Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants E-Book
149,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
BENEFICIAL CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF PLANTS Understand beneficial elements and their role in the future of botany and agriculture Beneficial elements are those which, while not essential to plant life, can provide stimulation and enhance plant growth. Properly harnessed, these elements can bolster plant growth in the face of environmental conditions--including drought, nutrient deficiency, and excessive soil salinity--and biotic stresses like pathogens and animal activity. As climate change and population growth pose increasingly serious challenges to agriculture and essential plant production, it has never been more important to unleash the potential of beneficial elements. Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants is an essential resource for researchers and industry specialists looking to enhance their understanding of these elements and the range and variety of their enhancements to plant growth. Written by leading scholars in the field of plant stress tolerance and nutrient enrichment, it discusses not only the rich possibilities of beneficial elements but their mechanisms of action at both biochemical and molecular levels. It details the precise potential roles played by each major beneficial element and surveys a range of elemental responses to specific environmental conditions and plant stresses. Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants readers will also find: * Chapters covering beneficial elements including aluminum, cobalt, sodium, selenium, and silicon * Discussion of application methods and typical plant responses * Treatment of beneficial elements in a wider environmental context * Beneficial element applications to the field of sustainable agriculture Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants is a fundamental starting point for researchers and students in the fields of plant physiology, crop science, agriculture, and botany, as well as for professionals in the biotechnology and agricultural industries.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 928
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
List of Contributors
1 Beneficial Elements in Plant Life Under A Changing Environment
Introduction
Beneficial Element Interaction with Environment
Aluminium (Al) in Plants
Aluminium (Al) in Soil – Aluminium, a Friend or Foe of Higher Plants in Acidic Soils
Cobalt (Co) in Plants
Cobalt (Co) in Soil
Silicon (Si)
Function of Silicon
Silicon in Soil
Sodium in Plants
Sodium in Soil
Selenium (Se)
Selenium in Environment
Physiological Functions of Beneficial Elements Under A Changing Environment
5‐Beneficial Elements Against Stresses
Conclusion
References
2 Role of Beneficial Elements in Epigenetic Regulation of Plants in Response to Abiotic Stress Factors
Introduction
Beneficial Elements for Crop and Non‐Crop Plants
Abiotic Stress Factors
Epigenetic Modifications Under Stressful Conditions
Studies Regarding the Effect of Beneficial Elements on Epigenetic Changes in the Genome of Plants
Conclusion
References
3 Beneficial Elements and Status of ROS and RNS in Plants
Introduction
Essential and Beneficial Elements in Plant Physiology: A Pleasant Dilemma
Aluminium
Cobalt
Sodium
Selenium
Silicon
ROS and RNS Production Sites in Plant Cells: Cellular Redox Compartments with Regards to Essential Elements
ROS and RNS Production and Their Function in Plants: Connecting Physiology to Stress Physiology
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
4 Biostimulant Effects and Concentration Patterns of Beneficial Elements in Plants
Introduction
Aluminium
Cerium
Cobalt
Iodine
Lanthanum
Selenium
Silicon
Sodium
Titanium
Vanadium
Conclusions and Perspectives
References
5 Targeted Effects of Beneficial Elements in Plant Photosynthetic Process
Introduction
Effect of Metal Beneficial Elements
Effect of Non‐metal Beneficial Elements
Conclusion
References
6 Aluminium Stress in Plants
Introduction
An Overview of Al Toxicity in Plants
Mechanisms for Al Stress Tolerance in Plants
Phytoremediation of Al Stress in Plants
Microorganism‐mediated Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants
Agronomic Management for Mitigating Aluminium Stress in Plants
Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
References
7 Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake, Transport, and Beneficial Aspects in Plants
Introduction
Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake and Transport in Plants
Beneficial Aspects of Cobalt in Plants
Conclusions and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
8 Cobalt in Plant Life: Responses and Deficiency Symptoms
Introduction
Cobalt in Lower Plants
Cobalt in Higher Plants
Cobalt Effects on Plant Growth
Other Beneficial Effects on Plants
Cobalt Deficiency in Plants
Cobalt Toxicity in Plants
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
9 Silicon Uptake, Transport, and Accumulation in Plants
Introduction
Molecular Mechanism Involved in Silicon Uptake
Seminal Studies Defining Uptake of Silicon in Different Plant Species
Silicon Influx Transporter
Silicon Efflux Transporter
Cordial Activity of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter
Other Homologs of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter
Silicon Transporters yet to be Discovered
Silicon Deposition in Different Tissues
Phytoliths: Biochemical Composition and Deposition Patterns
Silicon Deposition and the Phytolith Formation
Role of Phytoliths in the Silicon Biogeochemical Cycle
References
10 Silicon in Soil, Plants, and Environment
Introduction
Sources of Silicon in Soil, Plants and Environment
Uses of Silicon
Role of Silicon in Plant Nutrition‐Growth Responses
Uptake and Translocation Mechanisms of Silicon
Role of Silicon in Agriculture
Role of Silicon in Biotic Stress Management
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11 Silicon‐Mediated Alleviation of Heavy Metal Stress in Plants
Introduction
Heavy Metal (HM) Sources in Agro‐ecosystem
The Response of Plants Towards HM Stress
Sources of Silicon in Soil
Role of Silicon in HM Stress Management
Exogenous Application of Silicon to Manage HM Toxicity
Summary
References
12 How Does Sodium Content in Growing Media Affect the Chemical Content of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants? Two Sides of the Coin
Introduction
What Kinds of Functions Have Been Attributed to Sodium for Proper Metabolism of the Plant?
What Kind of Perturbations Might Emerge in Case of Deficiency or Excessive Accumulation of Sodium in Growing Media and in Turn, in Plants?
What Are the Major Mechanisms Associated with the Damage Caused by High Salinity?
Compartmentalization of Sodium Through Plant Parts
Why Is the Sodium/Potassium Ratio Important for Plant Metabolism?
How Do Priming or Osmo‐Conditioning Seeds Using NaCl Solutions Imprint the Sequential Growth Performance or Stage of the Plants? An Approach Regarding Imprint Memory with Low Concentration versus Higher Subsequent Concentration of NaCl
What Are Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Metabolites of Those Plants? How Do Those Metabolites Respond to Higher Content of Na in Media Regarding Total Content and Their Specific Compounds?
