Bing 兵 E-Book

Josef Mondl

• Herausgeber: novum publishing
• Kategorie: Gesellschafts- und Liebesromane
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 523

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

This book explores the origins and foundations of China's historical development, cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion and military strategies from the Xià Dynasty, through the Shāng Dynasty to the end of the Zhōu Dynasty, i.e. the period from about 2070 - 221 B.C. This period saw the emergence of the great Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism and Daoism.

Leseprobe

Contents

Chapter I - Introduction:

A. Overview, purpose, scope.

B. Historical context of the Chinese pre-Qin period

.

C. The importance of cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion and military strategies in ancient China.

Chapter II - Historical Development of China during the Pre-Qin Period:

A. Overview.

B. Wǔshì

五氏

[Five Clans] (Yǒucháo Clan

有巢氏

[People of the Nest Builders], Suìrén Clan

燧人氏

[People of the Fire Makers], Fúxī Clan

伏羲氏

, Shénnóng clan

神农氏

) - Sānhuáng

三皇

[Three Sovereigns] - Wǔfāng Shàngdì

五方上帝

[the supreme deities of the five directions].

C. Xià dynasty

夏朝

.

D. Shāng dynasty

商朝

(List of the rulers of the early period of the Shāng dynasty (1600-1300 BC) - before the capital was moved to Yīn

殷

, Chronology of the rulers of the late period of the Shāng dynasty (1300-1251 BC) - after the capital was moved to Yīn

殷

) - after the transfer of the capital to Yīn

殷

, Territorial and administrative concept of the Shāng dynasty: Wángjī

王畿

and Wǔfú

五服

)

.

E. Zhōu Dynasty

周朝

(Western Zhōu Dynasty

西周

: Chronology of the Western Zhōu Dynasty; Political Foundations of the Zhōu: Tiānmìng

天命

[Mandate of Heaven

] - Fēnfēng

分封

[Feudal System] - Zōngfǎ

宗法

[Lineage System] - Jǐngtián

井田

[Well Field System] - Lǐyuè

礼乐

[System of Rites and Music].

Eastern Zhou Dynasty

东周

: Spring and Autumn Period

春秋时期

; Warring States Period

战国时期

).

Chapter III - Cultural identity in ancient China:

A. Definition of cultural identity and its development in China.

B. Fundamentals of cultural identity in ancient China (writing and language, faith and religion, beliefs and values, customs and traditions, geography and territorial identity, origin of the term Zhōngguó

中国

[Middle Kingdom]

, historical background, the non-Zhōu peoples).

C. Formation and consolidation of characteristic traits of cultural identity (Gāngjiàn

刚健

[strength and steadfastness of character], Héxié

和谐

[harmony] and Zhōngyōng

中庸

[the Golden Mean], Zhèngdé

正德

[upright morality and virtuous behavior], Lìyòng

利用

[weighting of (one's own) advantages] and Hòushēng

厚生

[care of body and mind for a long life], Tiānshí

天时

[the time of heaven - the natural order] - Dìlì

地利

[the benefits of the earth - favorable conditions] - Rénhé

人和

[the harmony of man - support from the people], Tiānrén-Héyī

天人合一

[unity of heaven (the universe) and mankind], collectivist culture, non-religious culture);

D. The importance of cultural identity in shaping China's political, social and economic landscape in the pre-Qin period.

E. Important Chinese cultural dimensions and rationalities in today's context (Miànzi

面子

[face, reputation, reputation], Guānxì

关系

[connection or relationship between people], Rénqíng

人情

[human and reciprocal feelings and emotions], Kèqì

客气

[modesty, politeness, courtesy]).

F. Significant cultural achievements and artifacts from the pre-Qín period.

Conclusion and outlook

Foreword: Prof. Dr. Dr. Harro von Senger

I first became aware of Josef Mondl's academic work at a conference on China in Zurich on October 25, 2018, where he gave a lecture on the topic of "Social policy as a challenge: historical background and specific characteristics of 'public space' in the context of China". We then met in Einsiedeln on January 18, 2019, at Café Schefer for an in-depth expert discussion. I know Josef Mondl as a scholar who, in many respects, looks at China in a different way to me. Mr. Mondl has now presented me with the table of contents of his work 'Bīng 兵 - Volume I: Origins, Foundations and Emergence of Chinese Identity in the Pre-Qín Period' and asked me for a foreword. I hereby comply with his request, because as a follower and developer of Fritz Zwicky's (1898-1974), the Glarus astrophysicist, "Morphology" - explained in more detail in the book by Peter Wiesendanger and others "Die anderen 68er", Münster Verlag, Basel 2018, p. 237 ff. - I welcome the broadest possible range of perspectives from which China, this country with its infinite facets, is perceived and presented.

