Assessing Student Leadership E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: J-B SL Single Issue Student Leadership
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 210

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Student learning and program assessment are educational priorities on today's campuses. To create exceptional leadership programs, educators need to develop a structured plan that includes multiple assessment methods over time and experiences. This volume, by professionals with diverse theoretical backgrounds, provides a road map and illustrates tangible practices of assessing student leadership. Topics covered include: * How leadership and assessment intersect * Developing a comprehensive assessment plan * The language of leadership * Assessing student leadership * Assessment from an institutional approach. The Jossey-Bass quarterly report series New Directions for Student Leadership explores leadership concepts and pedagogical topics of interest to high school and college leadership educators. Issues are grounded in scholarship and feature practical applications and best practices in youth and adult leadership education.

Leseprobe

New Directions for Student Leadership

Susan R. Komives EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Kathy L. Guthrie ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Assessing Student Leadership

Darby M. Roberts Krista J. Bailey EDITORS

Number 151 • Fall 2016

Jossey-Bass

ASSESSING STUDENT LEADERSHIPDarby M. Roberts, Krista J. Bailey (eds.) New Directions for Student Leadership, No. 151, Fall 2016

Susan R. Komives, Editor-in-ChiefKathy L. Guthrie, Associate Editor

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NEW DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENT LEADERSHIP (ISSN 2373-3349, electronic ISSN 2373-3357) is part of the Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series and is published quarterly by Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company, at Jossey-Bass, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594. POSTMASTER: Send all address changes to New Directions for Student Leadership, Jossey-Bass, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594.

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CONTENTS

Editors' Notes

1: Setting the Stage: The Intersection of Leadership and Assessment

Leadership Overview

Assessment Overview

Importance of Assessing Leadership

References

2: Developing a Comprehensive Assessment Plan

What Is a Comprehensive Assessment Plan?

Getting Started

Phase One: Determining Outcomes 

Phase Two: Determining Strategies and Targets

Phase Three: Implementing Data Collection Procedures

Phase Four: Interpreting and Analyzing Data Collected

Phase Five: Implementing Proposed Changes and Reporting the Results

Final Thoughts—No Excuses

References

3: Exploring the Language of Leadership Learning and Education

Establishing Curricular and Cocurricular Partnerships

Types of Programming for Leadership Education and Learning

Leadership Learning and Education

Leadership Programs in Practice

Conclusion

References

4: Assessing Student Leadership Competency Development

Strengths and Weaknesses of a Competencies Approach

Competencies and Learning Outcomes

The Student Leadership Competencies

Creating the Campus Competency List

Creating Departmental, Unit, and Program Competency Lists

Assessment Methodologies by Dimension

Benefits of Competency Assessment

Strategies for Effective Competency Assessment

Conclusion

References

5: Assessing Leadership Using National Assessment Tools

Return on Investment

Assessing Leadership

Emergence of National Surveys

The Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership

Recommendations and Considerations

References

6: Carts Before Horses? Remembering the Primacy of the Student's Experience in Student Learning

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

Value of Qualitative Assessment to Leadership

Assessment of Student Leadership

Reflection in Learning

Conclusion

References

7: Leadership Assessment from an Institutional Approach

Preparing Future Leaders and Citizens: A Higher Education Imperative

Undergraduates’ Leadership Development: The University of Minnesota Context

Developing an Assessment Process

Using the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership

Assessment for Ongoing Improvement

Recommendations

References

Order Form

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Comprehensive Assessment Cyle

Figure 2.2

Assessment Flow Chart

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1

Student Leadership Competencies

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Editors' Notes

In higher education, as well as K–12 education, assessment has become a necessity to ensure quality, determine student learning, and share information with stakeholders. Similarly, institutions are focused on leadership development to prepare students to meet the challenges of a complex, global environment. Because leadership draws on multiple disciplines, it is not taught in the same way that chemistry or accounting are. Although some expect that leadership is learned by happenstance or a series of unrelated expectations, educators know leadership development takes a coordinated effort that includes individual and program assessment to improve programs and practices. In this issue, educators from a range of institutions, experiences, and backgrounds share their diverse theoretical backgrounds and experiences to illustrate tangible practices of assessing student leadership in both the college and high school settings.

Student learning and program assessment are educational priorities in today's complex, resource-limited environment. Yet, not all leadership educators are assessment experts; conversely, not all assessment specialists have a strong foundation in leadership theories and models. Fortunately, faculty and staff can collaborate not only to create exceptional leadership programs, but they can also provide strong evidence of student growth and program quality.