The Growth, Development, and Yield are Adversely Affected Under High Sodium Concentration of Growing Media, but What Can We Say for Contents of Total Metabolites or Specific Compounds?
What Kinds of Explanations Have Been Postulated for Changes Concerned with Defence‐Related Metabolites in Those Plants Exposed to Higher Levels of Sodium in Growing Media?
Do Lower or Higher Concentration of the Sodium Favour Metabolites?
Two Sides of the Coin: Is a Third Probability Possible for Plant Production Versus Secondary Metabolite Production?
Conclusion
References
13 Sodium and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
Introduction
Relationship Between Salinity and Plant
Salinity and Ideal Sustainable Agricultural System
Relationship Between Salinity and Sodicity and Soil
Salt Stress Effects on Plants
Management Strategies to Mitigate Salt Injury
Salt Sensitivity
Genetic Engineering and Salt‐Tolerant Transgenic Plants
Role of Sodium in Plants
Osmotic Tolerance
Proteomics Study in Plant Responses and Tolerance to Salt Stress
Ion Uptake/Homeostasis
Role of Phytohormones for Abiotic Stress Tolerance
Interaction Between Na
+
and K
+
in Plants
Interactions Between Na
+
and Mg
2+
in Plants
Interactions Between Na
+
and Ca
2+
in Plants
Conclusion
References
14 Selenium Species in Plant Life: Uptake, Transport, Metabolism, and Biochemistry
Selenium Speciation in the Soil‐Plant System
Accumulation and Uptake of Selenium Species by Plants
Transport Mechanisms of Selenium Species within Plants
Selenium Metabolism in Plants
Biochemistry of Selenium
General Conclusions and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
15 Lanthanides as Beneficial Elements for Plants
Introduction
Lanthanides in Biological Systems
Lanthanides in Plants
Beneficial Effects of Lanthanides in Plants
Conclusions and Future Research Needs
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Epigenetic modifications in various plants under abiotic stress fa...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Concentration patterns of beneficial elements in different plant ...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Effect of beneficial transition metals (nickel, molybdenum, cadmi...
Table 5.2 Effect of a semi‐metal (silicon) and non‐metals (selenium, iodine...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 List of some genes involved in aluminium resistance or tolerance ...
Table 6.2 Al stress‐responsive genes expression pattern, point of expressio...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Role of Si in abiotic stress management in plants.
Table 10.2 Role of Si in biotic stress management by plants.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Role of silicon in management of heavy metals contaminated soils...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Changes in total yield or content of essential oil in those plan...
Table 12.2 Changes in major essential oil components in those plants expose...
Table 12.3 Changes in total phenolic and flavonoid content in those plants e...
Table 12.4 Changes in major phenolic components in those plants exposed high...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Main useful chemical and physical hallmarks of the lanthanide se...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The schematic illustration of different beneficial trace elements...
Figure 1.2 The role of different micro and macro essential nutrients involve...
Figure 1.3 Role of aluminium for proper molecular functioning in life cycle ...
Figure 1.4 Explanation of cobalt’s features involved in plant life cycle dur...
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of relationship between plant and essent...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Mechanism of beneficial elements for plant growth and their role ...
Figure 3.2 Status of ROS production in different cellular compartments of th...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Al toxicity in plants: (a) causes of soil acidification; (b) incr...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The entry of cobalt (Co) from soil to plant root system is govern...
Figure 7.2 Potential beneficial effects of cobalt (Co) on morph‐physiogy, bi...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 The structure of cobalamin or vitamin B12 where Co is in the cent...
Figure 8.2 The role of cobalamin in nitrogen fixation. Molecular dinitrogen ...
Figure 8.3 Common bean (
Phaseolus vulgaris
) plants without Co deficiency (le...
Figure 8.4 Common wheat (
Triticum aestivum
) plants without Co deficiency (le...
Figure 8.5 Cucumber (
Cucumis sativus
) seed germination and seedling growth i...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Influx silicon (Si) transporter (FvNIP2) from strawberry:
(a)
ter...
Figure 9.2 Phylogenetic distribution of Lsi2 homologs in different plant spe...
Figure 9.3 Cordial activity of silicon influx and efflux transporter involve...
Figure 9.4 Root anatomy for representation of specialized Si‐accumulating ce...
Figure 9.5 Accumulation pattern of silicon in leaf of datepalm.
(a)
Stereomi...
Figure 9.6 Scanning electron micrograph of phytoliths observed in different ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Chemistry of Si in soil–plant continuum under stress conditions....
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Role of silicon in management of heavy metals contaminated soils...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Keywords of the salinity‐related studies in agricultural and bio...
Figure 12.2 Visualization of the studies regarding salinity stress and essen...
Figure 12.3 Visualization of the studies regarding salinity stress and pheno...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Plant growth under normal and salt stress condition.
Figure 13.4 Salt stress effects in plant and interaction of some hormones to...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Diagram displays the involvement of transporters in the uptake a...
Figure 14.2 Possible steps involved in selenium metabolism by plants. Adapte...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Periodic table depicting the lanthanide or lanthanoid (Ln) serie...
Figure 15.2 Crustal concentrations of the 15 lanthanide chemical elements fo...