In the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) and in the Age of Warring States (475-222 BC) - this period is the focus of the present work by Josef Mondl - there was a multitude of schools of thought. The term "hundred schools" has been used since the Qin and Han periods (221 BC-220 AD) to reflect this fact (Yang Honglie: Zhongguo Falü Sixiang Shi [History of Chinese Legal Thought], vol. 1, Taipei 1964, p. 47). The number 100, expressing the idea of a maximum quantity, was intended to describe the flourishing diversity of the schools. And so it is to be welcomed that in our time and in our part of the world there are "a hundred schools" that illuminate the many aspects of the Middle Kingdom in different ways. May Josef Mondl's academic work be destined to become one of the contemporary "hundred schools" of thought on China.

Willerzell 20. 08. 2023

Prof. Dr. Dr. Harro von Senger,

Foreword: Prof. Dr. Kuno Schedler

How surprised were you that Switzerland's free trade agreement with China did not develop quite as harmoniously as Swiss politicians had imagined? Why do you think Swiss SMEs have been unable to turn the great promise of the Chinese market, with its almost unlimited purchasing power for Switzerland's unique technology, into long-term profits? Or even more obscure: how is it that a high-ranking Swiss diplomat in China cannot tell Taiwan and Hainan apart on a map?

I am no expert on China, but after 10 years of project work in China, I take note of such experiences, which I have had the privilege of experiencing myself, with a certain fatalism. Our ignorance and naivety in dealing with China is sometimes shocking - even more irritating, however, is the matter-of-factness with which the Chinese expect us to be neither able nor willing to understand them. To put it bluntly: If you can't eat with chopsticks, you won't lose face because of it, because such skills are certainly not expected of Westerners. On the other hand, those who really understand Chinese negotiating tactics and are seriously interested in Chinese culture and society deserve and receive respect.

Its history of several thousand years gives the Chinese empire a deep-seated strength and an unshakeable self-confidence, with a small dip of two to three hundred years in which Western powers dominated the country. The roots of Chinese culture lie in a time when we hardly take any historical note of the European continent. Even then, there was a center of power with the emperor, with vassal states around him, and barbarians who did not belong to China. Today, China is an economic and geopolitical giant that we must respect. That is why we do not have to feel like barbarians, and we would do well not to behave like vassals. But we must know and understand China if we don't want to be the eternal second.

During the ten years of my project work in China (2004-2014), Josef Mondl was my teacher, who opened up the country and culture of China to me with admirable patience. He showed me that you can love China without submitting to it. His sense of history and his pragmatic approach to China's present saved me many missteps - even if I still made a few. Reading this book at the time would have helped me. With its quotations and original sources, it is not easy to read and it makes it clear that Chinese historiography - like our own in Switzerland - is full of factual ambiguities that have to be interpreted from the historian's perspective. Nevertheless, it creates so much clarity when we put it into context properly. Above all, it shows how the collective consciousness of Chinese civilization has been shaped. Ultimately, it is not so much the facts as the stories from the past that make up a culture. And there are many of these in China, which we Europeans need to know in order to understand China.

St. Gallen, September 2023

Prof. Dr. Kuno Schedler, University of St. Gallen

Introduction

Definition: Bīng 兵 [soldier, troops, army, weapon, military affairs, war; tactics, strategy]

The character Bīng 兵 [soldier, troops, army, weapon, military affairs, war; tactics, strategy] is first found on the oracle bones of the Shāng dynasty 商朝 (1600-1046 BC). The Shāng period is central to understanding China's cultural identity, as it represents a crucial period in the country's history when the fundamental elements of Chinese culture, including writing, religion, art and governance, took shape. The legacy of the Shāng Dynasty continues to have an impact in modern China, serving as a source of cultural pride and a symbol of historical continuity.

Fig. 02 Bīng 兵 - Oracle bone inscription from the late Shāng period

The old form of the character Bīng 兵 looks like two hands holding an object or a 'device' (Xiè 械). The symbol Bīng 兵of the oracle bone inscription consists of an upper and a lower part: the upper part is formed by the radical 1 or classification sign Jīn 斤, consisting of 4 strokes, which means 'axe' or a very sharp weapon, as in ancient times; the lower part is formed by radical no. 55, Gǒng 廾, with the meaning 'uniting hands, together, together', thus representing the two hands of a person. In combination, these two radicals form the character Bīng 兵 with the meaning that a sharp weapon is held with both hands.

The original form of the character Bīng 兵 can therefore be understood as two hands wielding an axe to chop wood; or a 'fighting implement' (Wǔqì 武器), such as an axe, a halberd, or a spear, used by a person in hand-to-hand combat or fighting in close quarters. Someone with a weapon in their hand was involved in a fight, so the meaning of the sign Bīng 兵 was extended to fighter, warrior, soldier, troops or army.