To ensure that happens, educators need to understand the systematic process of assessment, developing a structured plan that includes multiple assessment methods over time and experiences. Without a cohesive plan, staff will not have a roadmap to follow. Because leadership and assessment do not happen in a vacuum, leadership educators need to collaborate with other faculty, staff, and stakeholders.

As a part of developing a strong, well-assessed leadership program, all stakeholders need to have consistent language. This is a prime opportunity for faculty and staff to partner. In addition, educators need to decide what will be assessed. Some leadership programs focus on individual student competencies and skill development. Others focus on how students compare in terms of development related to a model or theory. Some assessment models encourage student self-assessment, whereas others rely on educators to evaluate student performance. In recent years, more national instruments have been created to provide an aggregate view of development, as well as a way to benchmark against other institutions or through time.

Although quantitative methods are fairly common in leadership assessment, as evidenced by national surveys, qualitative methods provide rich and deep data about the student leadership experiences. Students who are able to reflect, both during and after experiences, can integrate and synthesize learning. Leadership educators have the responsibility to make the experiences and their meaning explicit, because students do not always do that on their own.

Institutions, departments, programs, educators, and students have a stake in student leadership development. Ideally, when those areas and people are aligned, students have the best learning environment. Assessment is valued and used to describe student success and improve the programs.

This issue provides important information for educators who work closely with students and programs in developing their leadership capacity. In today's educational environment, educators and administrators focus on retention, learning, and preparation for the work world, while paying close attention to fiscal stewardship, accountability, and added value. Student leadership assessment needs to be a priority in education to move the profession forward, provide exceptional developmental programs, and prepare students for a successful future.

Darby M. RobertsKrista J. BaileyEditors

Darby M. Roberts

is the director of Student Life Studies at Texas A&M University and also teaches in the Student Affairs Administration and Higher Education master's program. She focuses on assessment of cocurricular student learning and experiences, program review, and the scholarship of student affairs assessment. She is the coeditor of Learning Is Not a Sprint and coauthor of Student Affairs Assessment: Theory to Practice. From 2013–2015, Darby was cochair of NASPA's Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Knowledge Community. She frequently presents and writes on various student affairs assessment topics.

Krista J. Bailey

is an associate director in the Offices of the Dean of Student Life at Texas A&M University and also teaches in the Student Affairs Administration and Higher Education master's program. She has worked with many different functional areas within student affairs, including student leadership programs. Krista frequently presents on a variety of topics including student learning.

1

This chapter provides an overview of leadership and assessment and addresses the complexity of assessing leadership.

Setting the Stage: The Intersection of Leadership and Assessment

Darby M. Roberts, Krista J. Bailey

Scholars have studied leadership for over a hundred years and the understanding has evolved over time, resulting in many different definitions, theories, and models (Northouse, 2015). As the complexity of leadership continues to emerge, the nature and understanding of this interdisciplinary field of study continues to evolve (Day & Harrison, 2007). Leadership is not simple; it is multidimensional and can change based on context. The concept of leadership encompasses multiple factors, including leaders, followers, organizations, and the contexts in which all of these factors interact with one another (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009). Despite the complexity, developing leadership is desirable and educational institutions pride themselves on teaching leadership and producing graduates who are skilled leaders.

Although leadership and assessment may at first be seen as disparate topics, they actually converge into a vibrant area of study and practice. In order to improve programs, student learning, and accountability, assessment needs to be part of leadership development programs at all levels. Assessment informs the development and learning of leadership. Without assessment, individuals and organizations would not be able to describe impact and success.

Although leadership is a difficult concept to quantify, it is commonly used to shape the educational environment. Institutions want to produce graduates who are prepared to be leaders and who can demonstrate leadership skills (communication, ethics, teamwork, conflict resolution, etc.) in their future studies and careers. Secondary and higher education institutions have been called to prove that student learning is occurring and there is an increased pressure for accountability to demonstrate that learning (Dugan, 2012; Goertzen, 2009). The accountability related to student learning extends into leadership programs. Leadership educators may have programs they think do an excellent job of preparing students to be productive citizens—but anecdotal evidence of this is no longer sufficient. There is a need for leadership and assessment to intersect to answer questions about student preparation.

This chapter begins by exploring the concept of leadership and the expectations for providing students with leadership knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Next, the concept of assessment is introduced, and the chapter concludes with the importance of assessing leadership.

Leadership Overview

There are several different definitions, approaches, and frameworks for describing leadership. Selecting a leadership definition may be dependent on the context in which the leadership is being observed and measured (Bass, 2008). As an example, Northouse (2015) defined leadership as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 6).