Figure 15.3 Ionic radii (in picometres on the left and in Ångström on the ri...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
iii
iv
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants
Recent Developments and Future Prospects
Edited by
Sangeeta Pandey
Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University
Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
Durgesh Kumar Tripathi
Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University
Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
Vijay Pratap Singh
CMP Degree Collage, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Shivesh Sharma
Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Devendra Kumar Chauhan
Department of Botany at the DD Pant Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India
This edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Sangeeta Pandey, Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, Vijay Pratap Singh, Shivesh Sharma, and Devendra Kumar Chauhan to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyIn view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Pandey, Sangeeta, editor. | Tripathi, Durgesh Kumar, editor. | Singh, Vijay Pratap, editor. | Sharma, Shivesh, editor. | Chauhan, Devendra Kumar, editor.Title: Beneficial chemical elements of plants : recent developments and future prospects / edited by Sangeeta Pandey, Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, Vijay Pratap Singh, Shivesh Sharma, and Devendra Kumar Chauhan.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022041344 (print) | LCCN 2022041345 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119688808 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119688815 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119688839 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Plants–Effect of chemicals on. | Growth (Plants)Classification: LCC QK746 .B36 2023 (print) | LCC QK746 (ebook) | DDC 575.9/7–dc23/eng/20220916LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022041344LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022041345
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © New Africa/Shutterstock
Preface
Beneficial elements offer a new prospect as bio‐stimulants in the field of plant biology due to their recent eminence as enhancers of plant productivity and stress tolerance. Aluminium (Al), cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), selenium (Se), and silicon (Si) are major members of this unique class of elements that are not essential for most plants but improve plant growth and nutritional quality when supplied at low concentrations. These elements stimulate various mechanisms, resulting in different phenotypical, physiological, biochemical, and molecular alterations in plants. Besides their growth‐promoting effects, the elements trigger adaptive responses towards environmental stressors in some plants. When plants are exposed to challenging environmental stimuli including abiotic factors such as heat, drought, low temperatures, heavy metals, and salinity and biotic factors such as herbivory and pathogens, these beneficial elements boost their resistance and activate their defence responses. The acclimation against such stressors is achieved by the increase in nutrient uptake, synthesis, accumulation and activation of antioxidants, production of secondary metabolites and osmo‐protectants, and stimulation of signalling cascades upon application of these beneficial elements at low doses. However, this low‐dose growth stimulation by beneficial elements turns into inhibition at high dose. Thus, accurately applied beneficial elements can help in dealing with the most intimidating challenge of present times: that is, the production of food under unfavourable conditions to meet the food demands of incessantly growing human populations.
In this book, a total of 15 chapters address the current knowledge regarding the role of beneficial impacts on plants and the associated challenges. In its initial chapters, the book focuses on the interaction between plants and all beneficial elements. In later chapters, the book deals with individual beneficial elements and their respective interrelations with plant growth. The physiological roles of beneficial elements in plants and their potential to support plants under daunting stress conditions (Naz et al.) are compiled in an organized manner. Their capacity to induce epigenetic regulation of the plant genome in response to abiotic stressors (Kulak and Aydin) is also covered. The association of these beneficial elements with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species – the key signalling molecules in plants under stress conditions – and the related physiological impacts on plants are discussed by Pradhan et al. Trejo‐Téllez et al. have efficiently summarized the concentration‐dependent effects of these beneficial elements on plants and their potential as bio‐stimulants. Furthermore, these beneficial elements are reported to positively impact the process of photosynthesis in plants growing under normal or stressed conditions as compiled and discussed by Ceccanti et al. Ulhassan et al. and Hu et al. have focused particularly on the uptake, translocation, and growth stimulatory effects of Co plants. The latter also addresses the problem of Co deficiency in plants and subsequent plant responses. Ulhassan et al. have also delineated the uptake, translocation, assimilation, and metabolism of Se in plants. Similarly, the uptake, transport, and deposition of Si in different forms inside plant tissues (Sharma et al.) are also covered. The protective role of different forms of Si on plant growth traits against heavy metal stress through induction of various physiological and molecular alterations to maintain their productivity (Rana et al.) has also been discussed. Hossain et al. have focused on the consequences of high concentrations of Al on plants and have highlighted the alleviation strategies for Al toxicity in plants. Furthermore, the function of Na in plants, the disturbance caused by its deficiency or hyperaccumulation in plants, mechanisms of plants to cope with Na stress (Kumlay et al.; Naz et al.), and the effect of Na content in the growing media on the biochemical content of some medicinal and aromatic plants (Kumlay et al.) are also explained. The sparsely available literature regarding the potential of lanthanides to act as beneficial elements with growth‐enhancing impact on plants at low concentrations (Gómez‐Merino et al.) is also discussed.
This edited book presents a systematic and well‐organized compilation of the research related to the application of beneficial elements in the field of plant science and agriculture to allow convenient accessibility of this information to scientists, researchers, and students working in this domain. In summary, we firmly believe that this book will offer an easy understanding of concepts as a resource of crucial information regarding functions of beneficial elements in plants, their role as protective agents against stressful conditions, and other related aspects in plant life.
Dr. Sangeeta PandeyDr. Durgesh Kumar TripathiDr. Vjay Pratap SinghProf. Shivesh SharmaProf. Devendra Kumar Chauhan
List of Contributors
Muhammad Rahil AfzalFaculty of Life SciencesInstitute of Environmental and Agricultural SciencesUniversity of OkaraOkara, Pakistan
Zahoor AhmadDepartment of BotanyUniversity of Central PunjabPunjab Group of CollegesBahawalpur, Pakistan
M. Ashraful AlamPlant Breeding DivisionSpices Research CentreBangladesh Agricultural Research InstituteBogura, Bangladesh