Most scholars today seem to agree that the original meaning of Bīng 兵 is 'weapon'. For example, Xúnzi 荀子 [Master Xún]2 in the chapter Yìbīng 议兵 [Debate on the Principles of Warfare] reports that 'there was no blood yet on the blades of the weapons (Bīng 兵)' 3 , when the mystic emperors4 Shùn 舜5Dàyǔ 大禹6 and Chéng Tāng 成汤7 and the two kings Wén of Zhōu 周文王8 and Wǔ of Zhōu 周武王9 waged decisive wars against foreign peoples.

Understanding the character Bīng 兵 is crucial for analyzing various aspects of China's historical development, cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion, warfare and negotiation strategies. Thus, it reflects the importance of military power and warfare in China's historical development: the ability to deploy and control military forces played a crucial role in the rise and fall of various states and dynasties in China's pre-Qin period先秦10; since Bīng 兵 stood not only for the material implements of war but also for the concept of a standing army, which was a hallmark of centralized authority and government in ancient China, the character can also be understood as an expression of military prowess in shaping China's cultural identity: it emphasizes the notion that a strong military was essential for maintaining order and asserting authority; in the pre-Qín period, diplomacy involved effective warfare and negotiation strategies, as well as the implicit or explicit threat of military force: states and rulers had to use both military force and diplomatic skill to achieve their goals. Bīng 兵 thus stands as a symbol of strength and deterrence in diplomatic relations, and an understanding of the concept therefore provides valuable support in analyzing the subtle power dynamics at play in diplomatic interactions to this day.

'孙子曰：兵者，国之大事，死生之地，存亡之道，不可不察也。

[Sūnzi says: "Every military conflict is a question of vital importance for the survival of a state, a question of life and death, the path to existence or demise, and thus always requires very careful consideration." 11

This statement appears at the beginning of the best-known and likely most famous Chinese military classic, Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ 孙子兵法, commonly known as "The Art of War" by Sun Tzu. This comprehensive guide to warfare and strategy addresses not only military tactics but also the psychological and political dimensions of various types of conflicts. In making this assertion, Sūnzǐ highlights that the most fundamental principle for a prudent leader and effective governance is to exercise caution and prudently avoid engaging in military conflict without thoroughly examining and considering all factors. Simultaneously, this quote underscores the essential role of strategy and military strength in ensuring the overall well-being and survival of a nation.

In the context of China's current and future development, this expression offers valuable insights into the country's long-term strategic development direction:

Given China's growing global influence and complex geopolitical relations, ensuring national security and stability is a top priority. A strong and capable military is essential to safeguarding its interests and sovereignty.

China's foreign policy decisions are significantly influenced by its military strategy. Understanding this concept, which originated in the pre-Qin era and has continued to shape the country over millennia, serves as a reminder to China's leadership of the importance of carefully assessing and planning its international interactions. These decisions can have profound consequences for the nation's survival and prosperity.

China's ability to sustain economic growth and prosperity is intricately linked to its security, as economic development and military strength are closely connected. Consequently, the Chinese government recognizes that investing in military technology, defense capabilities, and cybersecurity is crucial to safeguarding the country's economic interests.

China is increasingly striving to play a more prominent role on the world stage, facing challenges and competition from other major powers. Its modern history, marked by experiences of imperialism, colonialism, and events like the Opium Wars, particularly during the "Century of Shame" 百年国耻, profoundly shaped its worldview and approach to global affairs. This period, spanning the intervention and subjugation of the Qing Dynasty 清朝 (1616-1912) and the Republic of China 中华民国 (1912-1949) by Western powers and Japan from 1839 to 1949, is critical in understanding China's sensitivity to issues of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and national pride. Simultaneously, Chinese leadership remains acutely aware that competition and conflict in international relations are inevitable, and thus, China must be prepared to address these challenges with wisdom and foresight.

The character Bīng 兵 represents China's historical reliance on military strength, strategic thinking, and territorial defense, while also highlighting the importance of diplomacy and peaceful means in achieving its foreign policy objectives. It symbolizes the complex interplay between military and diplomatic elements in China's approach to international relations throughout its history, underscoring its relevance to the overall development and survival of the nation. It serves as a reminder to Chinese leadership to remain aware of the complexities and challenges within the evolving global landscape and to pursue a strategic approach that ensures the country's continued growth and security.

In a world where the currents of globalization and cultural exchange are more powerful than ever, understanding the foundations of our history is of paramount importance. To truly comprehend the intricate web of human civilization, one must look back to the cradle of ancient wisdom and culture, where the roots of a great nation were first established. In the trilogy entitled "Bīng 兵," we embark on a journey into the enigmatic realm of the pre-Qín period, where the foundations of Chinese identity were forged.

This first volume delves deeply into the heart of China's past, striving to unravel the intricate threads of history and culture that have shaped and continually tested China's identity. It serves as a testament to the enduring legacy of a civilization with roots tracing back to this formative period.

This foundational knowledge is essential for understanding China's current and future development within a global context. Amidst increasing cultural and political divergence, this book aims to bridge the gap between East and West by fostering mutual understanding. As the world stands at a crossroads, where humanity's future hinges on cooperation and sustainable development, the insights gained from this volume will be invaluable in charting a path toward a shared, sustainable future.

