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Artificial Intelligence in Remote Sensing for Disaster Management examines the involvement of advanced tools and technologies such as Artificial Intelligence in disaster management with remote sensing. Remote sensing offers cost-effective, quick assessments and responses to natural disasters. In the past few years, many advances have been made in the monitoring and mapping of natural disasters with the integration of AI in remote sensing. This volume focuses on AI-driven observations of various natural disasters including landslides, snow avalanches, flash floods, glacial lake outburst floods, and earthquakes. There is currently a need for sustainable development, near real-time monitoring, forecasting, prediction, and management of natural resources, flash floods, sea-ice melt, cyclones, forestry, and climate changes. This book will provide essential guidance regarding AI-driven algorithms specifically developed for disaster management to meet the requirements of emerging applications.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Introduction to Natural Hazards, Challenges, and Managing Strategies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Terminology Used
1.3 Classification of Natural Hazards
1.4 Challenges and Risks of Natural Hazards
1.5 Strategies to Prevent Natural Hazards
1.6 Role of Remote Sensing Device to Prevent Natural Disasters
1.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
2 Role of Remote Sensing for Emergency Response and Disaster Rehabilitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Method
2.3 Disaster Management
2.4 Result and Discussion
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Fundamentals of Disaster Management Using Remote Sensing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Importance of Remote Sensing in Disaster Management
3.3 Remote Sensing Applications in Emergency Response
3.4 Acquisition of Disaster Features
Conclusion
References
4 Remote Sensing for Monitoring of Disaster-Prone Region
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Related Existing Work
4.3 Comparison Table
4.4 Graphical Analysis
4.5 Conclusion and Future Scope
Acknowledgments
References
5 Artificial Intelligence Tools in Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management
5.1 Introduction
5.2 AI Tools and Technologies in Disaster Risk Reduction
5.3 Ethical and Social Implications of Using AI Tools in Disaster Management
5.4 Impact and Effectiveness of AI Tools and Technologies
5.5 AI for Dismantling Difficulties in Disaster Management
5.6 Future Directions and Recommendations
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Funding
References
6 AI Tools and Technologies in Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
6.1 Introduction
6.2 AI Tools in Different Phases of Disaster Management
6.3 Use of Geospatial Technologies and AI in Disaster Management
6.4 Future Challenges and Goals with AI
6.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
7 AI-Based Landslide Susceptibility Evaluation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principle of Support Vector Machines (SVM)
7.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
8 Navigating Risk: A Comprehensive Study of Landslide Susceptibility Mapping and Hazard Assessment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Factors Responsible for Landslides
8.3 Types of Landslides
8.4 Landslide Detection Techniques
8.5 Landslide Monitoring Techniques
8.6 Use of Machine Learning in Landslide Mapping
8.7 Use of Deep Learning in Landslide Mapping
8.8 Use of Ensemble Techniques
8.9 Limitations of Existing Algorithms
8.10 Dataset Used
8.11 Model Architecture
8.12 Results and Discussion
Acknowledgment
References
9 Application of Geospatial Technology for Disaster Risk Reduction Using Machine Learning Algorithm and OpenStreetMap in Batticaloa District, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Significance of the Study
9.3 Objectives
9.4 Methodology
9.5 Results and Discussion
9.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
10 Landslide Displacement Forecasting With AI Models
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Artificial Intelligence-Based Forecasting of Landslide Displacement
10.3 Performance Metrics
10.4 Limitations in Assessing the AI Models for Landslide Displacement Prediction
10.5 Technologies Integrated with AI Models
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Estimation of Snow Avalanche Hazardous Zones With AI Models
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Study Site and Data
11.3 Methodology
11.4 Results and Discussion
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Predicting and Understanding the Snow Avalanche Event
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Snow Avalanche
12.3 Contributory Factors
12.4 Remote Sensing and Avalanche Prediction
12.5 Methodology
12.5 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
13 A Systematic Review on Challenges and Opportunities in Snow Avalanche Risk Assessment and Analysis
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Advanced Tools for Snow Avalanche Monitoring System
13.3 Snow Avalanche Risk Assessment and Analysis
13.4 Challenges in Snow Avalanche Risk Assessment and Analysis
13.5 Opportunities in Snow Avalanche Risk Assessment and Analysis
13.6 Summary
References
14 AI-Based Modeling of GLOF Process and Its Impact
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Artificial Intelligence and GLOF
14.3 Machine Learning Techniques for GLOF
14.4 Deep Learning for GLOF Modeling
14.5 Existing Models for GLOF Modeling: A Comparison
14.6 Future Models for GLOF Modeling
14.7 AI Challenges and Limitations
14.8 Insights and Findings from AI-Based Modeling of GLOF Processes
14.9 Evaluation of Methodology Used for AI-Based Modeling of GLOF Processes
14.10 Conclusion
References
15 A Systematic Review of the GLOF Susceptibility Assessment Techniques
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Glacial Lakes in the Western Himalayas
15.3 Sensitive Glacial Lake in the Western Himalayas
15.4 GLOF Susceptibility Mapping Techniques
15.5 Stages of Glaciations
15.6 Glacier Retreat
15.7 Causes of Glacial Lake Change
15.8 Depiction and Categorization of Glacial Lakes
15.9 Study of Evaluating Parameters
15.10 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
16 Challenges of GLOF Estimation and Prediction
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Types of GLOF
16.3 Reasons for GLOF Occurrence
16.4 Challenges Faced for GLOF Estimation
16.5 GLOF Solution
16.6 Conclusion
References
17 Real-Time Earthquake Monitoring with Remote Sensing and AI Technology
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basics of AI and Remote Sensing
17.3 Advances in Satellite Remote Sensing Techniques for Improved Earthquake Monitoring
17.4 How AI Is Currently Being Used in Remote Sensing to Monitor Earthquakes
17.5 Ongoing and Future Practical AI Applications in Remote Sensing
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Enhancing Seismic-Events Identification and Analysis Using Machine Learning Approach
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Methodology
18.3 Results and Discussion
18.4 Limitations
18.5 Future Directions
18.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Disaster classification in a gradual range from wholly natural to pu...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
Remote sensing taxonomy.
