5.7 SmartGrids: Motivations, Stakes, and Perspectives/Opportunities for Superconductivity

References

Chapter 6: Superconducting Microwave Components

6.1 Superconducting Microwave Components

References

6.2 Cavities for Accelerators

References

6.3 Superconducting Pickup Coils

References

Chapter 6: Superconducting Microwave Components

6.4 Magnetic Shields

References

Chapter 7: Applications in Quantum Metrology

7.1 Quantum Standards for Voltage

References

7.2 Single Cooper Pair Circuits and Quantum Metrology

References

Chapter 8: Superconducting Radiation and Particle Detectors

8.1 Radiation and Particle Detectors

References

8.2 Superconducting Hot Electron Bolometers and Transition Edge Sensors

References

8.3 SIS Mixers

References

8.4 Superconducting Photon Detectors

References

8.5 Applications at Terahertz Frequency

References

8.6 Detector Readout

References

Chapter 9: Superconducting Quantum Interference (SQUIDs)

9.1 Introduction

References

9.2 Types of SQUIDs

References

9.3 Magnetic Field Sensing with SQUID Devices

References

References

References

References

References

9.4 SQUID Thermometers

References

9.5 Radio Frequency Amplifiers Based on DC SQUIDs

References

9.6 SQUID-Based Cryogenic Current Comparators

References

Chapter 10: Superconductor Digital Electronics

10.1 Logic Circuits

References

10.2 Superconducting Mixed-Signal Circuits

References

10.3 Digital Processing

References

10.4 Quantum Computing

References

10.5 Advanced Superconducting Circuits and Devices

References

10.6 Digital SQUIDs

References

Chapter 11: Other Applications

11.1 Josephson Arrays as Radiation Sources (incl. Josephson Laser)

References

11.2 Tunable Microwave Devices

References

Chapter 12: Summary and Outlook

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Superconducting Materials for Applications