On this intellectual journey, we invite curious readers to join us in unraveling and exploring the mysteries of pre-Qin China, shedding light on the foundations of its historical and cultural DNA, and recognizing how its legacy continues to shape our world today. Through the pages of this book, we hope to contribute to the creation of a common understanding, thus promoting a harmonious and sustainable global future for all.

1 Bùshǒu 部首: Chinese radical (literally: 'section head') or indexing component, of which there are 214 in use today, is a graphic component of a Chinese character under which the character is traditionally listed in a Chinese dictionary. This component is often a semantic indicator, similar to a morpheme, but sometimes it is also a phonetic component or even an artificially extracted part of the character. In some cases, the original semantic or phonological connection has become unclear due to changes in the meaning or pronunciation of the character over time.

2 Xúnzi 荀子 [Master Xún]: Ca. 313 - 238 BC, born Xún Kuàng 荀況, was a Chinese philosopher of Confucianism during the late Warring States period 战国时代 (476-221 BC).

3 "Xúnzi 荀子 [Master Xún] - Yìbīng 议兵 [Debate on the Principles of Warfare]": 'People near won her by her goodness, those far away yearned for her virtue and kindness; there was no blood yet on the blades of the weapons, and people from near and far came to join them. So great was the abundance of their virtue, and it worked to the farthest regions of all directions.' (故近者亲其善，远方慕其德，兵不血刃，远迩来服，德盛于此，施及四极。)

4 Emperor Yáo 帝尧: Also known as Táng Yáo 唐堯, said to have ruled from 2333-2234 BC.

5 Shùn 帝舜: Said to have lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC.

6 Dàyǔ 大禹 (ca. 2123-2025 BC.): Surname Sì 姒, first name Wén Mìng 文命, Xiàhòu clan 夏后氏, native of Ānyì 安邑 (in today's Xià County 夏县, Shānxī Province山西省省), founding king of the Xià dynasty 夏朝 (2070-1600 BC).

7 Chéng Tāng 成汤: Called Zi Lǚ 子履, recorded on oracle bones as Dàyǐ 大乙, was the first king of the Shāng dynasty.

8 Wén of Zhōu周文王 (1152-1050 BC): Birth name Jī Chāng 姬昌, was the Duke of Zhōu during the late Shāng dynasty; after the death of his father, he became the 'Lord of the West' (Xībó 西), which is why he was called Xībó Chāng 西伯昌.

9 King Wǔ of Zhōu Jī Fā 周武王姬发 (1076-1043 BC): Often called King Wǔ珷王 in the bronze inscriptions of the Western Zhōu dynasty, founding monarch of the Western Zhōu dynasty.

10 The pre-Qín period, also known as the pre-Qín period, refers in the broadest sense to the historical era from the Paleolithic to the founding of the Qín Dynasty 秦朝 221 BC, and according to this definition includes the ancient era (historical period before the appearance of written records, generally the era before the Xià dynasty 夏朝, i.e. about 4,000 years ago), the three ancient Chinese dynasties Xià 夏 (2070-1600 BC), Shāng 商 (1600-1046 BC) and Zhōu 周 (1046-256 BC ); or, more narrowly, to the historical period of the so-called Western Zhou period 西周 (1045-771 BC), the Spring and Autumn period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC), and the Warring States period 战国时期 (475-221 BC).

11 'Sūnzi Bīngfǎ 孙子兵法 [The Art of War] - Chapter 1: Shǐjì 始计 [Planning and Preparation] ': Sūnzi says: War is a matter of vital importance to the state, a matter of life and death, the road to survival or ruin. So war is an issue that needs very careful consideration.' (孙子曰：兵者，国之大事，死生之地，存亡之道，不可不察也)

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

A. Overview, purpose and scope

This book aims to explore the historical foundations and origins of cultural identity, historical development, diplomacy, persuasion, and military strategies during China's pre-Qin period先秦12. It focuses specifically on the Western Zhou Dynasty 西周 (1045-771 BC), the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC), and the Warring States Period 战国时期 (475-221 BC).The structure, organization and content of this book are intended to provide a comprehensive understanding of the specific characteristics and uniqueness of 'Chineseness', the Chinese 'identity' that emerged during this long historical period.

This book embarks on a dual exploration. Firstly, it delves into an in-depth analysis of cultural identity, historical development, diplomacy, persuasion, and military strategies in ancient China, with a particular focus on the Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC). It examines the major events and personalities that shaped China's history during this crucial era, highlighting the importance of cultural identity in influencing China's political, social, and economic landscapes. The book also explores the role of diplomacy and persuasion in shaping politics and the evolution of military strategies in ancient China, which have significantly contributed to China's strategic thinking. These strategies have retained their relevance in cross-cultural communication, negotiation, diplomacy, and the art of strategy even today.