Table 3.2
Acquisition of tsunami features with remote sensing platforms.
Table 3.3
Acquisition of earthquake features with remote sensing platforms.
Table 3.4
Acquisition of wildfire features with remote sensing.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Comparison among proposed frameworks for quick emergency response an...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
An overview of the different applications of AI and geospatial data ...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
Performance metrics of the U-net model.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1
Growth of crowdsource mapping in Batticaloa District.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Accuracy assessment of NND pan-sharpened images using SVM and SAM c...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
A brief comparison of challenges, opportunities, and parameters ass...
Table 13.2
Snow avalanche risk assessment and analysis.
Table 13.3
Opportunities in the snow avalanche system.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1
Comparison of AI models for GLOF.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1
Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of satellite imagery an...
Table 15.2
Glacier retreat stages.
Table 15.3
Glacier retreat by year.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1
Comparison of satellite capabilities for earthquake monitoring.
Table 17.2
Comparison of various optical remote sensing satellites for earthqu...
Table 17.3
Comparison of various microwave-based remote sensing satellites for...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1
Summary statistics of earthquake features.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Classification of natural disaster.
Figure 1.2 Risks of natural disaster.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The disaster management cycle (modified from Cees (2000)).
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Comparison of satellite imagery: (a) Sentinel-1 imagery of Lakhimpu...
Figure 3.2 Comparison of satellite imagery: (a) Sentinel-2 imagery of Puri, In...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Graphical analysis to compare the proposed frameworks’ accuracy fro...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 AI tools and technologies.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 An overview of the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in v...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Dimensional hyperplane: showing the hyperplane that optimally separ...
Figure 7.2 A situation where classes cannot be separated linearly is demonstra...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Different types of landslides.
Figure 8.2 128 * 128 images of different bands from landslide4sense dataset (i...
Figure 8.3 Various characteristics of images using six bands (images arranged ...
Figure 8.4 U-net architecture.
Figure 8.5 Accuracy measure of U-Net architecture.
Figure 8.6 Relationship between loss and epoch of U-net architecture.
Figure 8.7 Comparison of the predicted image with labeled and RGB image (image...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Study area—Eastern Province in Sri Lanka.
Figure 9.2 (a) The field papers and (b) updated field paper in Iruthayapuram C...
Figure 9.3 (a) Flood inundation, (b) affected building in 2014, (c) affected b...
Figure 9.4 OSM geospatial information for DRR.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Techniques of remote sensing.
Figure 10.2 Framework for risk management.
Figure 10.3 Diagrammatic representation of the process.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Selected study area: (a) map of India; (b) MODIS image acquired ov...
Figure 11.2 Flow chart of the methodology.
Figure 11.3 (a) Modis input image, (b) SCATSAT-1 input image, (c) NND fused im...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Representation of types of avalanches based on the characteristic ...
Figure 12.2 Line chart on the causalities in India due to avalanche occurrence...
Figure 12.3 (a) Sluff avalanche. (b) Slab avalanche.
Figure 12.4 Representation of the contributory factors causing avalanche.
Figure 12.5 The pie chart represents the percentage of factors contributing to...
Figure 12.6 Representation of the basic principle behind airborne radar system...
Figure 12.7 Flowchart of the methodology used.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Advanced tools for snow avalanche monitoring systems.
Figure 13.2 Challenges in snow avalanche risk assessment and analysis.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 GLOF (glacial lake outburst flood) reasons.
Figure 14.2 GLOF AI techniques.
Figure 14.3 Existing GLOF model.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Representation of different glacial lakes existing over the Himala...
Figure 15.2 Some of the sensitive glacial lakes in the Western Himalayas.
Figure 15.3 Samudra Tapu Glacier Lake situated in Chandra Basin Himachal Prade...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Reasons for GLOF occurrence.
Figure 16.2 Challenges faced for GLOF estimation.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Comparison of satellite imagery: (a) Sentinel-2 Imagery of Shimla,...
Figure 17.2 Classified images of Nepal before and after the November 2022 eart...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Earthquake count by magnitude.
Figure 18.2 (a) Distribution of earthquake depths, (b) boxplot of earthquake d...
Figure 18.3 (a) Earthquakes count by (non)tsunami occurrence. (b) Pi-plot for ...
Figure 18.4 (a) Heatmap for frequency of earthquakes in Japan based on magnitu...