12.3 Superconducting Magnets and Large-Scale Applications

12.4 Superconducting Electronics

Acknowledgment

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1.1.1

Figure 1.1.1.2

Figure 1.1.1.3

Figure 1.1.1.4

Figure 1.1.1.5

Figure 1.1.1.6

Figure 1.1.1.7

Figure 1.1.1.8

Figure 1.1.1.9

Figure 1.1.1.10

Figure 1.1.1.11

Figure 1.1.1.12

Figure 1.1.2.1

Figure 1.1.2.2

Figure 1.1.2.3

Figure 1.1.2.4

Figure 1.1.2.5

Figure 1.1.2.6

Figure 1.1.2.7

Figure 1.1.2.8

Figure 1.1.2.9

Figure 1.1.2.10

Figure 1.1.2.11

Figure 1.1.2.12

Figure 1.1.2.13

Figure 1.1.2.14

Figure 1.1.2.15

Figure 1.1.2.16

Figure 1.1.2.17

Figure 1.1.2.18

Figure 2.1.1.1

Figure 2.1.1.2

Figure 2.1.1.3

Figure 2.1.1.4

Figure 2.1.1.5

Figure 2.1.1.6

Figure 2.1.1.7

Figure 2.1.1.8

Figure 2.1.1.9

Figure 2.1.1.10

Figure 2.1.1.11

Figure 2.1.1.12

Figure 2.1.2.1

Figure 2.1.2.2

Figure 2.1.2.3

Figure 2.1.2.4

Figure 2.1.2.5

Figure 2.1.2.6

Figure 2.1.2.7

Figure 2.1.2.8

Figure 2.1.2.9

Figure 2.1.2.10

Figure 2.1.2.11

Figure 2.1.2.12

Figure 2.1.2.13

Figure 3.1.1.1

Figure 3.1.1.2

Figure 3.1.1.4

Figure 3.1.1.3

Figure 3.1.1.5

Figure 3.1.1.6

Figure 3.1.1.7

Figure 3.1.1.8

Figure 3.1.1.9

Figure 3.1.1.10

Figure 3.1.1.11

Figure 3.1.1.12

Figure 3.1.1.13

Figure 3.1.1.14

Figure 3.1.2.1

Figure 3.1.2.2

Figure 3.1.2.3

Figure 3.1.2.4

Figure 3.1.2.5

Figure 3.1.2.6

Figure 3.1.2.7

Figure 3.1.2.8

Figure 3.1.2.9

Figure 3.1.3.1

Figure 3.1.3.2

Figure 3.1.3.3

Figure 3.1.3.4

Figure 3.1.3.5

Figure 3.1.3.6

Figure 3.1.3.7

Figure 3.1.3.8

Figure 3.1.3.9

Figure 3.1.3.10

Figure 3.1.3.11

Figure 3.1.3.12

Figure 3.1.3.13

Figure 3.1.3.14

Figure 3.1.3.15

Figure 4.1.1

Figure 4.1.2

Figure 4.1.3

Figure 4.1.4

Figure 4.1.5

Figure 4.1.6

Figure 4.1.7

Figure 4.1.8

Figure 4.1.9

Figure 4.1.10

Figure 4.2.1

Figure 4.2.2

Figure 4.2.3

Figure 4.2.4

Figure 4.2.5

Figure 4.2.6

Figure 4.2.7

Figure 4.2.8

Figure 4.2.9

Figure 4.2.10

Figure 4.2.11

Figure 4.2.12

Figure 4.2.13

Figure 4.2.14

Figure 4.2.15

Figure 4.2.16

Figure 4.2.17

Figure 4.2.18

Figure 4.2.19

Figure 4.2.20

Figure 4.2.21

Figure 4.2.22

Figure 4.2.23

Figure 4.3.1

Figure 4.3.2

Figure 4.3.3

Figure 4.3.4

Figure 4.3.5

Figure 4.3.6

Figure 4.3.7

Figure 4.3.8

Figure 4.3.9

Figure 4.3.10

Figure 4.3.14

Figure 4.3.11

Figure 4.3.12

Figure 4.3.13

Figure 4.3.15

Figure 4.3.16

Figure 4.3.17

Figure 4.3.18

Figure 4.3.19

Figure 4.3.20

Figure 4.3.21

Figure 4.3.22

Figure 4.3.23

Figure 5.1.1

Figure 5.1.2

Figure 5.1.3

Figure 5.1.4

Figure 5.1.5

Figure 5.1.6

Figure 5.2.1

Figure 5.2.2

Figure 5.2.3

Figure 5.2.4

Figure 5.2.5

Figure 5.2.6

Figure 5.2.7

Figure 5.2.8

Figure 5.2.9

Figure 5.2.10

Figure 5.2.11

Figure 5.3.1

Figure 5.3.2

Figure 5.3.3

Figure 5.3.4

Figure 5.3.5

Figure 5.3.6

Figure 5.3.7

Figure 5.4.1

Figure 5.4.2

Figure 5.4.3

Figure 5.4.4

Figure 5.4.5

Figure 5.4.6

Figure 5.5.1

Figure 5.5.2

Figure 5.5.3

Figure 5.5.4

Figure 5.5.5

Figure 5.6.1

Figure 5.6.2

Figure 5.6.3

Figure 5.6.4

Figure 5.6.5

Figure 5.6.6

Figure 5.6.7

Figure 5.6.8

Figure 5.6.9

Figure 5.6.10

Figure 5.6.11

Figure 5.7.1

Figure 5.7.2

Figure 5.7.3

Figure 5.7.4

Figure 5.7.5

Figure 5.7.6

Figure 5.7.7

Figure 5.7.8

Figure 5.7.9

Figure 5.7.10

Figure 5.7.11

Figure 5.7.12

Figure 5.7.13

Figure 5.7.14

Figure 5.7.15

Figure 6.1.1

Figure 6.1.2

Figure 6.1.3

Figure 6.1.4

Figure 6.1.5

Figure 6.1.6

Figure 6.1.7

Figure 6.2.1

Figure 6.2.2

Figure 6.2.3

Figure 6.2.4

Figure 6.2.5

Figure 6.2.6

Figure 6.2.7

Figure 6.2.8

Figure 6.2.9

Figure 6.2.10

Figure 6.3.1

Figure 6.3.2

Figure 6.3.3

Figure 6.3.4

Figure 6.3.5

Figure 6.3.6

Figure 6.3.7

Figure 6.3.8

Figure 6.3.9

Figure 6.4.1

Figure 6.4.2

Figure 6.4.3

Figure 6.4.4

Figure 6.4.5

Figure 6.4.6

Figure 6.4.7

Figure 6.4.8

Figure 6.4.9

Figure 6.4.11

Figure 6.4.10

Figure 6.4.12

Figure 6.4.13

Figure 6.4.14

Figure 6.4.15

Figure 6.4.16

Figure 6.4.17

Figure 6.4.18

Figure 6.4.19

Figure 6.4.20

Figure 6.4.21

Figure 6.4.22

Figure 6.4.23

Figure 6.4.24

Figure 7.1.1

Figure 7.1.2

Figure 7.1.3

Figure 7.1.4

Figure 7.1.5

Figure 7.2.1

Figure 7.2.2

Figure 7.2.3

Figure 7.2.4

Figure 7.2.5

Figure 7.2.6

Figure 7.2.7

Figure 7.2.8

Figure 8.1.1

Figure 8.1.2

Figure 8.1.3

Figure 8.1.4

Figure 8.1.5

Figure 8.1.6

Figure 8.2.1

Figure 8.2.2

Figure 8.2.3

Figure 8.2.4

Figure 8.2.5

Figure 8.2.6

Figure 8.2.7

Figure 8.2.8

Figure 8.2.9

Figure 9.1.1

Figure 9.2.1

Figure 9.2.2

Figure 9.2.3

Figure 9.2.4

Figure 9.2.5

Figure 9.2.6

Figure 9.2.7

Figure 9.2.8

Figure 9.2.9

Figure 9.2.10

Figure 9.2.11

Figure 9.3.1.2

