Arsenic in Plants E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Arsenic in Plants Comprehensive resource detailing the chemistry, toxicity and impact of arsenic in plants, and solutions to the problem Arsenic in Plants: Uptake, Consequences and Remediation Techniques provides comprehensive coverage of the subject, detailing arsenic in our environment, the usage of arsenicals in crop fields, phytotoxicity of arsenic and arsenic's impact on the morphology, anatomy and quantitative and qualitative traits of different plant groups, including their physiology and biochemistry. The work emphasizes the occurrence of arsenic, its speciation and transportation in plants, and differences in mechanisms of tolerance in hyper-accumulator and non-accumulator plants. Throughout the text, the highly qualified authors delve into every facet of the interaction of arsenic with plants, including the ionomics, genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics in relation to arsenic toxicity, impact of exogenous phytohormones and growth-regulating substances, management of arsenic contamination in the soil-plant continuum, phytoremediation of arsenic toxicity and physical removal of arsenic from water. General discussion has also been included on subjects such as the ways through which this metalloid affects plant and human systems. Topics covered include: * Introduction and historical background of arsenic and the mechanism of arsenic transport and metabolism in plants * Arsenic-induced responses in plants, including impact on biochemical processes and different plant groups, from cyanobacteria to higher plants * The role of phytohormones, mineral nutrients, metabolites and signaling molecules in regulating arsenic-induced toxicity in plants * Genomic, proteomic, metabolomic, ionomic and transcriptional regulation during arsenic stress * Strategies to reduce the arsenic contamination in soil-plant systems and arsenic removal by phytoremediation techniques Researchers, academics, and students of plant physiology, biotechnology, and agriculture will find valuable information in Arsenic in Plants to understand this pressing subject in full, along with its implications and how we can adapt our strategies and behaviors to promote reduced contamination through practical applications.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 An Introduction to Arsenic: Sources, Occurrence, and Speciation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Status of Arsenic Contamination Around the World
1.3 Arsenic in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment
1.4 Absolute Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of As in Plants and Agronomic Systems
1.5 Factors Determining Arsenic Speciation and Bioavailability in Soil
1.6 Arsenic Speciation in Plants
1.7 Thiolated Arsenic and Bioavailability of Thiolated As Species in Plants and Terrestrial Environments
1.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
2 Chemistry and Occurrence of Arsenic in Water
2.1 Chemical Properties of Arsenic
2.2 Worldwide Occurrence of Arsenic
2.3 Arsenic Occurrence in Natural Media
2.4 Arsenic Mobilization in Natural Media
2.5 Biological Methylation of Arsenic in Organisms
2.6 Anthropogenic Arsenic Contamination
2.7 Toxicity of Arsenic in Waters
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Arsenic Transport and Metabolism in Plants
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Arsenite Influx and Efflux
3.3 Arsenate Influx and Efflux
3.4 Transportation of Methylated As Species
3.5 Arsenic Metabolism in Plants
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Arsenic Induced Responses in Plants: Impacts on Different Plant Groups, from Cyanobacteria to Higher Plants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Responses of Arsenic on Various Plant Groups
4.3 Arsenic Response in Cyanophycean Algae
4.4 Responses on Other Groups of Algae (Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae, Diatoms, Xanthophyceae, Charophyceae, etc.)
4.5 Responses on Moss
4.6 Arsenic Response on Pteridophyte
4.7 Responses in Angiosperms
4.8 Perception of Arsenic Stress by Plants and Triggering of Signaling Cascades
4.9 Mechanistic Aspects of Responses Related to Arsenic (Effect on ATP Synthesis, Photosynthesis, DNA, Protein, Cell Membrane, Carbohydrate, and Lipid Metabolism)
4.10 Future Prospects and Conclusion
References
5 Arsenic‐Induced Responses in Plants
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Impact of Arsenic on the Morphological Characters of Plants
5.3 Impact of Arsenic on the Anatomical Characters of Plants
5.4 Effect of As on stem Anatomy of Plants
5.5 Impacts of Arsenic on Quantitative Characters of Plants
5.6 Impact of Arsenic on the Qualitative Characters of Plants
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Arsenic‐Induced Responses in Plants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Arsenic Effect on Biochemical Process in Plants
6.3 Oxidative Stress on the Arsenic‐Induced Plant
6.4 Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Arsenic‐Induced Plant
6.5 Lipid Metabolism in the Arsenic‐Induced Plant
6.6 Protein Metabolism in the Arsenic‐Induced Plant
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Photosynthetic Responses of Two Salt‐Tolerant Plants,
Tamarix gallica
and
Arthrocnemum indicum
Against Arsenic Stress
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Metal Uptake
7.3 Impact of Arsenic on Photosynthetic Pigments
7.4 Effect of Arsenic on Photosynthetic Apparatus
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Genomic and Transcriptional Regulation During Arsenic Stress
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Study of Differentially Regulated Genes During Arsenic Stress in Plants
8.3 Genetic Study of Arsenic‐Responsive Genes in Plants
8.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
9 Proteomic Regulation During Arsenic Stress
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Molecular Chaperones in Response to Arsenic Stress
9.3 Participation of Protein in CO
2
Assimilation and Photosynthetic Activity
9.4 Pathogen‐Responsive Proteins (PR) in Response to Arsenic Stress
9.5 Participation of Proteins in Energy Metabolism
9.6 Possible Pan‐interactomics
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Metabolomic Regulation During the Arsenic Stress
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Arsenic Uptake/Translocation in Plants
10.3 Arsenic Removal Efficiency in Plants
10.4 Toxicity of Arsenic on Plants Metabolism
10.5 Metabolome Regulation and Plants Tolerance
10.6 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
11 Role of Phytohormones in Regulating Arsenic‐Induced Toxicity in Plants
11.1 Arsenic and Its Source
11.2 Uptake and Transport of Arsenic Within Plants
11.3 Mechanism of Arsenic Efflux by Plant Roots
11.4 Impact of Arsenic on Metabolism and its Toxicity in Plants
11.5 Phytohormones, Their Role and Interaction with Heavy Metals
11.6 Mechanism of Detoxification of Heavy Metals with Special Emphasis on Arsenic by Phytohormones
11.7 Exogenous Application of Phytohormones over Detoxification
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Influence of Some Chemicals in Mitigating Arsenic‐Induced Toxicity in Plants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Role of Phosphorus
12.3 Role of Nitric Oxide
12.4 Role of Hydrogen Sulfide