Figure 18.5 (a) Horizontal bar-plot of top 20 earthquake-prone countries. (b) ...
Figure 18.6 Earthquake epicenter clusters: K-means analysis reveals geographic...
Figure 18.7 Line plot of ARIMA forecast.
Figure 18.8 Line plot of ARIMA forecast on future scale.
Figure 18.9 Loss curves for predicting seismic events using NN model-1.
Figure 18.10 Loss curves for predicting seismic events using NN model-2.
Figure 18.11 Spatial plot of earthquakes within specific time-domains.
Figure 18.12 Heatmap–spatial plot of earthquakes over the globe.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Artificial Intelligence in Remote Sensing for Disaster Management
Edited by
Neelam Dahiya
Gurwinder Singh
Sartajvir Singh
and
Apoorva Sharma
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781394287192
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Preface
Natural disasters have been increasing at a very high rate over the Earth’s surface in recent decades. This is happening all over the world, and these abrupt changes can lead to natural hazards that have a significant impact on human beings. Monitoring the changes on the Earth’s surface for tracking natural disasters poses a huge challenge for researchers. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is acquiring a greater amount of significance these days because it is used in weather prediction, snow detection, and the estimation or prediction of upcoming natural disasters. It has been proven a boon to humanity. To achieve information over a larger area at short intervals of time regarding natural calamities, Remote Sensing(RS) along with AI, has done tremendous work as a vital tool in the prevention and detection of natural calamities.
This book highlights the review of natural disasters, the challenges associated with them, their solutions with AI and the future perspective of numerous researchers. Advanced machine learning and deep learning algorithms play an important role in handling real-time disasters at a rapid rate. This book is not just to showcase technological progress but also to encourage new strategies and collaborations that can improve our capacity to prevent and handle disasters. We aim for this book to be a useful guide for scholars, decision-makers, and professionals in the field, and to ignite more innovation and cooperation.
This book has been carefully compiled to provide our esteemed readers with comprehensive knowledge and insights on AI in disaster management, advanced tools to handle earthquake assessment and the role of integration of AI and remote sensing plays in the real-time monitoring of natural calamities. The goal of this book is to explain and highlight how the synchronization of AI and remote sensing helps in the rapid evaluation and assessment of natural disaster management. This book will help students, beginners, and researchers learn the various tools and technologies to access and prevent the damage caused by natural disasters. We want to convey our deep gratitude to everyone who contributed to bringing this book to reality. Our entire team and family have consistently offered much-needed support and motivation throughout the process. We also want to express our appreciation to the Scrivener Publishing and the entire production team for their significant effort and dedication in ensuring the timely and high-quality printing of this book.
1Introduction to Natural Hazards, Challenges, and Managing Strategies
Puninder Kaur*, Taruna Sharma, Jaswinder Singh and Neelam Dahiya
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,Punjab, India
Abstract
Natural disasters are unforeseen events that spread danger to human existence and have major effects on our ecosystem. It includes volcanic eruptions, floods, earthquakes, wildfires, tsunamis, droughts, and extreme climate changes. To prevent and manage natural disaster has become a critical issue; if not resolved on time, it can lead to severe injuries and even death. On the basis of origin, these are categorized into various forms such as biological, geological, and hydrological. These hazards are life threatening; thus, early detection and management is necessary to resolve the issue. Remote sensing plays an important role in managing natural disaster. In the current work, a detailed review of natural disaster, challenges, and its possible managing strategies has been discussed. This research work will help the beginners, researchers, and human beings for early detection of natural hazards and also to implement effective solutions to resolve the issue.
Keywords: Disaster, flood, hazards, remote sensing
1.1 Introduction
Natural hazards are defined as the phenomena that can become disastrous when they cause significant casualties and property damage, impeding social and economic growth. If occurring on a worldwide scale and with great frequency, these endanger human society, environmental systems, and critical infrastructures [1]. Earthquakes, floods, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, and landslides are natural events that have shaped the Earth’s terrain over millennia. These natural processes can result in natural catastrophes when they interact with man-made elements such as towns, agriculture, and infrastructure [2].
India’s unique geoclimatic circumstances have made it prone to catastrophic calamities. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, and landslides have been common occurrences. Approximately 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of varying intensities, over 40 million hectares is prone to flooding, approximately 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones, and 68% of the territory is vulnerable to drought [3]. The loss of individual, municipal, and governmental assets has been massive. India has been struck by numerous disasters in recent years, including, among the major ones, the Bangalore circus tragedy (1981), Bhopal gas tragedy (1984), Gujarat cyclone (1998), Orissa super cyclone (1999), Gujarat earthquake (2001), annual flooding in large parts of the country during the monsoon, and tsunami.
In 2016, natural disasters caused up to 520 billion USD in worldwide losses, which was 60% more than previously estimated losses. China is one of the countries that have suffered significant losses due to natural calamities. The significant loss can be due to its broad region, complex and diversified ecological environment, and high frequency [4].
To successfully mitigate natural catastrophes, it is crucial to understand the predicted frequency, type, and severity of hazardous events in a certain location. Natural disaster management relies heavily on geographical information. Spatial data includes maps, aerial photography, satellite images, GPS, rainfall data, borehole data, and other geographic information. To superimpose data from disparate projections and coordinate systems, they must be converted to a common map basis. Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) are effective tools for disaster management. Satellite remote sensing data can quickly map disaster-related data distributions [5]. Satellite systems vary in terms of geographic, temporal, and spectral resolution.