Figure 9.3.1.1

Figure 9.3.1.3

Figure 9.3.1.4

Figure 9.3.1.5

Figure 9.3.2.1

Figure 9.3.2.2

Figure 9.3.2.3

Figure 9.3.2.4

Figure 9.3.2.5

Figure 9.3.2.6

Figure 9.3.2.7

Figure 9.3.2.8

Figure 9.3.3.1

Figure 9.3.3.2

Figure 9.3.3.3

Figure 9.3.3.4

Figure 9.3.3.5

Figure 9.3.3.6

Figure 9.3.3.7

Figure 9.3.3.8

Figure 9.3.3.9

Figure 9.3.3.10

Figure 9.3.3.11

Figure 9.3.3.12

Figure 9.3.3.13

Figure 9.3.3.14

Figure 9.3.4.1

Figure 9.3.4.2

Figure 9.3.4.3

Figure 9.3.4.4

Figure 9.3.4.5

Figure 9.3.4.6

Figure 9.3.4.7

Figure 10.1.1

Figure 10.1.2

Figure 10.1.3

Figure 10.1.4

Figure 10.1.5

Figure 10.1.6

Figure 10.1.7

Figure 10.1.8

Figure 10.1.9

Figure 10.1.10

Figure 10.1.11

Figure 10.1.12

Figure 10.1.13

Figure 10.1.14

Figure 10.1.15

Figure 10.1.16

Figure 10.1.17

Figure 10.1.18

Figure 10.1.19

Figure 10.1.20

Figure 10.1.21

Figure 10.3.1

Figure 10.3.2

Figure 10.3.3

Figure 10.3.4

Figure 10.3.5

Figure 10.3.6

Figure 10.3.7

Figure 10.3.8

Figure 10.3.9

Figure 10.3.10

Figure 10.3.11

Figure 10.3.12

Figure 10.3.13

Figure 10.3.14

Figure 10.3.15

Figure 10.3.16

Figure 10.3.17

Figure 10.3.18

Figure 10.3.19

Figure 10.3.20

Figure 10.3.21

Figure 10.3.22

Figure 10.4.1

Figure 10.4.2

Figure 10.4.3

Figure 10.4.4

Figure 10.4.5

Figure 10.4.6

Figure 10.5.1

Figure 10.5.2

Figure 10.5.3

Figure 10.5.4

Figure 10.5.5

Figure 10.5.6

Figure 10.5.7

Figure 10.5.8

Figure 10.6.1

Figure 10.6.2

Figure 10.6.3

Figure 10.6.4

Figure 11.1.1

Figure 11.1.2

Figure 11.1.3

Figure 11.1.4

Figure 11.1.5

Figure 11.1.6

Figure 11.1.7

Figure 11.1.8

Figure 11.1.9

Figure 11.1.10

Figure 11.1.11

Figure 11.1.12

Figure 11.1.13

Figure 11.2.1

Figure 11.2.2

Figure 11.2.3

List of Tables

Table 1.1.1.1

Table 3.1.1.1

Table 3.1.1.2

Table 3.1.3.1

Table 4.3.1

Table 4.3.2

Table 4.3.3

Table 4.3.4

Table 4.3.5

Table 4.3.6

Table 4.3.7

Table 4.3.8

Table 4.3.9

Table 5.1.1

Table 5.2.1

Table 5.2.2

Table 5.2.3

Table 5.2.4

Table 5.2.5

Table 5.2.6

Table 5.4.1

Table 5.6.1

Table 5.6.2

Table 5.7.1

Table 6.4.1

Table 8.1.1

Table 9.3.1.1

Table 9.3.4.1

Table 9.3.4.2

Table 9.3.4.3

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Edited by Paul Seidel

Applied Superconductivity

Handbook on Devices and Applications

Volume 1

The Editor

Prof. Dr. Paul Seidel

Friedrich–Schiller-Universität Jena

Institut für Festkörperphysik

AG Tieftemperaturphysik

Helmholtzweg 5

D-07743 Jena

Germany

Cover

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Cavity: Courtesy DESY

Deserializer: IOP Publishing. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. M. H. Volkmann et al, 2013 Supercond. Sci. Technol.26, 015002

Superconductor cable: Courtesy Nexans Deutschland GmbH

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Conductorart by Claus Grupen (drawing)

Preface

During the celebrations of the 100 years of superconductivity in 2011, many times the question came up about real applications and the commercial impact of superconducting materials. Actually, since already the Applied Superconductivity Conference 1998 themed “Superconductivity coming to market” had promised a positive answer to this long-standing question, we felt that the present situation should be evaluated and summarized. There exist a lot of very good textbooks on basics of superconductivity as well as some monographs concerning special applications for specialists in detail like the The SQUID Handbook edited by John Clarke and Alex Braginski. The collections of articles like “Engineering Superconductivity” edited by Peter Lee in 2001, reflecting the status up to 1999, and “Applied Superconductivity” edited by Bernhard Seeber, already published in 1998, were first steps in the direction to discuss and introduce the applications for a wider audience. Nevertheless, today, they no longer represent the topical situation and latest developments. Thus, the immense progress in applications of superconductivity will be demonstrated within this new handbook on a level which covers the range from popular aspects for students and beginners till details for specialists. Because of the finite size for a two-volume book, the basic knowledge on superconductivity had to be reduced to a minimum required for understanding the main part on applications. The historical development is not reflected in detail but sometimes with respect to the actual status in order to demonstrate the speed of progress. For historic details, we refer the reader to the book 100 Years of Superconductivity edited by Horst Rogalla and Peter H. Kes, which also covers many historic aspects of applications.