12.5 Role of Calcium
12.6 Role of Proline
12.7 Role of Phytohormones
12.8 Role of Selenium
12.9 Role of Silicon
12.10 Conclusion
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
References
13 Strategies to Reduce the Arsenic Contamination in the Soil–Plant System
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Arsenic
13.3 Arsenic Use in Agricultural Soils
13.4 Arsenic Fate in Soil
13.5 Toxicity of Arsenic on Humans, Animals and Plants
13.6 Strategies to Reduce the Arsenic Contamination in the Soil–Plant System
13.7 Conclusions
References
14 Arsenic Removal by Phytoremediation Techniques
14.1 Arsenic Presence in the Environment
14.2 Arsenic Contamination and its Effects on Human Health
14.3 Arsenic Toxicity in Plants
14.4 Arsenic Attenuation by Phytoremediation Technology
14.5 Phytoextraction
14.6 Arsenic Hyperaccumulation by Plants
14.7 Phytostabilization
14.8 Phytovolatilization
14.9 Rhizofiltration
14.10 Novel Approaches of Phytoremediation Technology
References
15 Arsenic Removal by Electrocoagulation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Arsenic Contamination in Natural Waters
15.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Main Arsenic Removal Technologies
15.4 As Removal Mechanism with EC
15.5 Operating Parameters Affecting Arsenic Removal Through EC
15.6 Electrode Shape and Material
15.7 Solution pH
15.8 Effect of Applied Current
15.9 Optimization of EC Arsenic Removal Process
15.10 Cost of EC Arsenic Removal Method
15.11 Merits and Demerits
15.12 Conclusions
References
16 Developments in Membrane Technologies and Ion‐Exchange Methods for Arsenic Removal from Aquatic Ecosystems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Arsenic Chemistry, Sources, and Distribution in Water
16.3 Health Implications of Arsenic
16.4 Membrane Technologies
16.5 Ion Exchange
16.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17 Arsenic Removal by Membrane Technologiesand Ion Exchange Methods from Wastewater
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Arsenic Removal Using Membrane Separation
17.3 Arsenic Removal Using Ion Exchange Methods
17.4 Methods to Increase the Efficiency of Arsenic Removal
17.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
18 Methods to Detect Arsenic Compounds
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Colorimetric Method
18.3 Electrochemical Method
18.4 Method Based on FRET
18.5 Method Based on SPR
18.6 Method Based on Spectrometry
18.7 Biosensor for Arsenic Detection
18.8 Conclusion
References
19 An Overview on Emerging and Innovative Technologies for Regulating Arsenic Toxicity in Plants
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Uptake of Arsenic
19.3 Arsenic Toxicity on Plants
19.4 Remediation Strategies of Arsenic Toxicity in Plants
19.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
20 A Potential Phytoremedial Strategy for Arsenic from Contaminated Drinking Water Using
Hygrophilla spinosa
(Starthorn Leaves)
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Methodology
20.3 Results and Discussion
20.4 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The phosphate transporter families in plants.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Arsenic on different plant enzymes.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Effect of arsenic on lipid metabolism in plants.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Translocation factor in two halophyte species
A. indicum
and
T.
...
Table 7.2 Chlorophyll degradation products, carotenoids, and xanthophyll cy...
Table 7.3 Chlorophyll degradation products, carotenoids, and xanthophyll cy...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 A complete list of transporters involved in arsenite (As(III)) up...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Different forms of As compounds in the environment.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Toxicity of arsenic and some commonly detected arsenic species....
Table 13.2 Arsenic remediation by using bacteria, fungi, and different amen...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Demographic analysis in response to arsenic concentration in uri...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Global As contamination, affected population, and As concentrati...
Table 15.2 Summary of treatment processes used to remove arsenic from aqueo...
Table 15.3 Summary of EC processes used to remove arsenic from aqueous solu...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Nanofiltration uses.
Table 16.2 Membrane filtration types and their properties.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 List of different types of membrane filtration technology along ...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Different analytical and biosensor‐based methods used for arseni...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Effect of application of phytohormone, gene modification, signal...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Adsorbent materials prepared from biological sources to remove A...
Table 20.2 Controlling parameters during optimization under study.
Table 20.3 Overview of Kulekhara leaves before and after desorption.
Table 20.4 Effect of adsorbent dosage on the reduction efficiency of As con...
Table 20.5 Adsorption isotherm for the effect of adsorbent dosage using gro...
Table 20.6 The effect of contact time on reduction efficiency of As concent...
Table 20.7 The adsorption isotherm for the effect of contact time using gro...
Table 20.8 Effect of pH on the reduction efficiency of As concentration usi...
Table 20.9 To study the adsorption isotherm for the effect of pH using grou...
Table 20.10 Effect of rpm on the reduction efficiency of As concentration u...
Table 20.11 Adsorption isotherm for the effect of rpm using ground leaves o...
Table 20.12 Optimizing conditions for best removal of arsenic by Starthorn ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Relevant As species for human biomonitoring.
Figure 2.2 As(III) (above) and As(V) (below) speciation. Total As concentrat...
Figure 2.3 Map of worldwide affected regions.
Figure 2.4 Eh‐pH diagram of As species in the As
─
O
2
─
H
2
O system....
Figure 2.5 Biotransformation of As(V) in mammalians. SAM:
S
‐adenosylmethioni...
Figure 2.6 Potential pathways for reduction and methylation of As in terrest...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Structural similarities of As(V) and P enable them to undergo sim...
Figure 3.2 Similar positions of As(V) and P in the product formed by their r...
Figure 3.3 Inorganic As transport, As(III) is transported via aquaporins, wh...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Effect on different metabolisms of plants exposed to arsenic toxi...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The potent effect of Arsenic on plant growth and development.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Effect of arsenic (As) on plants.
Figure 6.2 Effect of arsenic‐generated reactive oxygen species.
Figure 6.3 Protective functioning of Proline (Pro) in plants under arsenic s...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 As uptake in (a)
T. gallica
(the concept of this figure is based ...
Figure 7.2 Chlorophylls a and b and total carotenoid content of (a)
T. galli
...
Figure 7.3 Total chlorophyll and total carotenoid content of (a)
T. gallica
...