Secondly, the book aims to provide practical insights for building bridges between Chinese and other cultures by fostering intercultural competence in everyday communication. It seeks to demonstrate how a deeper understanding of the specific characteristics and uniqueness of Chinese identity can facilitate mutual understanding and learning between Chinese cultural spheres and other cultural landscapes.

To help Western readers understand the unique characteristics of Chinese writing and language, especially when addressing the historical context of various topics, Chinese expressions—such as names, places, and events—are presented in their original form or are translated when necessary, especially from primary sources, wherever possible:

First, the expression is presented in Pīnyīn 拼音, the official phonetic transcription of Standard Chinese

13

(also known as Mandarin) in the People's Republic of China. Pīnyīn is based on the Latin alphabet and was approved by the Chinese State Council in 1957.

As Standard Chinese is a tonal language, each character or syllable is spoken with a specific pitch, and changes in pitch usually result in changes in meaning. While pitch is not a factor in written language, since the meaning of written characters is generally clear, especially in context with other characters, understanding tones is important for grasping the linguistic subtleties of spoken Mandarin. The language distinguishes between four main tones and a neutral (or fifth) tone. To help readers appreciate these tonal nuances, each Pīnyīn expression in this book is accompanied by its corresponding tone mark: (1) A constant high pitch, e.g., Mā 妈 [mother]; (2) a rising pitch, similar to the intonation at the end of a question, e.g., Má 麻 [hemp]; (3) a pitch that initially falls slightly and then rises, e.g., Mǎ 马 [horse]; (4) a pitch that falls sharply from a high level, e.g., Mà 骂 [scold]; (5) an undecided pitch, e.g., Ma 吗 [used as an interrogative particle at the end of a sentence].

While this tonal information may present a challenge for inexperienced readers initially, it is intended to help them become familiar with the unique features of the Chinese language.

Following the Pīnyīn expression, the corresponding Chinese character or group of characters is presented using 'simplified characters.' When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, only about 20% of the population was literate. To address the challenge posed by the complexity of Traditional Chinese characters, the government launched a campaign to enhance literacy and education by simplifying the script. Approximately 2,000 traditional characters were modified, primarily by reducing the number of strokes or combining characters. During the 1950s and 1960s, Simplified Chinese was adopted in mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore, while residents of Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macau continued to use Traditional Chinese characters.

Finally, in [brackets] you will find the expression translated into English, if a translation is necessary and useful.

B. Historical context of the Chinese pre-Qín period (21st century - 221 BC)

Traditional Chinese history begins in the pre-Qín period (21st century BC (2100-2001 BC) - 221 BC). This refers to the period before the founding of the Qín dynasty 秦朝in 221 BC and covers the historical stages of the legendary Wǔshì 五氏 [Five Clans]14Yǒucháo-Shì 有巢氏15, Suìrén-Shì 燧人氏16, Fúxī-Shì 伏羲氏, Shénnóng-Shì 神农氏 [or Yándì 炎帝 - Flame Emperor] and Xuānyuán-Shì 轩辕氏 [or Huángdì 黄帝 - Yellow Emperor]), the mythological rulers 17 , the Sānhuáng 三皇 [Three Sovereigns] 18 , the Wǔdì 五帝 [Five Emperors] 19 , followed by the Three Dynasties 20 . In a more specific context, the pre-Qin period refers to the era from China's emergence as a civilization to the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC. This period primarily encompasses the history of the Xià Dynasty 夏朝 (2070-1600 BC), the Shāng Dynasty 商朝 (1600-1046 BC), the Western Zhōu 西周 (1046-771 BC), the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC), and the Warring States Period 战国时代 (475-221 BC). It represents the origin and foundational period of ancient Chinese civilization.

The Chinese pre-Qin period was marked by significant change and development in Chinese civilization. During this era, several dynasties rose and fell, philosophical schools emerged, and intense warfare for supremacy took place among various regional states. These events profoundly influenced Chinese culture and society.

The Xià Dynasty, believed to have existed from around 2070 to 1600 BC, is considered by many historians as the first dynasty in Chinese history. Although its existence is debated among scholars, various archaeological findings suggest that a civilization with a highly developed culture and social structure existed in China during this time. The Xià Dynasty is traditionally said to have been founded by Dàyǔ 大禹, or Yǔ the Great, who is credited with controlling the flooding of the Yellow River. This achievement enabled social, political, and economic development, ushering in a period of stability and prosperity.

The Shāng dynasty, which lasted from around 1600 to 1046 BC, was the first dynasty in China for which there are reliable historical records. It was founded by Chéng Tāng 成汤21 who overthrew the last ruler of the Xià Dynasty, King Jié of Xià夏桀22. The Shāng dynasty was characterized by a centralized government and a highly developed social structure, with the king at the head and a network of noble families and vassals under him.