This handbook wants to demonstrate that applied superconductivity has a rising impact in science and industry. The breathtaking development within the last 20 years involved a large number of different fields, for example, in medicine, geophysics, high-energy physics, and power engineering. Thus, not all examples and details can be given here, but the references will guide the reader to additional sources. The dynamics of the development of superconductivity, especially in materials and technologies toward applications is astonishing. Applications even in niches like radio frequency (RF) filters for mobile communication are a strong forcing mechanism in this development. As one example for the rapid development, the rise in critical current densities in high-Tc superconductors from 103 A cm−2 in the beginning about 20 years ago till today's second generation of YBCO-coated conductors with some 106 A cm−2 should be mentioned. This progress is the basis for many magnet or power applications. But this example also illustrates the problem of production and availability of big amounts of superconducting materials adapted to the requirements needed for all the possible projects. A production of the coated conductors fixed by pre-contracts between producers and costumers as has been done for low-Tc superconducting cables for accelerators like CERN or fusion reactors like International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) may be a good practical way to cope with this problem. There will be a rising importance of superconducting materials, technologies, and devices due to their superior properties in comparison with well-established commercial standards. The aspects of saving of energy and reduction of pollution open new possibilities for applied superconductivity as expressed in the topic of the ASC 2014 “Race to energy efficiency.”

In future, there will be many systems where the user or costumer takes the advantages of superconductivity sometimes even without knowing that there is some superconducting component like in medical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (MRT in German). The applications of superconductors will be additionally forced by the progress in cooling technologies with cryogen-free or cryocooler solutions. I hope that this handbook will help to enhance the understanding of the immense potential of superconductivity for applications in many fields.

The handbook is organized in the following parts:

Fundamentals of superconductivity and main related effects will be given only in a way to understand the main part of the book.

Superconducting materials will be introduced, but besides some overview in the fundamentals, there will be detailed contributions only on materials relevant for applications now and in near future.

Technology, preparation, and characterization concerning bulk materials, single crystals, thin films, Josephson junctions, wires and tapes, as well as cooling technology will be discussed with respect to the parameters and conditions needed for applications.

The main part consists of eight extended chapters on different application fields, including engineering aspects as well as main important parameters and interesting details up to examples for real applications.

In the summary and outlook, we try to forecast the development of the present main applications within the next 20 years.

Finally, I like to thank all contributors, the referees, and the staff of Wiley-VCH, especially Vera Palmer, Ulrike Werner, and Nina Stadthaus, as well the staff of Laserwords, especially Madhubala Venkatesan, for their excellent contributions and stimulating cooperation.

Jena

September 15, 2014

Paul Seidel

List of Contributors

Marie-Cécile Alvarez-Hérault

Domaine Universitaire

G2ELAB (Grenoble Institute of Technology, UJF, CNRS)

Ense3, 11, rue des Mathématiques - BP 46

Saint Martin d'Hères

Cedex

France

Solveig Anders

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Tolga Aytug

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Chemical Sciences Division

PO Box 2008 MS6100

Oak Ridge

TN 37831-6100

USA

Robert Bach

University of Applied Science

South Westphalia

Department of Electrical Engineering

Lübecker Ring 2

D-59494 Soest

Germany

Mikhail Belogolovskii

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine

Donetsk Institute for Physics and Engineering

Department of the Theory of Dynamic Properties of Complex Systems

Street R. Luxemburg 72

Donetsk

Ukraine

Sergey A. Belomestnykh

Collider-Accelerator Department

Bldg 911B, Brookhaven National Laboratory

P.O Box 5000

Upton

NY 11973-5000

USA

and

Stony Brook University

Department of Physics and Astronomy

Stony Brook

NY 11794

USA

Jörn Beyer

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)

Cryophysics and Spectrometry

Abbestr 2-12

D-10587 Berlin

Germany

Joachim Bock

Nexans SuperConductors GmbH

Chemiepark Knapsack

D-50351 Hürth

Germany

Luca Bottura

CERN TE-MSC, M24500

CH-1211 Geneva, 23

Switzerland

Audrius Brazdeikis

University of Houston

Department of Physics and Texas Center for Superconductivity

Houston

TX 77004

USA

Wolf-Rüdiger Canders

Technische Universität Braunschweig

Institut für Elektrische Maschinen

Antriebe und Bahnen

Postfach 3329

D-38023 Braunschweig

Germany

Claudia Cantoni

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Chemical Sciences Division

PO Box 2008 MS6100

Oak Ridge

TN 37831-6100

USA

James R. Claycomb

Houston Baptist University

Department of Mathematics and Physics

Fondren Road

Houston

TX 77074

USA

Roberto Cristiano

CNR Istituto SPIN - Superconductors

Innovative Materials and Devices

UOS - Napoli

Napoli

Italy

Jonathan A. Demko

LeTourneau University

School of Engineering and Engineering Technology

South Mobberly Avenue

Longview

TX 75607

USA

Jean-Luc Duchateau

CEA/IRFM

Institute for Magnetic Fusion Research

St Paul lez Durance Cedex

France

Andreas Erb

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften

Walther-Meissner-Institut für Tieftemperaturforschung

Walther-Meissner-Str 8

D-85748 Garching

Germany

Robert L. Fagaly

Quasar Federal Systems

Pacific Center Blvd.