Md Jahangir AlamOn‐Farm Research DivisionBangladesh Agricultural Research InstituteGaibandha, Bangladesh
Maratab AliCollege of Food Science and BiotechnologyKey Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Postharvest and Processing Technology Research of Zhejiang ProvinceZhejiang Gongshang UniversityHangzhou, PR China
Mujahid AliInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Mehmet Hakki AlmaDepartment of Forest IndustryEngineeringFaculty of ForestryKahramanmaraş Sutcu Imam UniversityKahramanmaraş, Türkiye
Muhammad ArifMuhammad Nawaz SharifUniversity of Agriculture, Multan
Muhammad Jawaad AtifCollege of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling, Shaanxi, China
Adnan AydinDepartment of Agricultural BiotechnologyFaculty of AgricultureIgdir UniversityIgdir, Türkiye
Muhammad Ashar AyubInstitute of Agro‐Industry and EnvironmentFaculty of Agriculture and EnvironmentThe Islamia University of BahawalpurBahawalpur, Pakistan
Wardah AzharInstitute of Crop ScienceMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Spectroscopy SensingZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China
Ruchi BansalDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
and
Department of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
Chhandashree BeheraP.G. Department of BotanyBerhampur UniversityBerhampur, Odisha, India
Preetha BhadraDepartment of BiotechnologyCenturion University of Technology and ManagementParalakhemundiOdisha, India
Muhammad Adnan BodlahFareed Biodiversity Conservation CentreDepartment of Agricultural EngineeringKhwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information TechnologyRahim Yar KhanPunjab, Pakistan
Imran BodlahDepartment of EntomologyPir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture UniversityRawalpindi, Pakistan
Sarah BouzroudLaboratoire de Biotechnologie et Physiologie VégétalesCentre de Biotechnologie Végétale et Microbienne Biodiversité et EnvironnementFaculté des SciencesUniversité MohammedV de RabatRabat, Morocco
Marian BresticDepartment of Botany and Plant PhysiologyFaculty of AgrobiologyFood and Natural ResourcesCzech University of Life Sciences PraguePrague, Czechia
and
Department of Plant PhysiologySlovak University of AgricultureNitraSlovak Republic
Costanza CeccantiDepartment of AgricultureFood and EnvironmentUniversity of PisaPisa, Italy
Ferdi CelikcanDepartment of Organic FarmingCollege of Applied ScienceIgdir UniversityIgdir, Türkiye
Jianjun ChenDepartment of Environmental Horticulrture and Mid‐Florida Research and Education CenterInstitute of Food and Agricultural SciencesUniversity of FloridaApopka, FL, USA
Soumya Ranjan DashP.G. Department of BotanyBerhampur UniversityBerhampurOdisha, India
Rupesh DeshmukhDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food BiotechnologyInstitute, Sahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
and
Department of BiotechnologyCentral University of HaryanaMahendragarhHaryana, India
Reza Mohammad EmonPlant Breeding DivisionBangladesh Institute of Nuclear AgricultureMymensingh, Bangladesh
Xiaorong FanState Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm EnhancementNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjing, China
and
Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilization in Lower‐Middle Reaches of the Yangtze RiverMinistry of AgricultureNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjing, China
Muhammad Imran GhaniCollege of Natural Resource and EnvironmentNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxi, China
Fernando C. Gómez‐MerinoCollege of Postgraduates in Agricultural SciencesLaboratory of Plant NutritionTexcoco, State of Mexico, Mexico
Libia F. Gómez‐TrejoDepartment of Plant ProtectionChapingo Autonomous UniversityTexcoco, State of Mexico, Mexico
Lucia GuidiDepartment of AgricultureFood and EnvironmentUniversity of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
and
CIRSECCentre for Climatic Change ImpactUniversity of PisaPisa, Italy
Yasir HamidMinistry of Education (MOE) Key Lab of Environ. Remediation and Ecol. HealthCollege of Environmental and Resources ScienceZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China
Akbar HossainDepartment of AgronomyBangladesh Wheat and Maize Research InstituteDinajpur, Bangladesh
Xiu HuCollege of Horticulture and Landscape ArchitectureZhongkai University of Agriculture and EngineeringGuangzhouGuangdong, China
Nasrin JahanPlant Genetic Resources CentreBangladesh Agricultural Research InstituteGazipur, Bangladesh
Asad JamilInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Mrutyunjay JenaP.G. Department of BotanyBerhampur UniversityBerhampurOdisha, India
Ali Raza KhanInstitute of Crop ScienceMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Spectroscopy SensingZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China
Mehmet Zeki KocakDepartment of Herbal and Animal ProductionVocational School of Technical SciencesIgdir University, Igdir, Türkiye
Muhittin KulakDepartment of Herbal and Animal ProductionVocational School of Technical SciencesIgdir UniversityIgdir, Türkiye
Virender KumarDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
Ahmet Metin KumlayDepartment of Field CropsFaculty of AgricultureIgdir UniversityIgdir, Türkiye
Marco LandiDepartment of AgricultureFood and EnvironmentUniversity of PisaPisa, Italy
and
CIRSECCentre for Climatic Change ImpactUniversity of PisaPisa, Italy
Jie LingHe Xiangning College of Art and DesignZhongkai University of Agriculture and EngineeringGuangzhouGuangdong, China
Abdullah Al MahmudOn‐Farm Research DivisionBangladesh Agricultural Research InstituteGaibandha, Bangladesh
Sagar MaitraDepartment of AgronomyCenturion University of Technology and ManagementOdisha, India
Md Abdul MalekPlant Breeding DivisionBangladesh Institute of Nuclear AgricultureMymensingh, Bangladesh
Debojyoti MoulickPlant Stress Biology and Metabolomics LaboratoryAssam UniversitySilcharAssam, India
Muntazir MushtaqSchool of BiotechnologySher‐e‐Kashmir University ofAgricultural Sciences and Technology of JammuChathaJ&K, India
Rabindra NayakP.G. Department of BotanyBerhampur UniversityBerhampurOdisha, India
Misbah NazState Key Laboratory of Crop Geneticsand Germplasm EnhancementNanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
Srimanta PatraDepartment of Life SciencesNIT, RourkelaOdisha, India
Ermes Lo PiccoloDepartment of AgricultureFood and EnvironmentUniversity of PisaPisa, Italy
Biswajita PradhanP.G. Department of BotanyBerhampur UniversityBerhampurOdisha, India
Md Atikur RahmanSpices Research CenterBangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI)Bogra, Bangladesh
Sana RanaInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Gaurav RaturiDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
and
Department of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
Muhammad Ammar RazaCollege of Food Science and BiotechnologyKey Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Postharvest and Processing Technology Research of Zhejiang ProvinceZhejiang Gongshang UniversityHangzhou, China
Muhammad Zia Ur RehmanInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad RiazSchool of Agriculture and BiologyShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityMinhangShanghai, China
Rubén Ruvalcaba‐RamírezDepartment of Plant ProtectionChapingo Autonomous UniversityTexcocoState of Mexico, Mexico
Saikat SahaNadia Krishi Vigyan KendraBidhan Chandra Krishi ViswavidyalayaGayeshpurWest Bengal, India