To analyze catastrophes, remote sensing data should be combined with other data sources such as mapping, measuring networks, or sample locations to determine valuable parameters. There are two methods for image linkage: visual interpretation and categorization.
The main focus of this chapter is to provide an overview of the numerous natural processes that have the potential to trigger natural catastrophes [6]. It comprises of an introduction section which describes about the natural hazards, which is further followed by a section on the terminologies used, classification, challenges of natural hazards, and possible solution via remote sensing. The chapter finishes with a discussion of obstacles in coping with catastrophes caused by natural hazards and suggests new directions in improving the ability to mitigate the harmful impact of natural disasters on vulnerable sections.
1.2 Terminology Used
Natural disaster have been continuously changing during the last decades. There are some important key terminologies used for natural disaster prediction which are mentioned below.
1.2.1 Hazard
Hazard has the capability to occur, change the lives of people, and has greater impact on people or places. The main reason for their occurrence is due to the interaction of social, technological, and natural systems. This idea of hazard implies that the interaction of natural and social systems is the crucial aspect in changing a natural activity into a threat. It is also vital to recognize that a “hazard” is not always dangerous; rather, it is a “threat” with the potential to do harm. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defines hazards as “events or physical conditions capable of causing fatalities, injuries, property damage, and infrastructure” [7].
1.2.2 Mitigation
The mitigation sector “mitigates or prevents the adverse effects of natural hazards with measures, activities, and actions taken by humans and communities”. It employs an integrated strategy that includes land use planning, infrastructure development, ecosystem restoration, and public awareness, all of which are critical for risk reduction and resiliency [8]. Mitigation is primarily beneficial for reducing the likelihood and severity of such accidents. It is unavoidable because it develops various techniques to limit human life losses, lessen the destruction of personal property, and lessen the intervention from communities.
1.2.3 Vulnerability
Vulnerability in hazardous areas refers to the link between people, infrastructure, assets, and ecosystems that are considered targets for these hazards. It may have adverse impacts on the planet due to ecological conditions, socioeconomic and structural factors, and lack of access to the necessary infrastructures and resources [8]. There is a need for holistic approaches to protect, especially for developing economies, from natural risks such as incorporating socio-economic improvement, infrastructure development, risk-lowering measures, and community empowerment. The vulnerability of poor people to the aftermath of disasters can be minimized by diagnosing the reasons for their vulnerability and by improving their resilience to prevent it.
1.2.4 Disaster
Disaster refers to any activity that foreshadows negative consequences and is a one-of-a-kind event that affects the natural environment. Disasters have a wide-ranging impact on people, property, and the environment, causing both short- and long-term harm. Natural occurrences can be complicated or benign, and they can be caused completely by people or by a combination of the two [9]. Disasters vary in severity, ranging from a few individuals or houses to the entire country, and can occur simultaneously. While individuals cannot predict catastrophes, anticipatory efforts can assist to mitigate the impacts by making the impact less severe and decreasing the danger to vulnerable populations.
1.2.5 Risk
Risk is the possibility of an unintentional action occurring, and there may be a variety of harmful behaviors that result in individuals losing their lives, damaging the beauty of the environment, and incurring economic losses. It considers the probability of the event’s occurrence as well as the extent of its impact when determining the hazard’s risk level. After all assessments from 2013 to 2020, the natural risk is continuously increasing [9]. The formula is provided in Equation 1.1[10].
R stands for risk, and it may be calculated using the multiplication factor of H and V. H stands for hazards (disaster), and V is for vulnerability. If the value of dangers and vulnerabilities raises, so is the likelihood of risk.
1.3 Classification of Natural Hazards
Natural disasters encompass a wide range of occurrences that pose dangers to human life, transportation, and ecosystems. Some typical forms of natural hazards are shown in Figure 1.1.
1.3.1 Biological Natural Hazards
Biological risks are those that result from numerous biological processes. It includes some variants of disease which can spread from person to person and also has the capability to infect human beings at a large scale [11]. Biological natural hazards are events or phenomena that come from the stable probiotic that exists in animals, plants, and other organisms—for instance, viruses, bacteria, parasites, insects, and pathogens—which present health and wellness challenges, decline in agriculture, damage to ecosystems, and undermining of economies. Apart from human health systems, biological hazards have the potential of affecting agriculture and ecosystem health by bringing diseases in farm or aquatic animals [12]. Plant diseases, such as leaf porings, stem cankers, head rot, and bud blindness, which may be caused by rusts, blights, and wilt diseases, may completely destroy crops and reduce food production. Animals’ diseases, such African face fever, foot and mouth disease, and white nose syndrome, cause severe economic and ecological interrupts. Human activities had a crucial role in both the propagation and control of the virus. While biological dangers are unquestionably relevant, they are not addressed in depth in this session.
Figure 1.1 Classification of natural disaster.
1.3.2 Geological Hazards
Volcanoes, earthquakes, and landslides are all examples of spectacular and violent natural disasters with far-reaching and catastrophic consequences. The effects on human health might still be noticed years after the incident has occurred [13]. Geologic hazards are the cause of significant loss of life and property. As a result of earthquakes, more than a million people have died.