Suite 203

San Diego

CA 92121

USA

Pascal Febvre

University of Savoie

IMEP-LAHC

Campus Scientifique

Le Bourget du Lac Cedex

France

Herbert C. Freyhardt

University of Houston

Texas Center for Superconductivity

UH Science Center

Houston

TX 77204-5002

USA

Ludwig Fritzsch

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Günter Fuchs

Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper-und Werkstoffforschung (IFW) Dresden

Department Superconducting Materials

Postfach 270116

D-01171 Dresden

Germany

Camille Gandioli

Domaine Universitaire

G2ELAB (Grenoble Institute of Technology, UJF, CNRS)

ENSE3

38402 Saint Martin d'Heres

France

Flavio Gatti

INFN and Università di Genova

Dipartimento di Fisica

Via Dodecaneso 33

Genova

Italy

Rene Geithner

Helmholtz Institute Jena

Fröbelstieg 3

D-07743 Jena

Germany

Michael A. Green

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Engineering Division

M/S 46-0161, 1 Cyclotron Road

Berkeley

CA 94720

USA

and

FRIB Michigan State University

South Shaw

East Lansing

48824

USA

Francesco Grilli

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Institute for Technical Physics

Hermann-Von Helmholtz-Platz 1

D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen

Germany

Claus Grupen

Siegen University

Faculty for Science and Engineering

Emmy-Noether-Campus

Walter-Flex-Straße 3

D-57068 Siegen

Germany

Nouredine Hadjsaid

Domaine Universitaire

G2ELAB (Grenoble Institute of Technology, UJF, CNRS)

ENSE3

38402 Saint Martin d'Heres

France

Seungyong Hahn

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory, Plasma Science and Fusion and Center

Albany Street

Cambridge

MA 02139

USA

Eric Hellstrom

Florida State University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

Applied Superconductivity Center

E. Paul Dirac Dr.

Tallahassee

FL 32310

USA

Dagmar Henrich

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology

Institute of Micro- und Nanoelectronic Systems

Hertzstraße 16

D-76187 Karlsruhe

Germany

and

Oxford Instruments Omicron NanoScience

Limburger Straße 75

D-65232, Taunusstein-Neuhof

Germany

Roland Hott

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Institute of Solid State Physics

Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1

D-76021 Karlsruhe

Germany

John R. Hull

Boeing

Advanced Physics Applications

P.O Box 3707, MC 2T-50

Seattle

WA 98124-2207

USA

Yukikazu Iwasa

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory

Plasma Science and Fusion and Center

Albany Street

Cambridge

MA 02139

USA

Quanxi Jia

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies

MPA-CINT, MS K771

Los Alamos

NM 87545

USA

Jianyi Jiang

National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

Applied Superconductivity Center

E. Paul Dirac Dr.

Tallahassee

FL 32310

USA

Andreas Kade

Gemeinnützige Gesellschaft mbH

ILK Dresden

Institut für Luft- und Kältetechnik

Bertolt-Brecht-Allee 20

D-01309 Dresden

Germany

Gunter Kaiser

Gemeinnützige Gesellschaft mbH

ILK Dresden

Institut für Luft- und Kältetechnik

Bertolt-Brecht-Allee 20

D-01309 Dresden

Germany

Swarn Singh Kalsi

Consulting Engineer

Kalsi Green Power Systems, LLC

Renfield Drive

Princeton

NJ 08540

USA

Neeraj Khare

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Physics Department

Hauz Khas

New Delhi 110016

India

John Kirtley

Stanford University

Applied Physics

Lomita Mall

McCullough Bldg 139

Stanford

CA 94305

USA

Reinhold Kleiner

Universität Tübingen

Physikalisches Institut and Center for Collective Quantum Phenomena in LISA$^+$

Auf der Morgenstelle 14

D-72076 Tübingen

Germany

Johannes Kohlmann

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)

Quantum Electronics

Bundesallee 100

D-38116 Braunschweig

Germany

Gernot Krabbes

Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper-und Werkstoffforschung (IFW) Dresden

Department Superconducting Materials

Postfach 270116

D-01171 Dresden

Germany

Hans-Joachim Krause

Forschungszentrum Jülich

Institute of Bioelectronics, Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI-8)

Wilhelm-Johnen-Str.

D-52425 Jülich

Germany

Helmut Krauth

Bruker EAS

Ehrichstraße 10

D-63450 Hanau

Germany

Jürgen Kunert

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Jürgen Lisenfeld

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Physikalisches Institut

Wolfgang-Gaede-Straße 1

D-76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Cesar Luongo

Jefferson Laboratory

Kelvin Drive, Suite 3

Newport News

VA 23606

USA

Doris Maier

Institut de RadioAstronomie

IRAM

300, Rue de la Piscine

St. Martin d'Heres

France

Robert McDermott

University of Wisconsin

Department of Physics

University Avenue

Madison

WI 53706

USA

Hans-Georg Meyer

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Donald L. Miller

Northrop Grumman Corporation

Electronic Systems

PO Box 1521, Mail Stop 3B10

Baltimore

MD 21203

USA

Antonio Morandi

University of Bologna

Department of Electrical

Electronic and Information Engineering

Viale Risorgimento 2

Bologna

Italy

Michael Mück

ez SQUID Mess- und Analysegeräte

Herborner Strasse 9

D-35764 Sinn

Germany

Oleg Mukhanov

HYPRES Inc.

Clearbrook Road

Elmsford

NY 10523

USA

Davide Nardelli

Columbus Superconductors, S.p.A.