Figure 7.4 PSII quantum yield (a, b), variable fluorescence (c, d) in light ...
Figure 7.5 PSII quantum yield (a, b), variable fluorescence (c, d) in light ...
Figure 7.6 Energy fluxes in
T. gallica
under combined stresses with As and N...
Figure 7.7 Energy fluxes in
A. indicum
under combined stresses with As and N...
Figure 7.8 The performance index (PI) and DES values in (a)
T. gallica
(the ...
Figure 7.9 Average values of the Kautsky curves in dark‐adapted leaves of
T.
...
Figure 7.10 Average values of the Kautsky curves in dark‐adapted leaves of
A
...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Diagrammatic illustration of a future planned methodology for any...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Effect of arsenic on plant metabolism: the As includes and inhib...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of arsenic‐induced effects in plants.
Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of amelioration of arsenic stress using...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Eh‐pH diagram of aqueous As species in the system As─O
2
─H
2
O at 2...
Figure 14.2 Overview of arsenic (As) uptake, transport, and translocation in...
Figure 14.3 Potential detrimental effects of As exposure on plants that lead...
Figure 14.4 Uptake mechanisms on phytoremediation technology.
Figure 14.5 Positive and negative effects of presence of NPs in soil and the...
Figure 14.6 Phytoremediation site in Changsha, China, demonstrates the inter...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Surface morphology with (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) a...
Figure 15.2 EC reactor configurations with scrap (a) and ball (b)‐shaped ele...
Figure 15.3 Effect of utilized current on the As treatment with (a) time and...
Figure 15.4 Arsenic reductions at different applied current values: (a) 0.07...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The composition of arsenic compounds in the natural environment....
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Arsenic toxicity of humans.
Figure 17.2 Different methods of increasing the efficiency of arsenic remova...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic representation of a whole‐cell biosensor involving rep...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Schematic representation of uptake of different forms of As in a...
Figure 19.2 Schematic representation of As (As) toxicity in plants.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Leaves of Starthorn plant (
H. spinosa)
.
Figure 20.2 Heritage Institute of Technology, Anandapur, Kolkata.
Figure 20.3 Preparation of adsorbent material.
Figure 20.4 The effect of adsorbent dosage on reduction efficiency of As con...
Figure 20.5 Adsorption isotherm showing the effect of adsorbent dosage on ef...
Figure 20.6 The effect of contact time on reduction efficiency of As concent...
Figure 20.7 Adsorption isotherm to explain the effect of contact time on red...
Figure 20.8 Effect of pH on the reduction efficiency of As concentration usi...
Figure 20.9 Adsorption isotherm to explain the effect of pH on the reduction...
Figure 20.10 The effect of rpm on reduction efficiency of the As concentrati...
Figure 20.11 Adsorption isotherm to explain the effect of rpm on the reducti...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Arsenic in Plants
Uptake, Consequences and Remediation Techniques
Edited by
Prabhat Kumar Srivastava
Department of Botany
KS Saket PG College
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rachana Singh
Department of Botany
University of Allahabad
Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Parul Parihar
Department of Botany
University of Allahabad
Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
and
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology
Banasthali Vidyapith
Rajasthan, India
Sheo Mohan Prasad
Department of Botany
University of Allahabad
Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
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List of Contributors
Sajid Rashid AhmadCollege of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Duraid K.A. Al‐TaeyDepartment of HorticultureFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AL‐Qasim GreenAL‐Qasim, Babylon, Iraq
Samina AslamDepartment of ChemistryWomen University MultanMultan, Punjab, Pakistan
Ummey AymenDepartment of BotanyLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Irshad BibiInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Agriculture FaisalabadFaisalabad, Pakistan
Asok K. BiswasPlant Physiology and Biochemistry LaboratoryCentre for Advanced StudyDepartment of BotanyUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, West Bengal, India
Isabel CaçadorMARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences CentreFaculty of SciencesUniversity of LisbonLisbon, PortugalandDepartment of Plant BiologyFaculty of SciencesUniversity of LisbonLisbon, Portugal
Debasis ChakrabartyBiotechnology and Molecular Biology DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaandAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Moumita ChatterjeeDepartment of BotanyV. Sivaram Research FoundationBengaluru, Karnataka, India
Charu ChaturvediPlant Molecular Biology LaboratoryDepartment of BotanyDayanand Anglo‐Vedic (PG) CollegeChhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj UniversityKanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nilanjana Roy ChowdhurySchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Antara DasSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Ayan DeSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Letúzia Maria de OliveiraCenter for Water ResourcesCollege of Agriculture and Food SciencesFlorida A&M UniversityTallahassee, FL, USA
Daljeet Singh DhanjalDepartment of BiotechnologySchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Bernardo DuarteMARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences CentreFaculty of SciencesUniversity of LisbonLisbon, Portugal
Neeraj Kumar DubeyDepartment of BotanyRashtriya Snatkottar MahavidyalayaJaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mujahid FaridDepartment of Environmental SciencesUniversity of GujratGujrat, Pakistan
Sumaya FarooqSchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Sharmistha GangulyDepartment of BotanyRanchi UniversityRanchi, Jharkhand, India
Neelam GautamBiotechnology and Molecular Biology DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaandAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Kavita GhosalDepartment of BotanyP.D. Women’s CollegeJalpaiguri, West Bengal, India
Aysegul Yagmur GorenDepartment of Environmental Science and EngineeringIzmir Institute of TechnologyIzmir, Turkey
Govind GuptaEnvironmental Science DisciplineDepartment of ChemistryManipal University JaipurRajasthan, India
Sunil Kumar GuptaCAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest EcologyXishuangbanna Tropical Botanical GardenChinese Academy of SciencesMengla, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China
Israr Masood ul HasanState Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer MaterialsCollege of Environmental Science and EngineeringDonghua UniversityShanghai, China
Emad JafarzadehDepartment of Toxicology and PharmacologyFaculty of PharmacyTehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS)Tehran, Iran
Asim JilaniCenter of NanotechnologyKing Abdul Aziz UniversityJeddah, Saudi Arabia
Madhurima JoardarSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Anuja JosephSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Dhriti KapoorDepartment of BotanySchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Harry KaurDepartment of Biosciences and BioengineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyRoorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Jabbar KhanEnvironmental Science DisciplineDepartment of ChemistryManipal University JaipurRajasthan, India