Sukamal SarkerSchool of Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentFaculty Centre for IRDMRamakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research InstituteRamakrishna Mission AshramaNarendrapurKolkata, India
Tariq ShahDepartment of AgronomyFaculty of Crop Production SciencesUniversity of Agriculture PeshawarPeshawar, Pakistan
Aamir Mehmood ShahState Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution ControlSchool of EnvironmentBeijing Normal UniversityBeijing, China
Shivani SharmaDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
Muhammad Tahir ShehzadInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
S.M. ShivarajDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
Milan SkalickyDepartment of Botany and Plant PhysiologyFaculty of AgrobiologyFood and Natural ResourcesCzech University of Life Sciences PraguePrague, Czechia
Sreeja SudhakaranDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
Muhammad TariqDepartment of PharmacologyLahore Pharmacy CollageLahore, Pakistan
Vandana ThakralDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
and
Department of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
Libia I. Trejo‐TéllezCollege of Postgraduates in Agricultural SciencesLaboratory of Plant NutritionTexcocoState of Mexico, Mexico
Durgesh Kumar TripathiThe Amity Institute of Organic AgricultureAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, India
Zaid UlhassanInstitute of Crop ScienceMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Spectroscopy SensingZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China
Muhammad UmairInstitute of Soil and Environmental SciencesFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Sanskriti VatsDepartment of Agri‐BiotechnologyNational Agri‐Food Biotechnology InstituteSahibzada Ajit Singh NagarPunjab, India
Hindu VemuriInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement CenterHyderabad, India
Xiangying WeiFujian Key Laboratory on Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Marine BiodiversityFuzhou Institute of OceanographyCollege of Geography and OceanographyMinjiang University, FuzhouFujian, China
Weijun ZhouInstitute of Crop Science, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Spectroscopy Sensing Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China
Akmal ZubairBiochemistry DepartmentQuaid–i‐Azam University IslamabadIslamabad, Pakistan
1Beneficial Elements in Plant Life Under A Changing Environment
Misbah Naz1, Muhammad Ammar Raza2, Muhammad Adnan Bodlah3, Sarah Bouzroud4, Muhammad Imran Ghani5, Muhammad Riaz6, Tariq Shah7, Akmal Zubair8, Imran Bodlah9, and Xiaorong Fan1,10
1 State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
2 College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Postharvest and Processing Technology Research of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
3 Fareed Biodiversity Conservation Centre, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan
4 Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Physiologie Végétales, Centre de Biotechnologie Végétale et Microbienne Biodiversité et Environnement, Faculté des Sciences, Université Mohammed V de Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
5 College of Natural Resource and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, Chi
6 School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Minhang, Shanghai, China
7 Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Production Sciences, University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
8 Biochemistry Department, Quaid–i-Azam University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
9 Department of Entomology, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
10 Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilization in Lower-Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
Introduction
The presence of many essential element nutrients affects plant growth and yield (Elser 2012). The availability of a single element, rather than the availability of all nutrients, limits plant absorption of all nutrients (Kirkby 2012). The scarcity of fertile land is a major concern as the world's population grows day by day (Niste et al. 2014). As a result, increasing food production and using fewer appropriate soils, and those with high salinity, poor nutrient availability, limited water holding capacity, and partially contaminated sites, would become critical. Plants suffer as a result of poor soil quality, leading to reduced food production (Niste et al. 2014). To improve this situation, the valuable elements are not considered important for all crops, but they may be critical for specific plant taxa. In the case of certain trace elements, distinguishing between useful and vital is often difficult (Pilon‐Smits et al. 2009). Plants benefit from elements such as aluminium (Al), cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), silicon (Si), and selenium (Se). These elements are not needed for all plants, but they can enhance plant growth and yield (Kaur et al. 2016). At low levels, beneficial elements are said to improve resistance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, high temperature, cold, UV stress, and nutrient toxicity or deficiency) as well as biotic stresses (pathogens and herbivores). The essential‐to‐lethal range for these elements, though, is quite narrow (Ahmad et al. 2012; Fahad et al. 2015). The effect of beneficial elements at lower doses merits more concern when it comes to using them to fertilize crops in order to boost crop production under stress and to improve plant nutritional value as a feed or food (Meena et al. 2014). A more proactive approach to plant nutrition might involve mineral elements at levels effective for best growth as well as nutrients necessary for survival (Coleman et al. 2014). We describe the mechanisms of absorption of various beneficial elements, their advantages, and the function of these elements in imparting tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses in this paper. Sufficient intracellular doses of beneficial metal ions (in traces) are needed not only for optimal plant growth and development but also for pathogen infectivity and plant defences (Dighton and Krumins 2014).
Metal defences are primarily based on hyperaccumulators of important facets, anti‐plant pathogen hypothesis stress signalling, and metal ion intermodulation is linked to plant responses to both abiotic and biotic stress factors and is an emerging research field in metal hyperaccumulator and non‐hyperaccumulator plants (Bhardwaj et al. 2014). The impact of useful elements at low levels receives more respect in this period of research in order to fertilize crops with these nutrients to improve crop production in stressed environments as well as boost plant nutritional value as feed or food (Osorio Vega 2007). Unlike the toxic effects, the processes that accompany the beneficial effects (at low levels) to the plants have not been thoroughly investigated (at high levels). More research into how these elements protect against pathogens and abiotic stress factors is needed, particularly at the molecular level (Compant et al. 2010). It is necessary to investigate how these components have synergistic or antagonistic effects on plants developing in unstressed and stressed conditions. Foliar spray of these components must be checked in plants growing in stressful conditions (Ilangumaran and Smith 2017). Useful elements for agricultural crops, as well as their practical significance in stress defences, are a tool for increasing crop yield (van Boekel et al. 2010).