Via delle Terre Rosse 30

Genova

Italy

Hannes Nowak

JenaSQUID GmbH & Co. KG

Münchenroda 29

D-07751 Jena

Germany

Gregor Oelsner

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Thomas Ortlepp

CiS Research Institute for Microsensor Systems and Photovoltaics GmbH

Konrad-Zuse-Street 14

D-99099 Erfurt

Germany

and

Ilmenau University of Technology

Microelectronics and nanoelectronic systems

PO Box 10 05 65

D-98684 Ilmenau

Germany

Hasan S. Padamsee

Cornell University

Laboratory for Elementary Particle Physics

Sciences Drive

Ithaca

NY 14853-5001

USA

and

Fermilab

P.O Box 500, MS 316

Batavia

IL 60510-5011

USA

Ilaria Pallecchi

CNR-SPIN and University of Genova

Dipartimento di Fisica

Via Dodecaneso 33

Genova

Italy

Mariappan P. Paranthaman

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Chemical Sciences Division

PO Box 2008 MS6100

Oak Ridge

TN 37831-6100

USA

Giovanni P. Pepe

CNR Istituto SPIN - Superconductors

Innovative Materials and Devices

UOS - Napoli

Napoli

Italy

and

University of Naples Federico II

Department of Physics

Via Cinthia

Naples

80126 Monte Sant'Angelo

Italy

Werner Prusseit

THEVA Dünnschichttechnik GmbH

Rote-Kreuz Str. 8

D-85737 Ismaning

Germany

John X. Przybysz

Northrop Grumman Corporation

Electronic Systems

West Nursery Road

Mail Stop C425

Linthicum

MD 21090

USA

Marina Putti

CNR-SPIN and University of Genova

Dipartimento di Fisica

Via Dodecaneso 33

Genova

Italy

Lucio Rossi

CERN—European Organization for Nuclear Research

Technology Department

Route de Meyrin

Meyrin

Switzerland

Hannes Rotzinger

Karlsruher Institut für Technologie

Physikalisches Institut

Wolfgang-Gaede-Straße 1

D-76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Steven T. Ruggiero

University of Notre Dame

Department of Physics

Nieuwland Science Hall

Notre Dame

IN 46556

USA

Jean-Claude Sabonnadiere

Domaine Universitaire

G2ELAB (Grenoble Institute of Technology, UJF, CNRS), ENSE3

Saint Martin d'Heres

France

Klaus Schlenga

Bruker EAS

Ehrichstraße 10

D-63450 Hanau

Germany

Matthias Schmelz

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Gunar Schroeder

Gemeinnützige Gesellschaft mbH

ILK Dresden

Institut für Luft- und Kältetechnik

Bertolt-Brecht-Allee 20

D-01309 Dresden

Germany

Thomas Schurig

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)

Cryophysics and Spectrometry

Abbestr 2-12

D-10587 Berlin

Germany

Paul Seidel

Friedrich Schiller University Jena

Institute of Solid State Physics

Helmholtzweg 5

D-07743 Jena

Germany

Tengming Shen

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

Magnet Systems Department

Wilson Street & Kirk Road

%P.O Box 500, M.S. 315

Batavia

IL 60510

USA

Michael Siegel

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology

Institute of Micro- und Nanoelectronic Systems

Hertzstraße 16

D-76187 Karlsruhe

Germany

Frederic Sirois

Polytechnique Montreal

C.P 6079, succ. centre-ville

Montreal, QC, H3C 3A7

Canada

Liliana Stan

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies

MPA-CINT, MS K771

Los Alamos

NM 87545

USA

and

Argonne National Laboratory

Center for Nanoscale Materials

South Cass Avenue, Building 440

Argonne

IL 60439-4806

USA

Ronny Stolz

Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology

Department Quantum Detection

Albert-Einstein-Street 9

D-07745 Jena

Germany

Keiichi Tanabe

International Superconductivity Technology Center

Superconductivity Research Laboratory

2-11-19 Minowa-cho

Kohoku-ku

Yokohama

Kanagawa 223-0051

Japan

Saburo Tanaka

Toyohashi University of Technology

Tempaku-cho

441-8580 Toyohashi

Aichi

Japan

Pascal Tixador

Domaine Universitaire

G2ELAB (Grenoble Institute of Technology, UJF, CNRS), ENSE3

Saint Martin d'Heres

France

Hannes Toepfer

Technische Universität Ilmenau

Theoretische Elektrotechnik

PF 10 05 65

D-98684 Ilmenau

Germany

Masayoshi Tonouchi

Osaka University

Institute of Laser Engineering

2-6 Yamada-Oka

Suita-city

Osaka 565-0871

Japan

Matteo Tropeano

Columbus Superconductors, S.p.A.