Marya KhanDepartment of BotanyLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Maria KidwaiBiotechnology and Molecular Biology DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mehmet KobyaDepartment of Environmental EngineeringGebze Technical UniversityKocaeli, TurkeyandDepartment of Environmental EngineeringKyrgyz‐Turkish Manas UniversityBishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Tanzeela KokabCollege of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Arun KumarCenter of Advanced Study in BotanyInstitute of ScienceBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sanjay KumarInstitute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials (IMRAM)Tohoku UniversitySendai, Japan
Vijay KumarDepartment of Chemistry Central Ayurveda Research Institute JhansiUttar Pradesh, India
Marta Irene LitterIIIA (CONICET‐UNSAM)Instituto de Investigación e Ingeniería AmbientalEscuela de Hábitat y SostenibilidadUniversidad Nacional de General San MartínBuenos Aires Province, Argentina
Muzaffar MajidCollege of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Naina MarwaPlant Ecology and Climate Change Science DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaandDepartment of BotanyUniversity of LucknowLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mohammad MehdizadehDepartment of Agronomy and Plant BreedingUniversity of Mohaghegh ArdabiliArdabil, Iran
Shraddha MishraDepartment of Biological SciencesBirla Institute of Technology and SciencePilani, Rajasthan, India
Deepanjan MridhaSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Waseem MushtaqAllelopathy LaboratoryDepartment of BotanyAligarh Muslim UniversityAligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
Lucy NgatiaCenter for Water ResourcesCollege of Agriculture and Food SciencesFlorida A&M UniversityTallahassee, FL, USA
Nabeel Khan NiaziInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Agriculture FaisalabadFaisalabad, Pakistan
Subhamita Sen NiyogiAnushka Soham Purified Water Manufacturing Co. Private LimitedHooghly, West Bengal, India
Anahita OmidiDepartment of GIS and Remote SensingFaculty of GeographyUniversity of TehranTehran, Iran
Neha PandeyDepartment of BotanyCMP PG CollegePrayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Vivek PandeyPlant Ecology and Climate Change Science DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Parul PariharDepartment of BotanyUniversity of AllahabadPrayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaandDepartment of Bioscience and BiotechnologyBanasthali VidyapithRajasthan, India
Sílvia PedroMARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences CentreFaculty of SciencesUniversity of LisbonLisbon, Portugal
Mamta PujariDepartment of BotanySchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Amit Prakash RaghuvanshiPlant Molecular Biology LaboratoryDepartment of BotanyDayanand Anglo‐Vedic (PG) CollegeChhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj UniversityKanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Praveen C. RamamurthyInterdisciplinary Centre for Water Research (ICWaR)Indian Institute of ScienceBengaluru, Karnataka, India
Varsha RaniDepartment of Pharmaceutical Engineering and TechnologyIndian Institute of TechnologyBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Iravati RaySchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Tarit RoychowdhurySchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Gauri SaxenaDepartment of BotanyUniversity of LucknowLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad Bilal ShakoorCollege of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Pooja SharmaDepartment of Environmental MicrobiologySchool for Environmental SciencesBabasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central UniversityLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Hamidreza SharifanDepartment of Natural ScienceAlbany State UniversityAlbany, GA, USA
Riddhi ShrivastavaEnvironmental Science DisciplineDepartment of ChemistryManipal University JaipurRajasthan, IndiaandDepartment of ChemistryPoornima College of EngineeringJaipur, Rajasthan, India
Dhouha Belhaj SghaierUR MaNEFaculté des Sciences de BizerteUniversité de CarthageTunis, Tunisia
Shahida Anusha SiddiquiDepartment of Biotechnology and SustainabilityTechnical University of Munich (TUM)Straubing, Bavaria, GermanyandDIL e.V.–German Institute of Food TechnologiesD‐Quakenbrück, Lower Saxony, Germany
Palin SilPlant Physiology and Biochemistry LaboratoryCentre for Advanced StudyDepartment of BotanyUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, West Bengal, India
Anita SinghCenter of Advanced Study in BotanyInstitute of ScienceBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Joginder SinghDepartment of BiotechnologySchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Nandita SinghPlant Ecology and Climate Change Science DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Naveen Kumar SinghEnvironmental Science DisciplineDepartment of ChemistryManipal University JaipurRajasthan, India
Rachana SinghDepartment of BotanyUniversity of AllahabadPrayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Simranjeet SinghInterdisciplinary Centre for Water Research (ICWaR)Indian Institute of ScienceBengaluru, Karnataka, India
Surendra Pratap SinghPlant Molecular Biology LaboratoryDepartment of BotanyDayanand Anglo‐Vedic (PG) CollegeChhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj UniversityKanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Debapriya SinhaSchool of Environmental StudiesJadavpur UniversityKolkata, West Bengal, India
Dwaipayan SinhaDepartment of BotanyGovernment General Degree CollegeWest Bengal, India
Noomene SleimiUR MaNEFaculté des Sciences de BizerteUniversité de CarthageTunis, Tunisia
Zahra SouriDepartment of BiologyFaculty of ScienceRazi UniversityKermanshah, Iran
Koko TampubolonProgram Study of AgrotechnologyFaculty of Agriculture and Animal HusbandryUniversitas Tjut Nyak DhienMedan, Sumatera Utara, Indonesia
Ankita ThakurDepartment of BotanySchool of Bioengineering and BiosciencesLovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab, India
Anuj Kumar TiwariDepartment of BotanyBhavan's Mehta MahavidyalayaKaushambi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Madhu TiwariBiotechnology and Molecular Biology DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sanjay Kumar VermaDepartment of Biological SciencesBirla Institute of Technology and SciencePilani, Rajasthan, India
Pradeep Kumar YadavCenter of Advanced Study in BotanyInstitute of ScienceBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Gerald ZvobgoDepartment of Crop Productivity and Molecular TechnologyTobacco Research BoardHarare, Zimbabwe
Preface
Arsenic contamination in agricultural lands has become a global problem extending from Middle‐East countries, South Asian countries including Afghanistan and Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, South‐East Asian countries, China, Japan, Canada, USA, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, New Zealand to European and African countries. This metalloid severely affects the plant as well as the human system by interrupting important physiological and molecular processes. The food chain is infiltrated by arsenic through arsenic‐loaded groundwater and industrial and municipal wastewater contaminated with arsenic used for irrigation purposes. Arsenic also penetrates the food chain through the usage of fertilizers and herbicides (arsenicals) in agricultural fields. Arsenic severely intoxicates plants via various physiological and biochemical anomalies and reduces their growth and development. Toxicity symptoms range from biomass reduction to morphological impairments leading to the loss in fruit and grain yield that culminates into the complete death of the plants. Severe toxic effects of arsenic change the concentration, accumulation, and translocation of nutrient elements in plants, inhibit seed germination, and increase arsenic levels in the edible parts of vegetables.