During the Shāng dynasty, significant technological advances were made in China, particularly in the field of bronze metallurgy. The Shāng dynasty is also known for its highly decorative bronze vessels, which were used for ceremonial purposes and were symbols of power and status. The Shāng dynasty also saw the further development of a writing system, the so-called Jiǎgǔwén 甲骨文 [Oracle bone script] 23 , , which probably originated in the Xià dynasty (or the period preceding the Shāng dynasty) and was primarily used for divination and communication with the ancestors.

Fig. 04 King Chéng Tāng 商汤王, depicted by Mǎ Lín 马麟, Chinese court painter of the Southern Sòng Dynasty (1127-1279)

The Shāng Dynasty was characterized by a highly hierarchical social structure, with the king at the pinnacle and common people at the base. The king was considered the mediator between the gods and the people, responsible for performing elaborate religious ceremonies to ensure the prosperity and well-being of his subjects. Noble families and vassals supported the king militarily and administered their respective territories. This rigid social structure also included a system of human sacrifice, wherein slaves and prisoners of war were offered to appease the gods. This sacrificial system was viewed as a means of maintaining social order and preventing rebellion.

The Xià and Shāng Dynasties are two of the most significant periods in Chinese history, marking the beginning of the Chinese pre-Qin era. Although the Xià Dynasty is enveloped in myths and legends, it is noted for its significant cultural and technological achievements. In contrast, the Shāng Dynasty is the first for which reliable historical records exist, showcasing a highly developed social structure along with advanced systems of bronze metallurgy and writing. Despite their respective weaknesses and shortcomings, both dynasties were crucial milestones in the evolution of Chinese civilization and culture.

Fig. 05 Tiānmìng 天命 in the chapter Tiānlùn 天论[Treatise on Heaven] in Xúnzi 荀子 [Master Xún]

The Western Zhōu Dynasty, which lasted from 1046 to 771 BC, marked a significant milestone in the pre-Qín period. It was founded by King Wǔ of Zhōu 周武王24who overthrew the Shāng dynasty, and his brother, Duke Wén of Zhōu 周文公旦25. To legitimize their rule, the Zhōu Dynasty introduced the concept of Tiānmìng 天命, or the Mandate of Heaven, which asserted the divine right to govern. The dynasty was marked by a centralized government and the development of the Fēnfēng 分封制 or Fēngjiàn system 封建制度 26 , , which was a feudal structure based on bloodlines. The Zhōu Tiānzǐ 周天子, or Son of Heaven of Zhōu, ruled over a network of vassals or dukes who controlled various territories within the kingdom. These vassal rulers were responsible for the administration of their territories and for providing military support to the king.

During the Western Zhōu Dynasty, China experienced notable technological advancements, particularly in agriculture. The development of iron tools and plows significantly improved agricultural efficiency, leading to increased food production. This agricultural progress contributed to population growth and the establishment of new settlements, towns, and cities.

The Eastern Zhōu Dynasty, spanning from 771 to 221 BC and encompassing the Spring and Autumn Period as well as the Warring States Period, marked the conclusion of the pre-Qin era. The Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BC) was a time of political upheaval and social change in China. It was characterized by the fragmentation of the Zhōu Dynasty's foundation as the king's power diminished and feudal lords gained greater autonomy. The rulers of various vassal states engaged in territorial disputes and military conflicts, leading to a period of political instability and warfare.

Despite the political turmoil, the Spring and Autumn Period was marked by significant cultural and intellectual developments. The rise of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism during this time had a profound influence on Chinese philosophy and culture, shaping Chinese identity for centuries to come. Additionally, important Chinese classics such as the Shījīng 诗经 27 and the Shàngshū 尚书 [or Shūjīng 书经, Book of Documents] 28 were composed during this period.

The Warring States period, which lasted from 476 to 221 BC, was a time of intense warfare and conflict in China. The fragmentation of the Zhōu dynasty continued, and the so-called Zhànguó-Qīxióng 战国七雄 [Seven Warring States] 29 engaged in a series of fierce wars and battles for supremacy. Despite the constant wars, there were also significant cultural and intellectual developments. The Zhūzǐ-Bǎijiā 诸子百家 [Hundred Schools of Thought] 30 , which included Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, Mohism and others, emerged during this period. At the same time, this period saw the work of outstanding masters of diplomacy, persuasion and war strategy such as Sūnzi 孙子 [Master Sūn] 31 and Wú Qǐ 吴起32 and the so-called masters of Yóushuì 游说 [lobbying and persuasion] 33 such as the legendary Guǐgǔzi 鬼谷子 [The Master of the Ghost Valley] 34 . This is also where we find the origins of outstanding Chinese military classics of the pre-Qín era such as Sūnzi Bīngfǎ 孙子兵法 [Sūnzi's Art of War] 35 and Wúzi 吴子 [Master Wú] 36 . Furthermore, unique literary works such as the Chūnqiū-Zuǒzhuàn 春秋左传 [The Commentary of Zuǒ] 37 or the Guóyǔ 国语 [Discourses of the States] 38 were also created during the Warring States Period.