Via delle Terre Rosse 30

Genova

Italy

Wolfgang Vodel

Friedrich Schiller University Jena

Institute of Solid State Physics

Helmholtzweg 5

D-07743 Jena

Germany

and

Helmholtz Institute Jena

Fröbelstieg 3

D-07743 Jena

Germany

Huabing Wang

National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS)

Superconducting Properties Unit

1-2-1 Sengen

Tsukuba 3050047

Japan

Martin Weides

Karlsruher Institut für Technologie

Physikalisches Institut

Wolfgang-Gaede-Straße 1

D-76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Frank N. Werfel

Adelwitz Technologiezentrum GmbH (ATZ)

Naundorfer Street 29

D-04860 Torgau

Germany

Martin N. Wilson

Lower Radley

OX14 3AY Abingdon

United Kingdom

Stuart C. Wimbush

Victoria University of Wellington

Robinson Research Institute

PO Box 600

Gracefield Road Lower Hutt 5010

Wellington 6140

New Zealand

Thomas Wolf

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Institute of Solid State Physics

Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1

D-76021 Karlsruhe

Germany

Roger Wördenweber

Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH

Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI-8) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technology

Leo-Brandt-Straße

D-52425 Jülich

Germany

Jarek Wosik

University of Houston

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Texas Center for Superconductivity

Houston

TX 77004

USA

Alexander B. Zorin

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt

Quantenelektronik

Bundesallee 100

D-38116 Braunschweig

Germany

and

Moscow State University

Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics

Moscow

Russia

Gertrud Zwicknagl

Technische Universität Braunschweig

Institut für Mathematische Physik

Mendelssohnstraße 3

D-38106 Braunschweig

Germany

Chapter 1Fundamentals

1.1 Superconductivity

1.1.1 Basic Properties and Parameters of Superconductors1

Reinhold Kleiner

1.1.1.1 Superconducting Transition and Loss of DC Resistance

In the year 1908, Kamerlingh-Onnes [3], director of the Low-Temperature Laboratory at the University of Leiden, had achieved the liquefaction of helium as the last of the noble gases. At atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of helium is 4.2 K. It can be reduced further by pumping. The liquefaction of helium extended the available temperature range near the absolute zero point and Kamerlingh-Onnes was able to perform experiments at these low temperatures.

At first, he started an investigation of the electric resistance of metals. At that time, the ideas about the mechanism of the electric conduction were only poorly developed. It was known that it must be electrons being responsible for charge transport. Also one had measured the temperature dependence of the electric resistance of many metals, and it had been found that near room temperature the resistance decreases linearly with decreasing temperature. However, at low temperatures, this decrease was found to become weaker and weaker. In principle, there were three possibilities to be discussed:

The resistance could approach zero value with decreasing temperature (James Dewar, 1904).

It could approach a finite limiting value (Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Matthiesen, 1864).

It could pass through a minimum and approach infinity at very low temperatures (William Lord Kelvin, 1902).

In particular, the third possibility was favored by the idea that at sufficiently low temperatures the electrons are likely to be bound to their respective atoms. Hence, their free mobility was expected to vanish. The first possibility, according to which the resistance would approach zero value at very low temperatures, was suggested by the strong decrease with decreasing temperature. Initially, Kamerlingh-Onnes studied platinum and gold samples, since at that time he could obtain these metals already with high purity. He found that during the approach of zero temperature the electric resistance of his samples reached a finite limiting value, the so-called residual resistance, a behavior corresponding to the second possibility discussed above. The value of this residual resistance depended upon the purity of the samples. The purer the samples, the smaller the residual resistance. After these results, Kamerlingh-Onnes expected that in the temperature range of liquid helium, ideally, pure platinum or gold should have a vanishingly small resistance. In a lecture at the Third International Congress of Refrigeration 1913 in Chicago, he reported on these experiments and arguments. There he said: “Allowing a correction for the additive resistance I came to the conclusion that probably the resistance of absolutely pure platinum would have vanished at the boiling point of helium” [4]. These ideas were supported further by the quantum physics rapidly developing at that time. Albert Einstein had proposed a model of crystals, according to which the vibrational energy of the crystal atoms should decrease exponentially at very low temperatures. Since the resistance of highly pure samples, according to the view of Kamerlingh-Onnes (which turned out to be perfectly correct, as we know today), is only due to this motion of the atoms, his hypothesis mentioned above appeared obvious.

In order to test these ideas, Kamerlingh-Onnes decided to study mercury, the only metal for which he hoped at that time that it can be extremely purified by means of a multiple distillation process. He estimated that at the boiling point of helium he could barely just detect the resistance of the mercury with his equipment, and that at still lower temperatures it should rapidly approach zero value. The initial experiments carried out by Kamerlingh-Onnes together with his coworkers, Gerrit Flim, Gilles Holst, and Gerrit Dorsman, appeared to confirm these concepts. At temperatures below 4.2 K, the resistance of mercury, indeed, became immeasurably small. During his further experiments, he soon recognized that the observed effect could not be identical to the expected decrease of resistance. The resistance change took place within a temperature interval of only a few hundredths of a degree and, hence, it resembled more a resistance jump than a continuous decrease.

Figure 1.1.1.1 shows the curve published by Kamerlingh-Onnes [5]. He commented himself: “At this point (slightly below 4.2 K) within some hundredths of a degree came a sudden fall not foreseen by the vibrator theory of resistance, that had framed, bringing the resistance at once less than a millionth of its original value at the melting point. … Mercury had passed into a new state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the superconductive state” [4].

Figure 1.1.1.1 Superconductivity of mercury. (From [1], after Ref. [5].)

In this way also the name for this new phenomenon had been found. The discovery came unexpectedly during experiments, which were meant to test some well-founded ideas. Soon it became clear that the purity of the samples was unimportant for the vanishing of the resistance. The carefully performed experiment had uncovered a new state of matter.