This book gives an overview of arsenic, prominently covers the occurrence of arsenic in our environment, usage of arsenicals in crop fields, its chemistry, speciation, its transportation and metabolism in plants, phytotoxicity, i.e. impact on plant metabolism, alteration in different plant groups, from plants’ overall structure, their physiology up to the changes at their ultrastructural level; and mechanisms involved therein and interaction/interruption with phytohormones and metabolic processes and future perspectives. The book covers the morphological, anatomical, and other quantitative and qualitative traits of plants including their physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses under arsenic stress. The impact of exogenous phytohormones and growth‐regulating substances and mineral nutrients has been covered. It discusses ‐omics approaches, i.e. regulation at genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, ionomic, and metabolomic levels adapted by plants to combat this stress condition and the models used to explain these adaptations.
This book brings forth ideas being explored by scientists and environmentalists to overcome this menace. This book emphasizes the differences in the mechanism of tolerance in hyper‐accumulator and non‐accumulator plants. It discusses the management of arsenic contamination in the soil‐plant continuum, major arsenic remediation techniques including the removal of arsenic from soil and water through physical and biological methods.
Thus, this book is a comprehensive compilation of studies to date and is an endeavor to bridge the gap between the research from the past to the current time. This book will serve as a reference book for environmentalists, toxicologists, and risk assessors. The compilation of various studies in the form of an edited book enriches the existing knowledge about arsenic pollution and opens newer avenues to be exercised. The students and scholars would find many studies, researches, reviews of literature, views, and opinions in one book.
This book is the result of an arduous effort of many scholars working in different parts of the world along with all four editors. All the editors thankfully acknowledge their contributions. All editors also gratefully acknowledge the team at JohnWiley & Sons Ltd. that made possible the proposed book in its present form. We hope that this book will remain relevant for the upcoming many years for the students of environmental sciences, stress physiology, agronomy, life sciences, and crop sciences at the university level.
Prabhat Kumar Srivastava
Rachana Singh
Parul Parihar
Sheo Mohan Prasad
1An Introduction to Arsenic: Sources, Occurrence, and Speciation
Jabbar Khan1, Govind Gupta1, Riddhi Shrivastava1,2, and Naveen Kumar Singh1
1 Environmental Science Discipline, Department of Chemistry, Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
2 Department of Chemistry, Poornima College of Engineering, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
1.1 Introduction
Naturally, arsenic is present in rocks and water in the environment, and its concentration depends on geological and anthropogenic activities. Generally, the concentrations of arsenic in noncontaminated soils are usually less than 10 mg kg−1. Arsenic (As) contamination has become a worldwide problem due to its toxicity and increasing contamination of soil, water, and crops around the world. It occurs as a result of geological processes and anthropogenic activities. Arsenic is a toxic metal that occurs by a natural and anthropogenic process such as the burning of fossil fuels, mining, and uses of agrochemicals (Mandal and Suzuki 2002; Bissen and Frimmel 2003). Excess arsenic in water and soil accumulates in plants and leads to food chain contamination. Arsenic causes toxic effects in plants and carcinogenic effects in human beings through water, soil, and food contamination (Zhao et al. 2010; Naujokas et al. 2013). Litter et al. (2010) reported that regular arsenic consumption through food and water causes arsenicosis, affects the central nervous system detrimentally, and causes hyperkeratosis, hepatic damage, skin cancer, hair fall, etc. Chakraborty et al. (2018) investigated the contamination of arsenic in groundwater and food materials in different regions of the Ganga River Basin (GRB), which includes Nepal, Bangladesh, and Tibet, where arsenic concentration was above the permissible limit of the World Health Organization's (WHO) standards. Anderson and Bruand (1991) reported the position of arsenic in the Group 15 of the periodic table, and it exists in the environment with the combination of oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur. Saeki et al. (2000) reported that arsenic has long been toxic and teratogenic (risk for a birth defect in a baby). In soil, dust, rocks, and air, arsenic is present in small quantities. In many industrial goods and processes, arsenic is used. Therefore, through waste and environmental pollution, arsenic becomes a major contaminant (Berg et al. 2001; Reboredo et al. 2019). The mobilization and occurrence of heavy metals in the environment include various procedures such as soil weathering, rock and coal, biological processes, volcanic processes, etc. Similarly, high amount of urban waste, burning of fossil fuels, mining, use of fertilizers, biocides, sewage sludge, seed desiccants, alloys, and anthropogenic activities account for the widespread dispersion of arsenic (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002). However, this causes adverse effects such as atmospheric accumulation, especially in crops, such as increased cancer risk, teratogenicity, and mutagenicity (Farid et al. 2003). Due to high‐arsenic concentrations, a cereal yield decrease of about 20% was observed. The potential to accumulate arsenic and its relative toxicity increase the threat to the ecosystem. Reducing As and other heavy metal contamination in crops, with particular emphasis on horticultural products, has been one of the key objectives of the research over the past decades (Wilson et al. 2014; Mancinelli et al. 2019). Due to overexploitation of water, more arsenic may be released into the aquifers as arsenopyrite minerals oxidized by exposure to oxygen‐rich water. Therefore, due to oxidation of arsenic‐containing rocks and release, more arsenic concentration is reported in the groundwater from Bangladesh (Mandal et al. 1996; Nickson et al. 1998). Chen et al. (1992) reported that arsenic is known as one of the most significant environmental contaminants due to its toxic effects on human health. Arsenic toxicity is due to the replacement of phosphate by arsenic (+5), the protein thiol groups' affinity of arsenic (+3), and the cross‐linking of protein–DNA and DNA–DNA. Arsenic contamination is a regular occurrence in many countries due to its pervasiveness in the environment, and millions of people have been continuously exposed to arsenic through geological contamination of potable water (International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004). Arsenic contamination in marine habitats is primarily due to the indiscriminate disposal of effluents containing high arsenic from household and industrial discharge (Huysmans and Frankenberger 1990; Filali et al. 2000). Aquatic plants growing in contaminated water may accumulate arsenic, causing a health risk to animals and humans through the food chain. The concentration of arsenic in seafood and fish can be high due to accumulation and biomagnification (International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004). Arsenic is a notorious neurotoxin that affects the nervous system in the exposed species. Arsenic can be tolerated to a certain extent in humans because it is eliminated from the body through urine, stool, skin, hair, nails, and breathing. Arsenic is accumulated in tissues as a result of excessive exposure affecting cellular functions and metabolism (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2002). Aside from toxicity, arsenic's inhibitory effects are influenced by background concentrations and the type of organism (Birnboim and Doly 1979). In plant and animal tissues, it can be actively sequestered. Arsenicals have been used medicinally for a long time and were among the first chemotherapeutic agents to be used in the treatment of infectious diseases such as syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Salvarsan, an arsenic‐based drug, was introduced by Paul Ehrlich as a “magic bullet” in syphilis treatment (Waxman and Anderson 2001).