1.3.3 Hydrological Hazards
Hydrological catastrophes are dramatic and have damaging changes to the quality of water on Earth as well as changes in how water is dispersed under the surface or in the atmosphere. It can be induced by severe weather events such as droughts, tornadoes, mudslides, landslides, or flooding [14]. A true example of a hydrological disaster is the 2018 Kerala flood, which was the worst scenario in a century and displaced over 1 million people. Hydrological risks of different forms provide a plethora of technical and public policy challenges across the world. Hydrological hazards are defined as severe occurrences linked with the occurrence, movement, and distribution of water. They include droughts, flooding, and related phenomena (e.g., landslides, river scour, and deposition). Hydrological risks and their consequences are linked to climatic variability, population trends, land cover change, and other causal variables, which may be exacerbated by global climate change [15]. The rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will continue to cause global warming and an intensification of the hydrological cycle, making hydrological extreme research increasingly complicated and hard.
1.3.4 Meteorological Hazards
Meteorological risks are those caused by meteorological (i.e., weather) phenomena, specifically those involving temperature and wind. These include heat waves, cold spells, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing rain. Cyclones are typically known as hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific Ocean. Meteorological risks can cause a rise in the amount of heat waves, intense storms, and climatic extremes, in general, as well as changes in hydrological systems [16].
1.4 Challenges and Risks of Natural Hazards
“Natural catastrophe” refers to an extreme catastrophic occurrence or loss of a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake, wildfire, flood, or drought. These events foreshadow the potentially terrible repercussions for human civilization, including infrastructure, the economy, and the environment. In contrast to disease outbreaks and other pandemic scenarios, natural catastrophes are frequently characterized by abrupt breakouts, weak or non-existent warning systems, and powerful damage. There are numerous challenges associated with natural disaster which are mentioned in Figure 1.2.
1.4.1 Loss of Life
Natural catastrophes inflict not just death and injury but also devastation through collapsed buildings, flooding, flying debris, and landslides. The danger of death and injury is enhanced in densely populated places that lack adequate infrastructure or early warning systems. Disasters result in fatalities and injuries; therefore, comprehensive integrated disaster risk reduction strategies will be developed, with a focus on increased preparedness, improved infrastructure adaptability, enhanced early warning systems, and the development of community engagement and building activities. Resolving these critical difficulties can reduce the likelihood of emergency circumstances occurring, which is beneficial to the public and allows them to continue with their usual lives [15].
Figure 1.2 Risks of natural disaster.
1.4.2 Property Damage and Economic Losses
Natural disasters can cause massive devastation of houses, businesses, structures, and other investment sources, resulting in a severe drop in the economy. The rebuilding and rehabilitation procedures may result in a financial burden for impacted persons, the government, and the society. Natural disasters typically result in property loss and economic losses, necessitating the development of an alternative comprehensive risk reduction and management strategy that aims to build resilience, promote mitigation measures, increase building structure safety, weave coverage through insurance, and improve local development sustainability [17]. By implementing these methods, communities have the potential to reduce their vulnerability to a reduction in economic performance as a result of natural catastrophes affecting individuals, businesses, and society.
1.4.3 Disruption of Critical Infrastructure
Several cataclysmic events turn the infrastructure systems from critical into a mess, whether it is the health security or transportation network, communications systems, or healthcare. The consequences of this may include difficulties in passing through disaster areas, a lack of crucial services, and more prolonged time frames in which to rehabilitate the region [10].
1.4.4 Health Risks and Disease Outbreaks
Disasters can, in turn, be advantageous to the spread of diseases particularly from contaminated water sources, shelters that are crowded to an extreme, and in cases of lack of health facilities. This affects the increasing possibility of spread of such diseases like cholera, dengue fever, and respiratory infections as well as other health complications and disease outbreaks during and after natural disasters which demand innovative, holistic, and integrated measures, which involves work on public health preparedness, emergency response, and recovery forces [18]. Strategies that could be used involve providing access to clean water and sanitation facilities, carrying out awareness programs on hygiene practices, increasing disease surveillance and monitoring, ensuring fast medical care and treatment, and providing psychosocial support. One of the critical factors to consider in an emergency preparedness plan is to give first priority to health protection and prevention measures [19]. This will help reduce the impact of natural disasters on public health and thus help the affected population to even out.
1.4.5 Environmental Degradation
Natural disasters often bring very severe environmental problems, such as falling trees, deterioration of soil, and pollution of rivers as well as the large-scale destruction of habitats. Changes of environmental conditions can result in the degradation of ecosystems, obstacles to ecosystem balance, and, as a consequence, the impact on biodiversity and umbrella services in the environment.
1.4.6 Social and Economic Disparities
Natural disasters, in most cases, deliver blows to the downtrodden and vulnerable in excess, thereby heightening the already existing social and economic differences. Disasters even more tend to aggravate the social exclusion of vulnerable communities by their limited availability of means, information, and support [20]. Consequently, they may also prevent these groups from coping with disasters. Social and economic disparities require a multi-dimensional approach that is based on the identification of interconnected measures which can be adopted to minimize inequality and enhance social inclusion in the community. Through perceiving the needs of vulnerable segments of society and by attacking the factors which give rise to disparity, communities can increase their ability to deal with the aftermath of natural disasters and to establish a fair and properly functioning society [21].