Today we know that superconductivity represents a widespread phenomenon. In the periodic system of the elements superconductivity occurs in many elements. Here, at atmospheric pressure, niobium is the element with the highest “transition temperature” or “critical temperature” Tc of about 9 K. Eventually, thousands of superconducting compounds have been found, and this development is by no means closed.

The vanishing of the DC electric resistance below Tc is not the only unusual property of superconductors. An externally applied magnetic field can be expelled from the interior of superconductors except for a thin outer layer (“ideal diamagnetism” or “Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect”). This happens for type-I superconductors for field below the so-called critical field Bc, and for type-II superconductors below the lower critical field Bc1. For higher fields, type-II superconductors can concentrate the magnetic field in the form of “flux tubes.” Here the magnetic flux2 is quantized in units of the “magnetic flux quantum” Φ0 = 2.07·10−15 Wb. The ideal diamagnetism of superconductors was discovered by Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933. It was a big surprise, since based on the induction law one would have only expected that an ideal conductor conserves its interior magnetic field and does not expel it.

The breakthrough of the theoretical understanding of superconductivity was achieved in 1957 by the theory of Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (“BCS theory”) [6]. They recognized that at the transition to the superconducting state, the electrons pairwise condense into a new state, in which they form a coherent matter wave with a well-defined phase, following the rules of quantum mechanics. Here the interaction of the electrons is mediated by the “phonons,” the quantized vibrations of the crystal lattice. The pairs are called Cooper pairs. In most cases, the spins of the two electrons are aligned antiparallelly, that is, they form spin-singlets. Also, at least in most cases, the angular momentum of the pair is zero (s-wave). The theory also shows that at nonzero temperatures, a part of the electrons remain unpaired. There is, however, an energy gap Δ which separates these unpaired “quasiparticles” from the Cooper pairs. It requires the energy 2Δ to break a pair.

For more than 75 years, superconductivity represented specifically a low-temperature phenomenon. This changed in 1986, when Bednorz and Müller [7] discovered superconductors based on copper oxide.

This result was highly surprising for the scientific community, also because already in the middle 1960s, Matthias and coworkers had started a systematic study of the metallic oxides. They searched among the substances based on the transition metal oxides, such as W, Ti, Mo, and Bi [8]. They found extremely interesting superconductors, for example, in the Ba–Pb–Bi–O system, however, no particularly high transition temperatures.

During the turn of the year 1986–1987, the “gold rush” set in, when it became known that the group of Shigeho Tanaka in Japan could exactly reproduce the results of Bednorz and Müller. Only a few weeks later, transition temperatures above 80 K were observed in the Y–Ba–Cu–O system [9]. During this phase, new results more often were reported in press conferences than in scientific journals. The media anxiously followed this development. With superconductivity at temperatures above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (T = 77 K), one could envision many important technical applications of this phenomenon.

Today we know a large series of cuprate “high-temperature superconductors.” Here the mostly studied compounds are YBa2Cu3O7 (also “YBCO” or “Y123”) and Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 (also “BSCCO” or “Bi2212”), which display maximum transition temperatures around 90 K. Some compounds have transition temperatures even above 100 K. The record value is carried by HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8, having at atmospheric pressure a Tc value of 135 K and at a pressure of 30 GPa, a value as high as Tc = 164 K. Figure 1.1.1.2 shows the evolution of the transition temperatures since the discovery by Kamerlingh-Onnes. The jump-like increase due to the discovery of the copper-oxides is particularly impressive.

Figure 1.1.1.2 Evolution of the superconducting transition temperature since the discovery of superconductivity. (From [2], after Ref. [10].)

In Figure 1.1.1.2, we have also included the metallic compound MgB2, as well as the iron pnictides.

For MgB2, surprisingly, superconductivity with a transition temperature of 39 K was detected only in 2000, even though this material has been commercially available for a long time [11]. Also, this discovery had a great impact in physics, and many essential properties of this material have been clarified in the subsequent years. It turned out that MgB2 behaves similarly as the “classical” metallic superconductors, however with two energy gaps. The discovery of the iron pnictides in 2008 [12] had a similar impact. These are compounds like LaFeAsO0.89F0.11 or Ba0.6KFe2As2, with transition temperatures of up to 55 K. The iron pnictides contain layers made of FeAs as the basic building block, in analogy to the copper oxide layers in the cuprates.

Many properties of the high-temperature superconductors (in addition also to other superconducting compounds) are highly unusual. For example, the Cooper pairs in the cuprates have an angular momentum of ħ (d-wave) and the coherent matter wave has symmetry. For the d-wave symmetry, the energy gap Δ disappears for some directions in momentum space. More than 25 years after their discovery, it is still unclear how the Cooper pairing is accomplished in these materials. However, it seems likely that magnetic interactions play an important role.

Another important issue is the maximum current which a superconducting wire or tape can carry without resistance, the so-called critical current. We will see that the property “zero resistance” is not always fulfilled. When alternating currents are applied, the resistance can become finite. Also for DC currents, the critical current is limited. It depends on the temperature and the magnetic field, and also on the type of superconductor used and the geometry of the wire. It is a big challenge to fabricate conductors in a way that hundreds or even thousands of amperes can be carried without or at least with very low resistance.

1.1.1.2 Ideal Diamagnetism, Flux Quantization, and Critical Fields

It has been known for a long time that the characteristic property of the superconducting state is that it shows no measurable resistance for direct current. If a magnetic field is applied to such an ideal conductor