Beneficial Element Interaction with Environment
Plant behaviour is a strong demand for the supply of essential mineral nutrients, which affects many important functions (White and Brown 2010). Useful elements are not required for plant growth and development, but when they are present, they help to promote growth and development by stimulating resistance mechanisms against biological and abiotic stressors, promoting the use of other uses, and compensating for or alleviating the harmful effects of other elements (Broadley et al. 2012; Anjum et al. 2015). Plants' response mechanisms to environmental factors such as drought, heavy metal toxicity, high salt content soils, pests, or pathogens may contain useful elements. This analysis highlights the beneficial effects of aluminium (Al), methyl (Ce), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), lanthanum (la), sodium (Na), selenium (Se), silicon (Si), titanium (Ti), and sodium (N) in some plants that have observed major shifts, as well as the possible uses of novel ingredients in aluminium agricultural output (Paustenbach et al. 2013; Malagoli et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2017; Muhammad et al. 2018). Aluminium controls flower colour, promotes plant growth and root production, extends the life of certain vases, and slows antioxidant mechanisms (Muhammad et al. 2018). Selenium can boost oxidative stress tolerance, slow the process of aging, enhance growth, and raise heavy metal consumption (Asemi et al. 2015). Silicon can counteract the toxic effects of heavy metals, drought, and salinity, leading to pest and disease tolerance, forming nanostructures, improving the multi‐body and stiffness of plant tissue, stimulating antioxidant mechanisms, reducing ethylene synthesis, and extending vase existence (Zhu and Gong 2014). Sodium can act as a regulator, extend vase life, and induce the synthesis of amino acids like alanine. Titanium enhances N, P, K, Ca, and Mg experience, increases starch synthesis, reduces Xanthomonas damage, and produces better plant growth. Sodium is used as a secondary metabolism agent to boost plant growth (Vankova 2014). Plant nutrients are needed for plant growth and development. If there are not enough of them, it causes a particular deficient symptom. If a single plant nutrient is completely deficient, growth will halt and the plant cannot finish its life cycle. Recent scientific evidence indicates that there are 14 important plant nutrients based on these standards (Lambers et al. 2008). Plant nutrients are classified as macronutrients or micronutrients based on whether they are found in greater or lesser quantities in plants requiring several g/ha (Lambers et al. 2008). Present chapter emphasizes the role that useful elements such as Na, Si, Co, Se, and Al perform. Sodium could stimulate plant growth, especially in some C4 plants, by facilitating substrate movement between the mesophyll and the bundle sheath. It can also partially substitute K as an osmoticum, and applying Na fertilizers to sugar beet leads to an improvement in the leaf area index early in the growing season (Mahmoud et al. 2012), and under moderate drought stress, this increases light penetration and improves water usage quality of leaves (Elser 2012; Kirkby 2012). Silicon contributes to cell wall integrity by connecting polyuronides and promoting lignin synthesis. It may increase plant and leaf erectness, reduce water consumption, and safeguard plants from pests and diseases. Silicon is also useful in reducing the harmful effects of other metals such as Fe, Al, Cd, and Zn, that can be due to the presence of Si and metals in the apoplasm or symplasm (Cao et al. 2017). Cobalt is required for N2 fixing plants as it is a component of the coenzyme cobalamin (vitamin B12), that is required for nodule metabolism (Khan and Khan 2010). Se has a similar chemistry to S and can partially replace S in proteins, especially in Se hyperaccumulating plants. Since selenium is necessary for livestock, Se fertilization may also be helpful to human and animal health in areas with Se‐deficient soils (Broadley et al. 2012). Aluminium is helpful to certain plants, such as tea, and can reduce proton toxicity and enhance antioxidant enzyme activity (Hayat et al. 2012, Chauhan et al. 2021) (Figures 1.1–1.5).
Aluminium (Al) in Plants
Aluminium (Al) is an amphoteric material that has no known biological role. Aluminium is the third most abundant chemical element in the lithosphere (Samac and Tesfaye 2003). Al is used in nature mostly as slightly soluble oxides and silicates, rather than as a free metal (Grzybkowski 2006). The supply of Al and, as a result, Al's ability to communicate with plants is largely limited to acidic environments (Neal 2008). Al (H2O) 63+ is the leading monomeric Al species in aqueous media with a pH below 5. The key toxic Al species is thought to be this Al type, which is typically written as Al3+. Different inorganic (e.g. fluoride, sulphate, silicon) and organic ligands (e.g. organic acids, phenolics, hydroxamates) are present in the chemically complex soil solutions. Aluminium (Al) is the third most common element in the Earth's crust and a key element hindering plant growth and reducing crop yield in acidic soil (Kopittke et al. 2005). While extensive research has been conducted on the phytotoxic effects and mechanisms underlying of Al when applied hydroponically, soil is a difficult medium containing various mineral elements that can associate with Al and other substances, as well as their bioavailability in plants (Yang and Watts 2005; Zheng 2010). We determine the process of Al in enhancing plant growth, increasing phosphorus supply and efficiency in plants, and reducing H+, iron, and manganese toxicity in acidic conditions in this study. Moreover, we explore the potential mechanisms of Al‐induced increased abiotic stress tolerance (Chauhan et al. 2021).
Aluminium (Al) in Soil – Aluminium, a Friend or Foe of Higher Plants in Acidic Soils
Aluminium is even more accessible to the plants in acidic soils (soils with a very low pH), so acid‐loving crops like blueberries and cranberries are also among the more aluminium‐resistant varieties (Zheng 2010). Since calcium (Ca) cations in gypsum compete with aluminium (Al) cations, they become less soluble in water by plants. While aluminium (Al) seems to be the most affordable metal in the Earth's crust, its availability is affected by soil pH. Regardless its ample supply Al is not recognized as an important factor, and no experimental evidence for a biological function has been presented so far (Poschenrieder et al. 2008). Al may be beneficial or harmful to plants and other organisms, depends upon factors including metal concentration, chemical form of Al, growth conditions, and plant types (Watanabe and Osaki 2002). In this article, we review latest events in the study of Al in plants at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels, with an emphasis on the beneficial effect of Al in plants (stimulation of root growth, increased nutrient uptake, the increase in enzyme activity, and others) (Gupta and Huang 2014). Furthermore, we explore the potential mechanisms needed to enhance the growth of plants grown in acidic soils, along with mechanisms of tolerance to the toxic effect of Al. Acid soils, also known as ultisols or oxisols, have a pH of 5.5 or below and are commonly found in tropical and subtropical areas, accounting for about 30% of the total area of the planet and 50% of the world's agricultural land, as well as 25–80% of vegetable production (Gupta and Huang 2014; Silva 2017). Soil acidification may arise as a result of both natural and anthropogenic processes (Figure 1.1). The majority of acid soils are found in the tropics and subtropics, where acidification occurs naturally. This condition could be exacerbated by environmental pollution caused by the use of fertilizers and acidifying chemicals and the use of fossil energy sources (Iqbal 2012). For example, coal and oil, which emit nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere, and when combined with oxidizing agents, produce nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4), rising acid rain accumulation and acidification of bodies of water and soil. Besides that, organic material decomposes; imbalances in the N, S, and C cycles; increased cation absorption over anions; and nutrients supplied by leguminous crops all increase the levels of H+ and lower soil pH (Figure 1.1) (Nunes‐Nesi et al. 2014; Sade et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2017). Acid soils are distinguished by poor nutrition and contamination by metals including manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and aluminium (Al), with Al contamination being the primary factor affecting plant growth in acid soils (Kichigina et al. 2017).