1.4.7 Psychosocial Impacts
Psychosocial effects involve emotional, psychological, and social processes in individuals and the communities used to affected disaster victims. These consequences may be so long trailed affecting the mental condition, the quality of life, and the social interactions. The disaster manifests itself in the way of psychosocial impact on the persons who took part in it as well as the community [22]. Trauma, stress, anxiety, grief, and loss are some of the effects that commonly occur in such cases. Ensuring availability of sufficient mental health support and psychosocial services is required to make an action toward these outcomes and to promote the residents’ resilience. There is a need to prioritize the mental health and affected individuals. Disaster response and recovery efforts can promote resilience, foster social cohesion, and mitigate the long-term psychological effects of natural disasters [23].
1.5 Strategies to Prevent Natural Hazards
Despite the fact that getting rid of a natural disaster is impracticable because it is an unidentified event that can happen anytime, but there are a few strategies to eliminate the impact and risk of natural hazards which are mentioned below.
1.5.1 Planning and Regulation for Reducing Risk on Land
Introduce zoning ordinances and planning protocols that disallow or curb the development of high-risk sites like the floodplains, fault areas of earthquakes, and sites that have vulnerability to landslides or wild fires. A building code should be put on to establish that indeed structures are developed and built to resist potential threats [24].
1.5.1.1 Zoning Regulations
Land is zoned according to different criteria such as height and landform (a higher risk of hazards) or native vegetation, etc. Environmental sensitivity as well as intended use determines the zoning. Furthermore, in the case of danger zones subjected to risks such as flooding, landslides, or earthquakes, these areas are usually approached as restricted to any development or sometimes totally prohibited [25].
1.5.1.2 Building Codes and Standards
Building codes and standards need to be followed to ensure that structures can stand and be designed and built to combat the hazards coming toward them. These standards could be formulated to cover areas as seismic resistance, wind loads, flood-proofing, and fire prevention measures. Follow the strict performance requirements, and the construction of buildings and infrastructure will get less prone to disasters caused by nature [26].
1.5.1.3 Setback Requirements
As setback requirements demand the minimum distance between building hazardous areas like coastline, river bank, or steep slope, they are supposed to be maintained. Those measures are installing dikes, embankments, and protective structures which reduce the influence of floods, coastal erosions, and landslides and also provide spaces for buffers and protection of natural elements [5].
1.5.1.4 Erosion Control Measures
Regulations that require riverbank protection measures may be designed in the high-risk areas like hill slopes and coastal areas. The slop stabilization practice includes managing the vegetation as well as construction of the retaining walls, terracing, and slope stabilization methods to protect the soil from being removed and prevent landslides [27].
1.5.1.5 Floodplain Management
Regulations of floodplain management deny development in flood-prone areas and require measures such as elevating buildings, providing flood proofing and storm-water pipeline management to reduce the chances of flood. Concurrently, regulations could incorporate the conditions of keeping the natural flood plains that are used as a flood control tool [28].
1.5.2 Environmental Conservation and Restoration
It also plays an important role in managing natural hazards. The two issues of ecosystem preservation and restoration are among the key ones in the process of minimizing the impact from natural hazards and ensuring the sustainability of communities. Some vital key components are given below.
1.5.2.1 Protecting Natural Ecosystems
Conservation efforts are dedicated to safeguarding ecosystems from environments like wetlands, mangroves, forests, or coral reefs by their conservation. These systems deliver very crucial services to humans through storm surge management, flood control, erosion prevention, and, consequently, living space for nature and animals. Combating disasters through those people protects the existence of the nature conservation that can suppress natural hazards by providing its own defense mechanism and enabling the ecosystem’s resilience [29].
1.5.2.2 Restoring Degraded Ecosystems
Restoration work is all about returning and restoring the ecosystems, which are at risk because of the degradation to their original or functional shape. It could include planting trees, developing or creating habitats, remedying and bringing back marshes or swamps, and similar processes to achieve a better state of the Earth and improve the ecosystem efficiency. On the contrary, repaired ecosystems will be healthier and provide essential services such as flood mitigation, wind erosion inhibition, and biodiversity conservation. This means that they will be more resistant to hazards [30].
1.5.2.3 Floodplain Management
This floodplain conservation and restoration purpose is provided in terms of absorbing floodwaters, minimizing the risk of flood, and low rising level of inundation in the downstream communities. The existing project to restore riparian green vegetation as well as the preservation of native wetlands minimizes flooding and increases biodiversity; therefore, a positive impact on water quality is ensured [31].
1.5.2.4 Coastal Protection
Preserving mangrove forests, salt marshes, and dunes, besides many other ecosystems, is one of the easiest initiatives that acts as natural defense against erosion, surge of storms, and tsunamis. Healthy and stable coastal ecosystems make it possible for them to cope with storm energy, reduce the level of uplands by stabilizing shorelines, and diminish coastal breach impacts on local residents and built infrastructure [32].
1.5.2.5 Sustainable Land Management
Supportive measures that include a lot of agro-forestry, soil conservation, and erosion control practices would contribute to the prevention of soil erosion, landslides, desertification, and many other land degradation or land sickness. Soil fertility improves with these production techniques, soil moisture is encouraged to stay, and the level of risk of natural hazards is reduced [33].