Despite the challenge in understanding and defining leadership, there is agreement that positive leadership is desirable, and educators should strive to develop leaders and individuals who have the capacity to demonstrate leadership. Educational institutions articulate their desire to develop leaders in their mission statements, goals, and objectives and deliver the promise of leadership through cocurricular opportunities and academic courses focused on leadership studies. For example, part of the mission statement at Michigan State University asserts they will “prepare [students] to contribute fully to society as globally engaged citizen leaders” (Michigan State University, n.d., para. 3). Morehouse College's mission is “to produce academically superior, morally conscious leaders for the conditions and issues of today” (Morehouse College, n.d., para. 1). To deliver those promises, institutions must engage in intentional and thoughtful approaches of leadership development. Educators recognize that intentionality can have a direct impact on the effectiveness of leadership development (Dugan, 2012).

Leadership Approaches

In order to be intentional in their approach to leadership development, some educators ground their work in appropriate theory, align it with a leadership model, or follow the guidance of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education for Student Leadership Programs (CAS, 2015). In addition to the large number of leadership definitions, there are countless numbers of leadership theories and models available for use (Bass, 2008; Northouse, 2015). Numerous factors influence the selection of a theory and/or model. Leadership educators may select a theory or model that is aligned with an institution-based approach or based on established program outcomes (Dugan & Komives, 2011). To provide an example of the array of leadership approaches, the leadership theories and models that are referenced in this issue are described next.

Relational Leadership

Relational leadership acknowledges that leadership does not occur independently of others and considers leadership as a process in the relationships between individuals when working toward common goals (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013). Using this lens, Komives et al. (2013) defined leadership as “a relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change” (p. 33).

Leadership Identity Development Model

Considering how an individual's identity develops within the context of leadership moves beyond defining leadership as a set of specific skills, behaviors, and traits and considers how one's leader identity is created (Lord & Hall, 2005). Lord and Hall (2005) described this approach as “over time leadership skills and knowledge become inextricably integrated with the development of one's self-concept as a leader” (p. 592).

Chapter 2 references using the leadership identity development model to provide a framework for assessing a leadership program. Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen (2005) described leadership identity development (LID) as a result of a grounded theory research study. The LID model is a stage-based model that illustrates how an individual's leadership identity develops (Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, & Osteen, 2006) basically moving from a leader-centric or positional view of leadership to a systems view where leadership is viewed as a relational process. “The LID model has implications for developing the leadership capacity and identity of individual students and for developing the capacity of groups to be supportive environments for shared, relational leadership” (Komives et al., 2006, p. 414).

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is a “process that changes and transforms people” (Northouse, 2015, p. 161). Transforming leadership was first defined by Burns in 1978, moving from a transactional view of leadership that focused on an exchange between leader and follower to also being viewed as a process in which leaders elevate followers to also be leaders in the process of attaining goals (Northouse, 2015). Burns labeled the approach “transforming” and Bass (1985) and Bass and Avolio (1990) further developed this leadership approach under the term “transformational,” incorporating follower motivations into the process (Dugan & Komives, 2011). This approach to leadership considers how the goals can be achieved by investing in the development of followers (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

Social Change Model of Leadership Development

The social change model (SCM) is a values-based leadership model focused on the interactions among the individual, the group, and the community (Higher Education Research Institute [HERI], 1996). The SCM “approaches leadership as a purposeful, collaborative, values-based process that results in positive social change” (Cilente, 2009, p. 50).

Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership

The five practices of exemplary leadership in The Leadership Challenge (Kouzes & Posner, 2012) provide leaders with an approach to effectively implement their leadership. The five practices include model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). The Student Leadership Practices Inventory is an assessment tool for this model (Posner, 2004).

Student Leadership Competencies

Seemiller's (2014) research identified 60 competencies that can be used to measure the knowledge, values, abilities, and behaviors of an individual's leadership. Chapter 4 of this issue provides information on how to evaluate a student's leadership competency development and further explains these student leadership competencies.

As evidenced by this small selection of leadership theories and models, there are countless ways to define and describe leadership. The theoretical and conceptual framework for defining leadership varies greatly between philosophical approaches. Some define leadership through the description and identification of traits, others through the interactions between people, and some through the intended outcomes of a process (Northouse, 2015). Many of the theories and models described here share a common approach through the focus on collaborative processes. As hard as leadership is to define, it is equally hard to assess and to quantify.

Assessment Overview

Assessment of student learning is a critical practice in all educational environments. Secondary education, higher education, and employers have been concerned with what students know and can do, what they should know, and how institutions know that students have learned. The public has expectations of transparency and accountability, whereas institutions have expectations of program improvement, resource management, and effectiveness. Evaluating programs and student learning has become an expectation rather than an aspiration.