Figure 1.1 The schematic illustration of different beneficial trace elements necessary in plants’ life. These natural elements play vital role in plant life cycle, i.e. defence, growth, and development.
Cobalt (Co) in Plants
Cobalt has previously been recognized as an important mineral for animals. After all, our awareness of the critical role in plant enzymatic reactions remains limited (Simonsen et al. 2012). Cobalt's most well‐known role in plants is for N‐fixing microorganisms like Rhizobia, that live symbiotically with legume plants (Gad et al. 2011). The overall effect of cobalt (Co) and copper (Cu) on plant toxicity are rarely reported, despite the fact that these two metals coexist frequently in soil. This study summarizes current knowledge of Cu‐Co tolerance and deposition in plants (Nagajyoti et al. 2010; Lwalaba et al. 2019). Accretion of foliar Cu and Co to >300 g g‐1 is pretty uncommon worldwide and is renowned from the Copperbelt of Central Africa. Cobalt deposition has also been reported in a small number of Ni hyperaccumulator plants found on ultramafic soils worldwide. Since foliar Cu‐Co deposition is highly dose dependent, none of the alleged Cu or Co hyperaccumulator plants tend to follow the basic concept of hyperaccumulation (Faucon et al. 2018). Plant tissue Cu concentrations are unusually high only when plants are dealing with high soil Cu concentration with a low shoot translocation factor. Although most Cu tolerant plants are Excluders sensu Baker and therefore setting Cu hyperaccumulation threshold values is useless (Lange et al. 2017). Cobalt deposition has also been found in a small number of nickel (Ni) hyperaccumulator plants found on ultramafic soils worldwide (Khan and Khan 2010). Due to their dose‐dependent deposition features, the practical application of Cu–Co accumulator plants in phytomining is restricted; however, due to the extremely low metal content of Co, field trials on highly contaminated mineral wastes may be warranted (Sandrin and Hoffman 2007).
Figure 1.2 The role of different micro and macro essential nutrients involved in plant growth, development, and protection against different stress and disease at micro level.
Cobalt (Co) in Soil
The European soil contains cobalt concentrations between 1 and 20 mg/kg on an average of the dry weight, whereas it has also been observed that these concentrations became higher in the areas those were geologically rich in cobalt including North Wales (Phoon et al. 2012). Similar levels of cobalt at over 2500 mg/kg dry weight were also observed by Paveley (1998). This element has been proved essential for the leguminous crops symbiotic nitrogen fixation by functioning as a coenzyme involved in nodule formation, growth, and N2 fixation that plays a critical role as cofactor of cobalamin (vitamin B12) (Weisany et al. 2013). The beneficial trace elements are those that are held essential for most of the crops but actually may be fixed vital towards the particular plant taxon (Sessitsch et al. 2013).
Figure 1.3 Role of aluminium for proper molecular functioning in life cycle of plant life. Aluminium takes part in disease control, nourishment, and other biochemical processes.
The pre‐eminence between the essential and beneficial is most of the time difficult in the case of some trace elements. The elements including aluminium (Al), selenium (Se), silicon (Si), sodium (Na), and cobalt (Co) are believed to be beneficial for the plant growth. All these mentioned elements are not critically required for all the plants but may be supportive in growth and overall plant yield (Broadley et al. 2012). In fact, these beneficial elements evidently increase the plant resistance towards biotic stresses (herbivores, pathogens) and abiotic stress factors like high or low temperature, salinity, drought, UV stress, and nutrients deficiency or toxicity) at their low concentration levels (Ashraf and Foolad 2007).
Whereas their range being essential to lethal is somewhat too narrow, the low levels of the beneficial elements need more attention with respect to their use as fertilizer to increase crop nutritional value as food or animal feed and boosting up the crop production under the stressed field conditions. A more comprehensive perspective towards plant nutrition requirements would not be confined to essential nutrients towards survival but must also include other mineral elements at different levels beneficial for the magnificent plant growth (Pineda et al. 2010). Now, we discuss the uptake mechanism of different beneficial elements and their role in conferring tolerance against biotic as well as abiotic stress conditions with their favourable aspects (Vinocur and Altman 2005). The findings of the study suggest that the presence of trace elements in excess in the soil results in disturbing its homeostasis. They verify both biochemical activities as well as microbial biodiversity. If the recommended amount of an element is exceeded, it may hinder biological activity, which may limit plant development.
Figure 1.4 Explanation of cobalt’s features involved in plant life cycle during different stages of growth and development.
Cobalt has been proved to be the most toxic soil element. It not only induces very reduced resistant and enzymatic activities but also resulted into a substantial spring barley yield reduction. The soil reaction towards and Sn2+ excess was negative, but the problem scale was also not so alarming. The plants reacted extraordinarily positive to its increased doses in the soil. The barley crops grown during spring season did not face significant changes. In conclusion, this study is a crucial link in a sequence of studies on the perception of the quality of the environment where we function. It concedes the presence of the side effects to the soil contamination with the trace elements induced by the growing push towards an elevated standard of consumerism and living.
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of relationship between plant and essential micro and macro elements that exists in the environment. These elements play vital role in plant and its development under different environmental conditions.
Silicon (Si)
The application of silicon (Si) has been discussed broadly in the recent years due to its effectiveness to increase plant resistance against the salinity (Guntzer et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2014, Dhiman et al. 2021) increase in the biomass of the crops and conversely decreases the uptake of different toxic elements. Silicon (Si) carries the properties to influence accumulation and uptake of various nutrients that are rarely investigated, especially the cereal crops like rice and cash crops like sugarcane those that are proved to be Si accumulator, and this element has been found to be beneficial for them (Tuna et al. 2008). Silicon (Si) is the most common element on the Earth surface. Whereas it is not completely available to the plants, as it remains locked in the minerals like recalcitrant silicate but a very trace fraction is available for the plants (Ahmad et al. 2007, Tripathi et al. 2020). The silicon soluble fractions are pH dependent and redox in nature (Diegoli et al. 2006).