This era was marked by intense philosophical debate and intellectual inquiry, profoundly impacting Chinese culture and society. It was a time of immense change and development for Chinese civilization. The Western Zhōu Dynasty, the Spring and Autumn Period, and the Warring States Period each had distinct characteristics and developments, yet all were marked by political, social, and intellectual changes that left a lasting imprint on Chinese history and culture.

C. The importance of cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion and military strategies in ancient China

In ancient China, cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion, and military strategies were pivotal in shaping the development and stability of various dynasties and eras, including the Xià 夏 (2070-1600 BC), the Shāng 商 (1600-1046 BC), the Western Zhōu Dynasty 西周 (1045-771 BC), the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC), and the Warring States Period 战国时期 (475-221 BC). These factors not only influenced people's interactions and ways of life but also shaped relations between individual states, ultimately determining the fate of the entire nation.

Cultural identity was a central aspect of ancient Chinese society, as it conveyed a sense of unity and commonality among the people. The Xià, Shāng and Western Zhōu periods all made significant contributions to Chinese culture, such as the creation of bronze vessels, oracle bone inscriptions and the introduction of a written language. 39 These cultural advances helped to consolidate the identities and heritage of the dynasties, which were passed down from generation to generation.

Diplomacy played a vital role in ancient China, particularly during the Warring States Period when the Zhànguó-Qīxióng 战国七雄, or Seven Powers of the Warring States, competed for power and supremacy among the vassal states. Diplomatic missions, such as the exchange of gifts, marriage alliances involving princesses, and the negotiation of peace treaties, were common methods used to establish and maintain relations between states. Especially during the Western Zhōu Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period, these diplomatic efforts helped reduce tensions and avoid conflict, contributing to a period of relative stability.

In addition to diplomacy, eloquent rhetoric, persuasion, lobbying, and strategic thinking were powerful tools during the pre-Qin period. One of the most notable examples of this is the philosopher and statesman Confucius, who employed his wisdom and eloquence to persuade others of his values and viewpoints. His teachings were widely disseminated and continue to influence Chinese society to this day.

Military strategies were also crucial in ancient China, as various states continually sought to gain advantages over, subjugate, or eliminate one another. During the Spring and Autumn Period, new military tactics and innovations emerged, such as the use of chariots in battle and the formation of large, organized armies. These advancements enabled more effective and efficient warfare, ultimately determining the outcomes of battles and shaping the fate of the states involved.

Cultural identity, diplomacy, persuasion, and military strategies were decisive factors during the pre-Qin period. They influenced how people lived and interacted with one another and played a critical role in determining the fate of entire nations. These elements remain significant in contemporary China, emphasizing the importance of cultural heritage, diplomacy, communication, and military power in shaping the future.

Examining the historical foundations and origins of rhetoric, diplomacy, persuasion, and military strategies during China's pre-Qin period provides a comprehensive understanding of the distinctive characteristics and uniqueness of Chinese communication and conflict resolution practices. These practices have evolved over time, demonstrating their influence on the development of Chinese civilization and offering valuable insights into intercultural competence in our modern world.

12The pre-Qín period, also known as the pre-Qín period, broadly refers to the historical era from the Paleolithic to the founding of the Qín dynasty 秦朝 221 BC, and according to this definition includes the ancient era (historical period before the appearance of written records, generally the era before the Xià-dynasty 夏朝, i.e. about 4,000 years ago), the three ancient Chinese dynasties Xià 夏 (2070–1600 BC), Shāng 商 (1600–1046 BC) and Zhōu 周 (1046–256 BC) BC) or, more narrowly, exclusively the historical period of the Western Zhōu Dynasty 西周 (1045–771 BC), the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770–476 BC) and the Warring States Period 战国时期 (475–221 BC).

13 Standard Chinese: The official language or standard language of the People's Republic of China, which is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, the most widely spoken of the Chinese languages or dialect groups.

14 Wǔshì 五氏 [Five Clans]: Refers to five great figures or clans in China's prehistoric civilization period. According to the 'Table of Chinese History' (中国历史大系表), these are: Yǒucháo-Shì 有巢氏, Suìrén-Shì 燧人氏, Fúxī-Shì 伏羲氏, Shénnóng-Shì 神农氏, and Xuānyuán-Shì 轩辕氏.

15 Yǒucháo 有巢: Also known as Dàcháo 大巢, inventor of houses and buildings in ancient Chinese mythology.

16 Suìrén clan 燧人氏: According to historical sources, the first year of the ruler Suì was 4464 BC, and the reign of the Suìrén clan lasted 110 years, from 4464 to 4354 BC, i.e. about 6482 to 6372 years before the present day.

17 Mythological rulers: Yáo 尧 (c. 2188-2089 BC), Shùn 舜 (c. 2187-2067 BC) and Dàyǔ 大禹 (c. 2123-2025 BC, considered the founder of the Xià dynasty).