Assessment can be implemented before, during, or after experiences. Formative assessment, which occurs throughout an experience, can provide real-time information used to adapt during the program and, as described in Chapter 6, provide material for student learning through reflection. Summative assessment data are collected at the end of a program as a reflection on the entire experience, as described in Chapter 7. Both are helpful in planning for future improvements.

Data can typically be described as quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative assessment provides numbers that can be statistically analyzed to illustrate aggregated group responses, trends, and differences. Typically the goal is to provide generalizations and summary information. On the other hand, qualitative assessment collects and analyzes words or images to describe experiences or perspectives, typically using a small number of people; the goal is not to generalize but to richly describe and add understanding or make meaning of experiences.

In student learning assessment, methods can be described as direct or indirect. Direct measures require someone to demonstrate their knowledge or skill, whereas indirect measures note the perception people have about their level of learning. For example, asking a student to compare and contrast two leadership theories (direct) is inherently different than asking a student whether he or she can compare and contrast two leadership theories on a strongly agree to strongly disagree scale. Although direct measures are a stronger validation of learning, not all cocurricular leadership experiences can use direct measures. In that case, leadership educators should consider using multiple indirect measures.

Purpose of Assessment

There are several key purposes of assessment that relate to leadership programs. First, assessment can be used for accountability. External audiences are typically concerned with how well programs are achieving their intended purposes and goals, while also focusing on the resources it takes to implement the programs. They desire transparency and demonstration of value. Typical groups that prioritize accountability include accrediting agencies, legislators, and grant foundations. Increasingly, parents and academic administrators also want to know about the value of leadership programs.

Second, assessment can be used for program improvement. Internal audiences use assessment to determine how well a program is accomplishing its mission, in order to make improvements in effectiveness and efficiency. Results can indicate that the program needs different content, to be delivered in a different way, at a different time, or to a different audience. Assessment in this area collects information about satisfaction or needs, for example, to make changes to better serve the intended audience. The subsequent chapters provide examples of how programs have developed based on assessment.

Third, assessment can be used to determine student learning. The simplest example is giving a test in a curricular environment. The instructor can determine the level of understanding of individual students, as well as the class as a whole. The results can be used to assign grades but also to review material that many students may have misunderstood. The instructor can then determine more effective pedagogical approaches to improve learning. In the out-of-class environment, the process would be similar: a program coordinator might develop an assessment that measures leadership development in an organization, determine where students achieve or struggle, and create specific interventions to improve learning. Chapters in this issue illustrate how assessment can be used to assess leadership on an individual level as well as in aggregate.

The different purposes for assessment are intertwined. Determining if students have learned something does indicate where the program may need to be improved to enhance learning. Discovering how well a program functions within given resources also feeds into the accountability loop. Assessment looks different across environments but there are some commonalities in the process.

Cycle

There are multiple models that describe an assessment cycle. The easiest way to think about the cycle is to decide what information is needed, who can provide that information, the deadline for gathering the information, and how it will be used. Obviously, it is a little more complex than that when considering the program mission, vision, goals, and outcomes that direct the program activities. In addition, educators have to consider the timeline and other logistics, financial and knowledge resources, the political environment, and stakeholders affected by the results. The assessment cycle begins with the program planning process.

Common steps in assessment planning include:

Determine the goals and outcomes of the program.

Choose the method(s) to assess the goals and outcomes.

Deliver the program.

Collect data through the assessment method(s) identified in step 2.

Analyze and interpret the results.

Share results with identified stakeholders.

Use results for program improvement.

A cycle indicates repetition and continuity. An assessment cycle should be systematic and planned, with a focus on continually assessing the changes that were made based on previous assessment. That does not mean everything needs to be evaluated all the time; no educator has time to do that and concurrently implement programs and services. Creating a reasonable timeline provides a manageable process that yields valuable and usable results. In addition, there needs to be an eye toward assessing the assessment: Is the method used yielding important results? Have the results been consistent over a period of time? Is the assessment being administered at the right time with the right audience to collect valuable, usable information?

Methods

There are multiple methods for assessment, depending on what information is needed and access to the audience is available. Resources should be considered (money, time, etc.) as well as the complexity or formality needed. Subsequent chapters illustrate several different options that were chosen to meet the needs of the campus population. When looking at individual learning outcomes, surveys, focus groups, national instruments, portfolios, rubrics, and other techniques can be used to address individual and group learning and development.

On the other hand, when evaluating specific programs, some of these methods are still appropriate (surveys, focus groups, etc.) but the content focuses on aggregate results that could relate to needs, satisfaction, cost/benefit, professional standards, and benchmarking. The purpose is to identify any changes that can be made to improve the overall program based on resources available and institutional priorities.