1.5.3 Early Warning Systems and Preparedness
Installing and implementing early warning systems would cover different types of hazards, like tsunami, hurricane, flood, wildfires, and volcanic eruptions. This will be followed by constant drills and exercises to check the existing emergency response plans in place and improve community preparedness [34]. Warning systems and preparedness contribute to preventing natural hazards in the following manner.
1.5.3.1 Hazard Monitoring and Forecasting
The early warning systems look out for natural catastrophes like hurricanes and floods aside from predicting earthquakes and wildfires for an extended time of the disasters so that people have a little bit time to stay safe. They monitor changes of weather conditions and forecast emergencies for the purpose of providing proper precautionary actions before disaster can reach its peak [35].
1.5.3.2 Risk Assessment and Planning
Hazard mapping and risk assessment which help in determining the highly vulnerable areas and populations in the hazards of natural disasters are done by the warning systems. This data is used in land development planning, infrastructure improvement, and emergency response efforts which, in turn, can aid in mitigating dangers and minimizing disasters [36].
1.5.4 Education and Awareness
The community should be educated about natural hazards including their possible effects through public approaching events, workshops and training programs. In order to brief the community, general problems on safety techniques and practicing protection for self and personal property are discussed below.
1.5.4.1 Understanding Hazards and Risks
Integral parts of education programs are those that disclose information about various natural risks, their triggers, and the associated hazards. Through knowing the possible perils due to, e.g., floods, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, wildfires, and landslides, people can get the information they need to reduce the impact of a hazard and protect those they care about [37].
1.5.4.2 Promoting Risk Reduction Measures
Health and safety awareness through education enables people to know the risks and have the right skills and knowledge to respond to hazard situations and minimize dangers. This includes providing individuals with the technical knowledge regarding securing their homes, how to assemble emergency plans, assemble or purchase a disaster kit, and safe evacuation during emergencies. Thus, education enables people to increase their awareness and ability to protect from natural disasters due to acquisition of practical skills and knowledge [38].
1.5.4.3 School Curriculum Integration
Educating young people about hazards and disaster resilience using school curriculum and other educational activities in the form of regular hazard awareness and preparedness gives room to the youth of the future generations. Through the provision of essential information concerning risk, emergency respond correction, and environmental conservation, schools act as a pillar in molding traits, behaviors, and values which deal with disaster avoidance and preparedness [30].
1.5.5 Climate Change Mitigation
The root causes behind natural phenomenon like climate change are tackled through measures that mitigate global warming, including cutting the worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases and stimulating the trend to renewable energy. Control and adaptation of climate change are concerning parts of the action plan which mainly looks at the prevention of more frequent disaster types and their escalated deaths. Here is how mitigation and adaptation strategies contribute to managing natural disasters.
1.5.5.1 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Mitigation actions target at subduing the release of greenhouse gases on the local, regional, national, and global levels such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide that leads to climate change. Through the adoption of cleaner forms of energy, enhancement of energy efficiency, and applying policies that reduce discharges from industry, transport sectors and land use, the mitigation measures control the climate change growth rate.
1.5.5.2 Promoting Renewable Energy
The greater use of renewable energy, e.g., solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal, is one of the options that may decrease CO2 emissions and directly enhances air quality by reducing regular greenhouse gas emissions. Not only does the shift to renewable energy resources combat climate change but also energy independence is promoted and air pollution is reduced [36].
1.5.5.3 Enhancing Energy Efficiency
Actions such as making houses and buildings, industries, and transportation more energy efficient cut energy consumption to the barest minimum, resulting in reduced man-made emissions. Energy efficiency steps are based on installing insulation in buildings, energy-efficient lightings, fuel-saving/efficient cars, and industrial process optimization, thus resulting in both cost savings and environmental advantages [38].
1.6 Role of Remote Sensing Device to Prevent Natural Disasters
Remote sensing can help risk reduction programs by identifying danger zones linked with floodplains, coastal flooding and erosion, and active faults. It may also be used to validate hazard models by assessing the location and size of real incidents. There are key features that are used to revoke a natural disaster by providing some warnings by detecting information via sensors.
1.6.1 Hazard Detection and Monitoring
With the help of remote sensing instruments, different types of hazardous natural-composition activities like hurricanes, floods, wildfires, earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruption could be monitored and detected. Through satellite, aviation, drones, and ground sensors, these devices collect data on the probable hazards and at the same time provide timely or nearly real-time information about the position, length, and intensity of a potential hazard [5].
1.6.2 Early Warning Systems
Remote sensing information is incorporated into early warning systems so as to be able to send timely alerts and notifications to those near the danger zones during natural disasters. As an example, satellite imagery can determine shifts of weather over trend forecasts, document progress of water bodies like rivers and lakes, and identify areas that are at risk of flooding; these can enable authorities to protect and save lives by issuing warnings and evacuating people in advance if they will be likely affected [25].
1.6.3 Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Mapping
Sensors of remote sensing are helpful in determining community and infrastructure disaster risks and vulnerabilities. These experts study satellite data, elevation, land cover maps, and other geospatial data sets to determine high-risk regions. They also consider communities that are exposed to risks on a particular territory. Furthermore, they can distribute resources according to their necessities [8].