1.2 Status of Arsenic Contamination Around the World
The geogenic and anthropogenic degradation of persistent toxic substances poses significant threats to the environment (Nordstrom 2002; Hoang et al. 2010). Arsenic contamination in groundwater is reported in various countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, India, Mexico, Hungary, and Taiwan (Nikolaidis et al. 2004; Yin et al. 2011a). Contamination of arsenic in water and soil is a worldwide issue due to its carcinogenic effects on human health. Contamination of arsenic in groundwater is prevalent in different areas of West Bengal, India (Tripathi et al. 2007; Chakraborti et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2016). The Ganga‐Brahmaputra‐Meghna plain is presently the world's most acutely contaminated area with the arsenic concentration >4000 μg l−1 (Rahman et al. 2006). Similarly, arsenic concentration above the WHO standard of 10 μg l−1 has been reported in other regions of India, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Haryana along with West Bengal (Chakraborti et al. 2004; Mishra et al. 2016; Gupta et al. 2017; Satyapal et al. 2018). There is a high incidence of poverty, in addition to the problems of handling environmental pollution, global warming, etc. (Usfar et al. 2010; McIntyre et al. 2013). Almost every country in the world is affected by environmental pollution, and exposure to environmental contaminants is implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity (Carpenter 2006). The latest WHO data has shown that China and India are the two most affected countries in terms of air pollution, with about 6.5 million related deaths per year (WHO 2016). These high rates of death can be expected to increase further. Non‐airborne contamination (e.g. polluted food and water) is more difficult to assess. Despite our awareness about the adverse health effects due to exposure to pollution, levels of environmental contaminants, particularly in developing countries, have continued to increase over the past few years. Over the past decade, great strides have been made to significantly reduce the amount of emission generated, while a complete elimination is desirable, so it is not a practical or feasible objective (Fulekar 2010).
1.3 Arsenic in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment
Arsenic uptake, translocation, accumulation, and its toxicity are largely influenced by its oxidation state. Arsenite (As(III)) is the main form of arsenic (Abedin et al. 2002a). It is more mobile and more toxic under flooded rice field conditions. Like anaerobic conditions in flooded rice fields, asphyxiated conditions exist in the estuarine ecosystem of Sundarbans (India) owing to high salinity, tidal flushing, and waterlogging. Arsenate (As(V)) and arsenite (As(III)) are the most common As species in soils that are controlled by chemical and microbial transformations (Chen et al. 2017). Arsenic mobility and availability to plants can also be affected by soil microbes and algae (Neubauer et al. 2007; Meng et al. 2011; Yin et al. 2011b; Wang et al. 2013; Kohfahl et al. 2016).
Plant growth‐promoting bacteria (PGPB) may improve plant competitiveness and responses to metal stress during phytoremediation (Zhang et al., 2008). Recent advances in manufacturing and technology have contributed to the degradation of the natural environment in response to increasing human populations, representing a significant threat to living species (Deng et al. 2007). Aquatic water bodies like rivers and lakes are frequently polluted with metals and metalloids, along with their surrounding terrestrial areas (Fu et al. 2014). Nonessential metals and metalloids are harmful to living organisms and ecosystems (Ackerman et al. 2016). Especially, birds are very susceptible to higher concentrations of metals. According to Burger and Gochfeld (2005), birds are always not high on the food chain but often cover large food and breeding distances and are thus exposed more (Shahbaz et al. 2013). High levels of toxic trace metals and metalloids in the environment and the associated health effects have become a global concern (Wu et al. 2016). These metals are essentially released from mining, smelting, photovoltaic cells, pigments, batteries, synthetic plastics, insecticides, and leather industries into the environment (Lucia et al. 2010; Yang et al. 2018). They avoid photolytic, biological, and chemical degradation and thus survive for a longer period (Ali and Khan 2018). The trend in bioaccumulation through the food chain is rising with metals and As contamination in water and soil. Organisms at higher trophic levels are more susceptible since the toxicity increases with the increase in trophic level (Cai et al. 2009: Green et al. 2010).
1.4 Absolute Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of As in Plants and Agronomic Systems
Humans get exposed to arsenic through food from plant and animal sources or with ingestion of arsenic‐contaminated drinking water (Smith et al. 2002a; Kana et al. 2018). Rice and fish are considered to be the most important sources of food contamination with arsenic. Arsenic contamination of rice reported with more than hundreds ng g−1 causes chronic poisoning in the regular consuming human population (Williams et al. 2007; Chen and Chen 2014; Shigehiro et al. 2015). According to Cascio et al. (2011), inorganic arsenic (iAs) exposure has been linked to rice intake in the human population of Bangladesh. Wheat plants were grown in England in a field experiment where the soil contained 12 mg As kg−1 and the wheat grain contained 2–17 μg As kg−1 (Zhao et al. 2007). Inorganic arsenic (iAs) can enter into higher trophic levels through bioaccumulation and biomagnification. In the fragile ecosystems where the biota is adapted to persist in particular abiotic stress, As contamination can result in changes in ecosystem function and services.