The silicon configures towards the solid phase phytoliths once it is absorbed by the plants those that are recycled to the soil solution by the dead plants decay and will become available for the plants through soil again (Greger et al. 2018). The silicon is absorbed by the plants in the shape of undissociated silica acid (Ma and Yamaji 2008), which moves in the similar form through the plant xylem (Mitani et al. 2005). Silicon’s uptake is considered to be passive (Su et al. 2010). In the past few years, different silicon transporters have been found in the plant roots’ endo‐ and exodermis layers (Van Bockhaven et al. 2013). The silicon elements have been primarily found in the higher plant levels like monocotyledons with a higher content in rice up to 10% and the grasses with DW 0.3–1.2%. The plant tissues contain Si found as Si‐organic, hydrogen bound complexes, and infuses the vessels and epidermis walls, where it serves as reducers of fungal infections, water transpiration, and provides strength towards the plant tissues (Allakhverdiev et al. 2010). The silicon elements are associated with the plant cell wall proteins, lignin, and polysaccharides (Guerriero et al. 2016). Most of the Si part is available in the plant in the form of narrowly dissolved phytoliths (Klotzbücher et al. 2016). The silicon impacts the distribution, uptake, and function of the different mineral nutrients present in the plants. In line with the literature, out of all the macronutrient elements, phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) are impacted in different ways (Ma and Yamaji 2008). Out of all micronutrients, manganese (Mn) and boron (B) look to be strongly impacted by the silicon (Alloway 2008). Uptake of other elements like Cl, Fe, and Zn by plants is also influenced by the silicon (Greger et al. 2011). Keeping in view the different Si effects, it looks that it might possible that various plant species nutrients acquisition and uptake modification differ within various plant taxons due to silicon presence. To study the non‐uniformity of silicon elements on the plant nutrient uptake, it becomes valuable to differentiate between the studies made through hydroponic or directly through the Earth’s surface. Through earth surfaces, the silicon impacts (Romero‐Aranda et al. 2006) less or more availability and nutrient elements binding to the soil particles for the plant uptake. The silicon is well known in the reduction of P soil sorption, especially at lower pH levels, thus increasing the P portion availability in the soil surface for the plant (Hernandez‐Apaolaza 2014). The phosphorous elements are sorbed mainly onto the Al, Fe, and Mn hydroxides in the soil. The silicon elements are associated with the Mn and Fe (III) and ultimately changes the availability of Mn and Fe and reduces the pool of hydroxides (Sommer et al. 2006). Up to now, a general silicon assembly impacts the plant’s uptake of elements, status of different essential nutrients, and distribution is still missing (Greger et al. 2018). The main purpose of current study is to investigate the impacts of silicon on the plant’s uptake and distribution of variable mineral nutrients in different five plant taxons and together with review of the literature obtained a common overview of silicon impacts on the plant elements status. We compared and probed different plant species like wheat and maize (monocotyledons), pea, lettuce, and carrot (dicotyledons) – wheat as a silicon accumulator, maize as C4 plants, wheat and maize as cereals, peas as nitrogen fixating plants, lettuce as a leafy vegetable, and carrot as root vegetable.
The plant cultivation media may impact both plant solution uptakes from the soil and elements availability as well as their distribution with the plant anatomy. Here in this study, we discussed and compared the silicon influence on: (i) plant nutrients presence in the different soil types and (ii) plants nutrients uptake from different soil nutrient solutions.
Function of Silicon
It seems that the silicon elements are beneficial for the plants when they are under stressful conditions (Ahmed et al. 2013, Shivaraj et al. 2021). This element has been observed to improve in the delay wilting and drought tolerance in various crops and increase plants’ abilities to resist against micronutrients where the irrigation is withheld and other metals like copper, iron, zinc, manganese, and aluminium toxicities (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2017). Moreover, the silicon has been observed to support in the increase of the plants’ stem strength. For instance, during a study rice and wheat plant were facing silicon deficiencies, their stems became weak and easily collapsed due to rain or wind pressures – a condition that is called as lodging, whereas poinsettias with silicon treatments have shown resistant and reduced stem collision and breakage. The silicon has been observed to increase plants’ resistance against various attacks by fungal pathogens (Meharg and Meharg 2015). Contingent upon the phytophthora and powdery mildew, disease attacks were delayed in the silicon treated plants like gerbera (Phytophthora) and rose, sunflower zinnia and cucumber (powdery mildew), but the plant treated with silicon and untreated had the same amount of disease attack after three weeks (Moyer 2007). The modes of silicon actions are still ambiguous and uncertain and more research work is needed for the verification of these benefits.
Silicon in Soil
Silicon (Si) amount is ample in the lithosphere and is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust (Ma 2010; Tripathi et al. 2020). Most of the soils contain 30% silicon, out of which majority has been found in rocks and minerals. Si is spotted and named as a beneficial quasi‐essential nutrient. The Earth’s surface layers are largely composed of Si that is observed primarily as secondary alumino silicates, silicate minerals, and multiple form of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (Bhat et al. 2019). Whereas the riches of Si in the soils is not a sign that higher supplies of soluble Si are always available for the uptake of the plant (Sacala 2009). In the current chapter, the findings of multiple years of research work conducted in relation to Si are combined to create understanding regarding state of knowledge regarding Si fertilization for farmer’s guidelines in the crop production process. Silicon is also used in the form of mono silicic acid (H4SiO4) by plants (Babu et al. 2016). That is found in both silicon’s adsorbed and liquid phases in the soils. The total amount of mono silicic acid in the soil solution got affected by the pH of the soils, the amount of minerals, organic matter, clay, and Al/Fe hydroxides/oxides those are jointly in relation with the geological soil age (Tubaña and Heckman 2015). Fertilizer applications may cause rapid increase in the mono silicic acid concentration in the soil solutions. So, the Si concentration increases through fertilization, which has become a routine in areas with intensive crop production practices, especially for soils that are intrinsically low with the soluble silicon nutrients (Bhat et al. 2019).
Different procedures have been developed to estimate critical silicon levels in the soil and the available silicon in plants through the method of five‐day Na2CO3‐NH4NO3