1.6.4 Environmental Monitoring
The remote sensing devices continuously undergo trend monitoring so that they can develop a solution to the environmental conditions and the changes by providing the inputs of the factors that lead to the natural disasters. These cover instances such as satellite imagery that can monitor the loss of forests, urban development, soil erosion, and changes in land use trends, thus identifying the causes and warning signs of environmental degradation which are based on disasters [7].
1.6.5 Mapping and Damage Assessment
After a disaster has happened, the data from remote sensing is observed to determine the amount of destruction made and provide support to disaster response and recovery processes. The use of aerial and geo-spatial imagery can speed up the assessment of affected areas, give indications of infrastructures that have been destroyed, and provide estimates of the number of people who have been made homeless and the consequences for ecology and agriculture.
1.7 Conclusion
Natural disaster is defined as an unexpected event that totally destroys our surroundings and creates a dangerous threat for an individual in terms of expected life span, their property, and atmosphere. There are various kinds of natural hazards like biological, hydrological, geological, meteorological, etc., which directly or indirectly damage the beauty of the environment, too. The prevention of such kinds of natural disaster is one of the crucial tasks for everyone. To avoid these issues, remote sensing is the vital tool used in natural disaster management. It is the most effective and advance tool that analyzes, pre-monitors, and responds on time about upcoming natural disasters. It uses various kinds of sensors to mitigate or provide advance intimations to the users that are used to reduce the impact of natural hazards and to protect people’s lives. Flooding is a regular concern in this region; thus, it needs extra attention. GIS technology is useful for monitoring and assessing flood danger. This technology can help planners develop successful catastrophe prevention strategies. It can also assist policymakers in making pre-flood decisions to minimize economic and social losses.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor/associate editor for their critical feedback and helpful ideas.
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Note
*
Corresponding author
:
; ORCID: 0000-0003-3959-593XTaruna Sharma: ORCID: 0000-0002-2647-1332Jaswinder Singh: ORCID: 0000-0003-1343-4740Neelam Dahiya: ORCID: 0000-0003-1839-9040
2Role of Remote Sensing for Emergency Response and Disaster Rehabilitation
Mochamad Irwan Hariyono1,2* and Aptu Andy Kurniawan3
1Research Center for Geoinformatics, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, Bogor, Indonesia
2School of Environmental Science, University of Indonesia Jl. Salemba Raya, Kenari, Senen, Jakarta, Indonesia
3Environmental Science, Padjajaran University, Dipati Ukur 1 Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
Abstract
Remote sensing data is crucial for monitoring environmental conditions and topography, aiding in the mitigation of natural disaster risks. Remote sensing data is valuable for emergency response in disaster rehabilitation and mitigation efforts because of its ability to be rapidly acquired and tailored to specific requirements. The diverse resolutions of remote sensing data have both benefits and limitations in catastrophe mitigation. The article seeks to present the public with a comprehensive analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using remote sensing data for disaster mitigation efforts. It also summarizes the results of studies that specifically investigated the use of data at various resolutions for emergency response activities during disasters.
Keywords: Remote sensing, mitigation, disaster, emergency response, rehabilitation, resolution
2.1 Introduction
The frequency of natural disasters is increasing, and one of the negative aspects of these events is the loss of lives as well as material and immaterial damages. One effort to reduce risks and facilitate disaster rehabilitation is the optimal utilization of remote sensing technology [1, 2]. Therefore, it is essential to conduct research and development on remote sensing data. Several remote sensing applications have been extensively developed, including analysis, disaster emergency response [3, 4], detection of disaster-induced damage [5], rehabilitation and reconstruction of disaster-related damage [6–8], and assessment of disaster hazards and risks [9, 10]. However, when utilizing remote sensing data, it is crucial to consider the strengths and weaknesses of the characteristics of the data being used.
A region may be prone to earthquakes and tsunamis if it is located near tectonic plate fault lines and the sea. However, that is not the only concern, as the area may also be vulnerable to land movements and landslides. Apparently, these disasters alone are not enough to cover all potential threats, as sometimes floods, volcanic eruptions, and droughts can also menace the same region. Reducing the risk of disasters through preparedness and early warning systems requires substantial resources. Among them is advanced technology to carry out these activities—for example, well-functioning earthquake and tsunami detection devices. However, this alone is not sufficient, as these devices must be connected to information dissemination mechanisms that function effectively so that the community can be informed early if there is a tsunami threat post-earthquake. Another example is the integration of technologies for high-water-level monitoring that can provide early warnings before floods occur.
The crucial aspect in utilizing remote sensing technology for disaster mitigation lies in the challenges arising from spatial and temporal resolution. Each type of resolution has its own advantages and disadvantages—for instance, satellite data with high temporal resolution (per hour) can provide rapidly changing information about weather conditions and smoke distribution every hour. However, this data tends to have low spatial resolution, making it unable to detect surface details effectively.
On the other hand, satellites with high spatial resolution can be used to identify damage caused by disasters, but they require more time in the temporal aspect, making rapid disaster damage mapping more challenging. To address these limitations, some countries have developed satellite constellation systems by combining multiple satellites for collaborative purposes. Consequently, quick data acquisition with high spatial resolution can be achieved.