1.5 Factors Determining Arsenic Speciation and Bioavailability in Soil
1.5.1 Effect of Redox Potential (Eh) and pH
The interface of the root and chemical composition of soil depend on the flow of water, ion diffusion and convention methods, plant absorption, pH, root exudation, etc. and can contribute to the phenomenon of precipitation, favoring immobilization as well. Arsenic occurs in two oxidation states in nature, i.e. As3+ and As5+ (Sharma et al. 2018). In an aerobic environment, it is present as arsenate (As5+), and under anaerobic conditions, it is present as arsenite (As3+) (Ronci et al. 2017) where As3+ is more toxic as compared to As5+. Due to its oxidation state, its mobility can be controlled by redox potential (Kumar et al. 2019). Arsenic oxidation states, alterations in redox potential, and pH have direct effects on its solubility in soil. At higher redox levels in soil, arsenic solubility decreases, and it is present as As5+. The Eh value decreases with the decrease in pH value, as on highly oxidizing conditions at pH 3, the Eh value will be +250 to +450 mV, and at pH 11, the value will be −100 to +75 mV. As the pH value directly affects the functional groups of different metal ions, it plays a vital role in the adsorption of As3+ and As5+ (Tang et al. 2020). Adsorption of arsenic by metal oxyhydroxides depends on pH value (Smedley et al. 2002). pH value affects metal ions to react with the OH− groups to complete their electron shell. Due to this, OH− group can bind or release H+ by developing a charge on the surface. At the pH range of 6.5–8.5, arsenic shows high sensitivity to mobilize its ions. Due to this, it is a very peculiar element among all the metalloids (Kim et al. 2002). At pH > 6.9, under oxidizing conditions, As(V) predominates over As(III), in the form of HAsO42− where predominating species will be H3AsO4, whereas in extremely basic conditions, the species will be AsO43− (Al‐Abed et al. 2007). On the other hand, at pH < 9.2, under reducing conditions, the neutral species of As(III) will be predominant. In aquatic systems, the mineral surface is already covered with OH− group that releases H+ with the change of pH value. The adsorption capacity of these aquatic minerals depends on the presence of OH, OH−2, and O− functional groups. The adsorption of As(V) decreases as the pH rises on the adsorbent's basic isoelectric point, but the adsorption of As(III) is less pH‐dependent and often achieves its highest value at pH 8–9. At the pH of about 7–10, As(III) preferably sorbed to hydrous oxide with an optimal pH range of 7, whereas at the pH of about 4–7, As(V) is preferably sorbed with an optimal pH range of about 4 (Wolthers et al. 2005). It has also been found that arsenic sorption on clay minerals depends on the pH. On the other hand, adsorption of As on clean quartz is very less at pH of above 3. As the pH rises, the desorption of arsenic occurs from mineral surfaces to groundwater (Hatje et al. 2003). Adsorption of As3+ and As5+ to humic acid also depends on the rate of pH. At pH 5.5 the adsorption rate of As5+ on humic substance is maximum, whereas for As3+ adsorption rate is high at a pH of about 8.5.
1.5.2 Interactions with Al, Fe, and Mn Oxides and Oxyhydroxides
Uptake, translocation, toxicity, and accumulation of arsenic are largely influenced by its oxidation state. However, the oxidative environment in the rhizosphere alters the speciation of arsenic on the root surface by Fe plaque formation, interaction with Mn, and transformation to As(V). As a result of effective As fixation and detoxification, Fe plaque has formed in the rhizosphere of salt marsh plants due to O2 leaking through the aerenchyma. Arsenic, which is found in sulfide minerals, is directly released to the environment by the processes of mobilization, dissolution, redox reaction, and adsorption–desorption process (Zhang et al. 2018). The arsenic mobility is determined by parent mineral form, mobilization, and oxidation state.
Zecchin et al. (2019) reported As(III) and As(V) as the two most common and prevalent arsenic species in the environment. As(III) is found at the neutral pH value and under reduced conditions, whereas As(V) is found under well oxidation conditions. This form is more toxic and less soluble as compared to reduced form of As(III); however, both forms are present in the environment. Arsenic mobility mainly depends on the interaction with heavy metals (Vithanage et al. 2017). As(V) easily connects with metal oxides due to the creation of thermodynamically stable inner‐sphere complexes with metal ions (Vithanage et al. 2017; Zecchin et al. 2019). Whereas As(III) depends directly on the pH and redox potential of the environment, As(V) is more reactive with oxides of Fe and Mn (Lin et al. 2017). The adsorption affinity of arsenic species depends on the pH value. For instance, adsorption affinity of As(V) at a low pH value is high, whereas for As(III), it is low at a high pH value (Zhou et al. 2018). As the pH decreases, the arsenic mobility increases due to the mineral dissolution and increased level of surface potential. On the other hand, as the pH increases, desorption of arsenic occurs due to the low stability of the metal oxide‐arsenic complex (Lin et al. 2017; Zhou et al. 2018). Due to the reductive environment, arsenic dissolution occurs from the iron oxides and oxyhydroxides. Because of the low cost and simplicity of installation and maintenance of metal oxides, it is used for the effective removal of arsenic by the adsorption process (Dixit and Heringet al. 2003; Benjwal et al. 2015). Commonly used metal oxide adsorbents are manganese, ferric hydroxide, and alumina, while iron or alumina‐based adsorbents are effectively used for the removal of As. The utilization of iron‐based adsorbents for arsenic removal can also be used for water purification. Adsorption of arsenic by iron hydroxide mainly depends on the pH value (Giles et al. 2011; Prathna et al. 2018). It has also been found that the adsorption of arsenic by iron mainly depends on the concentration of As(V) and Fe(III) as well as pH value (4–10). The high concentration of sulfate decreases the efficiency of As(V) removal, and at low pH, the concentration of sulfate remains high. On the other hand, arsenic can also be effectively removed using alumina as an adsorbent (Hlavay and Polyák 2005), but as compared to alumina, hydrated ferric oxide (HFO) has the better efficiency for the removal of As(V) from water due to its desorption behavior. The presence of sulfate and phosphate also affects efficiency. It has also been found that HFO activated alumina (Al2O3) and acidified or HFO‐coated activated alumina can be used as an adsorbent for arsenic, but due to the desorption behavior, iron was more effective (Hlavay and Polyák 2005; Chiavola et al. 2016). Ferrihydrite, a kind of iron oxide, also plays an important role to control arsenic mobility and its concentration, whereas manganese oxide with ferrihydrite plays an important role in the adsorption of As. Activated alumina is also used as an adsorbent for the removal of As(V) due to its large surface area. At the level of pH from 5 to 7, activated alumina can easily remove more than 90% arsenic. The adsorption of As(V) by an adsorbent based on iron and aluminum mainly depends on the pH value. Arsenate adsorption increases the concentration of adsorbent and the amount of adsorbent at pH 7. The following reactions should clarify that:
1.5.3 Interactions with P, Si, and Other Elements' Concentration in the Soil
Arsenic (As) and phosphorus (P) belong to a similar chemical group with the same dissociation constant and solubility resulting in similar geochemical activity in the soil. Absorption of P, Fe, and As may be related to each other and may therefore be influenced in the rhizosphere by phosphate solubilization and iron plaque formation (Adriano 2001). The fate of arsenic in the rhizosphere that has not yet been studied can therefore be influenced by root‐microbe‐induced transformation processes. Due to the existence of iron plaques that interfere with Si─As interaction, it has been reported that both internal and exterior Si inhibit the uptake of As and P (Guo et al. 2007). Arsenic plays a significant role in soil and water contamination. Soil, especially that is under the flooded location, has a high percentage of arsenic with its solubility and bioavailability. The presence of arsenic in soil mainly depends upon the oxidation–reduction and adsorption–desorption processes. In well‐oxidized conditions, As(V) normally predominates in the soil as H2AsO4− and H2AsO42−, whereas in the reduced condition, it predominates as H3AsO3 and H3AsO3− (Bissen and Frimmel 2003). As compared to As(V), As(III) is weaker to adsorb the soil minerals, so it is comparatively more toxic and mobile (Dias et al. 2009; Campbell and Nordstrom 2014). As(V)‐reducing bacteria immediately convert As(V) to As(III) in reduced conditions, which results in releasing As(III) into the aqueous phase (Yamamura et al. 2008). Iron also plays a significant role because it serves as an electron acceptor. As Fe (OH)2 is worked as the adsorbent for arsenic, it also reduces the adsorption capacity of arsenic for soil (Kumarathilaka et al. 2018). So arsenic solubility and bioavailability mainly depend upon the oxidation and reduction processes. In soil, as a fertilizer, phosphate is used where the presence of PO4−3 directly suppresses the adsorption capacity of arsenic to both oxides and soil. Phosphates, which are an important constituent of soil, and their geochemical behavior are same as arsenate (AsO4−3), and both can be easily adsorbed by Fe‐and Al‐hydroxides (Violante and Pigna 2002). The presence of phosphates also stimulates microbial activity; thus, it also promotes the redox reaction, so it affects the affinity of arsenic (Deng et al. 2018; Smith et al. 2002b). As(V) has a higher affinity for Fe and phyllosilicates than PO4−3, but Al‐hydroxides, allophane, and kaolinite have a higher affinity for phosphates. The presence of phosphates in soil affects the As solubility under both suboxic and anoxic conditions. The adsorption of PO4−3 leads to a decreased level of arsenic reduction, which also leads to a decreased level of As(III) but increases the level of As(V). In suboxic conditions under the dominance of As(III), the phosphate concentration will decrease under low pH, while it increases as the pH increases. On the other hand, under anoxic conditions due to the phosphates, fertilization directly stimulates the reduction of Fe‐hydroxide and As(V) (Deng et al. 2018). In suboxic conditions under low pH, addition of phosphates reduces the As(V) reduction, hence decreasing the As solubility.
1.5.4 Interactions with Organic Matter
Organic matter is a complex mixture of polyfunctional organic acids produced mostly by the decomposition of a wide range of marine and terrestrial plants and animals (Redman et al. 2002). Its reactivity is mostly determined by the environment; for example, in the aquatic environment, it is highly reactive for soluble metal and metal hydroxide, which is significant for bioavailability, solubility, and mobility of organic and inorganic contaminants (McArthur et al. 2004). Organic matter reacts with As that affects its speciation and mobility especially in an aquatic environment (Wang and Mulligan 2006; Wu et al. 2019). The organic matter with a high number of sediments shows a high concentration of As (Anawar et al. 2003). This organic matter shows different association levels and deprotonation at different pH levels. At low pH values, they remain highly protonated and unchanged with cross‐linked confirmation, but at high pH values, they dissociate and become more negatively charged (Wei et al. 2016). Because of this negatively charged and cross‐linked conformation, the organic matter has the properties with sorption of other metal ions. Because of the ligand exchange‐surface complex mechanism, organic matter has the sorption property for As(III) and As (V) (Rahman et al. 2013). Inorganic materials, such as humic and fulvic acids, are both negatively charged and have a significant tendency to adsorb to the solid surfaces of As(III) and As(V) (Fakour and Lin 2014). Organic matter strongly binds to As(III) and As(V) due to the formation of organic matter‐metal complexes. Humic acids and fulvic acids can easily make the aqueous complex with As(III) and As(V). Arsenic bonds to these organic materials, forming a coating on the material's surface. Thus, the surface of the metal is directly dominated by organic matter. The nucleophilic property of amino and sulfhydryl groups strongly reacts with As(III) due to its electrophile property (Wang and Mulligan 2006).
1.5.5 Clay Minerals and Other Factors
Arsenic contamination in soil and groundwater affects water and soil quality. Arsenic is usually found in mineral shales, such as magmatic sulfides, iron ores, etc., as arsenopyrite (Fe AsS), realgar (AsS), and orpiment (As2S3) (Garcia‐Sanchez et al. 2002). As(III) and As(V) can be easily adsorbed on sediment particles as a result of the oxidation and dissolving process from As‐containing minerals (Sarkar and Paul 2016). Some anthropogenic sources like pesticides, fertilizers, and agricultural wastes increased the levels of As in water and soil too. As compared to As(V), As(III) is more toxic for soil minerals because it is less adsorbed as compared to As(V) (Hu et al. 2020). Clay minerals, such as iron, have the highest affinity for adsorbing As(V), forming high‐affinity Fe─As(V) surface complexes on the inner sphere. On the goethite surfaces, As(III) has the same affinity as As(V) (Garcia‐Sanchez et al. 2002). Activated alumina at pH 7 has a high affinity for As(V) as compared to As(III) (Uddin and Jeong 2020