18 Sānhuáng 三皇 [Three Sovereigns]: Tiānhuáng 天皇 or Fúxī 伏羲 [Heavenly Sovereign], Dìhuáng 地皇 or Nǚwā 女媧 [Earth Sovereign], Tàihuáng 泰皇 or Shénnóng 神農 [Human Sovereign].

19 Wǔdì 五帝 [Five Emperors]: Huángdì 黄帝 [Yellow Emperor] (c. 2674-2575 BC), Zhuānxū 颛顼 (c. 2342-2245 BC), Dì Kù 帝喾 (c. 2245-2176 BC), Yáo 尧 (c. 2188-2089 BC) and Shùn 舜 (c. 2187-2067 BC).

20 Xià dynasty 夏朝 (2070-1600 BC), Shāng dynasty 商朝 (1600-1046 BC) and Zhōu dynasty 周朝 (1046-256 BC), subdivided into Western Zhōu dynasty 西周 (1046-771 BC)and Eastern Zhōu dynasty 东周 (1046-256 BC); the Eastern Zhōu is in turn divided into the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC) and the Warring States Period 战国时期 (475-221 BC).

21 Chéng Tāng 成汤 (ca. 1670-1587 BC): Also known as Shāng Tāng 商汤 or Tiān Yǐ 天乙 Zi Lǚ 子履, recorded on oracle bones as Dàyǐ 大乙, was the first king of the Shāng dynasty.

22 King Jié of Xià 夏桀: 17th and last ruler of the Xià dynasty, called Lǚ Guǐ 履癸, posthumous name Jié 桀, was considered a despotic and tyrannical ruler and was defeated by Chéng Tāng 成汤 around 1600 BC, which marked the end of the Xià dynasty.

23 Jiǎgǔwén 甲骨文 [Oracle bone script]: Also known as Qìwén 契文 [carved script], Jiǎgǔ-Bǔcí 甲骨卜辞 [Oracle bone divinatory script], Yīnxū-Wénzì 殷墟文字 [Yīnxū script] or Guījiǎshòugǔwén 龟甲兽骨文 [Tortoise shell and animal bone script], the earliest form of the Chinese written language from the late Shāng dynasty 商朝 (1600-1046 BC).

24 King Wǔ of Zhōu Jī Fā 周武王姬发 (1076-1043 BC): Often called King Wǔ珷王 in the bronze inscriptions of the Western Zhōu dynasty, founding monarch of the Western Zhōu dynasty.

25 Duke Wén of Zhōu 周文公旦: Commonly known as the Duke of Zhōu周公 (reigned 1042-1035 BC)

26 Fēnfēng-Zhì 分封制: Feudalism; feudal system.

27 Shījīng 诗经 [Book of Songs]: The oldest collection of Chinese poems, written between the 10th and 7th centuries BC, which contains a collection of 305 songs divided into 160 Fēng 风 [Airs of the States], Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Lesser Court Eulogies], Dàyǎ 大雅 [Major Court Eulogies] and Sòng 颂 [Eulogies], reflecting the political, social and cultural life of the time.

28 Shàngshū 尚书 [or Shūjīng 书经, Book of Documents]: Called one of the so-called Wǔjīng 五经 [Five Classics - Five Chinese Literatures] since the Hàn dynasty 汉朝 (206 BC - 220 AD) and served as the basis for Chinese political philosophy for more than 2,000 years with its texts, which were written 1,000 years ago.

29 Zhànguó-Qīxióng 战国七雄 [Seven Warring States]: Qín 秦, Qí 齐, Chǔ 楚, Yàn 燕, Hán 韩, Zhào 赵, Wèy 魏.

30 Zhūzǐ-Bǎijiā 诸子百家 [One Hundred Schools of Thought]: Philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.

31 Sūn Wǔ 孙武 (ca. 545 - ca. 470 BC): Originated from Lè'ān 乐安 in the state of Qí 齐国 (northern part of today's Shāndōng Province 山东省) at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC); famous general, military expert, philosopher and statesman, he was reverentially dubbed the 'Sage of War' or Sūnzi 孙子 (Master Sūn) or Sūn Wǔzi 孙武子 as well as the 'Sage of Military Strategists' and is known as the 'teacher of a hundred generations of military strategists' and 'founder of Far Eastern military science'.

32 Wú Qǐ 吴起 (440-381 BC): Military leader, politician, reformer and representative of the military school in the early period of the Warring States.

33 Yóushuì 游说 [Lobbying and persuasion]: Refers to a person's skill in expressing their own proposals and ideas in the hope that they will be adopted and implemented in their favor. During the Warring States period, the term was used to describe the activities of strategists who traveled around the empire and the various vassal states to convince the respective monarchs of their political ideas and win them over. Origin: 'Hán Fēizi 韩非子 [Master Hán Fēi] - Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin]': "If a monarch listened to the lobbying and persuasion of his ministers, they would receive high titles and salaries even before a matter was successfully done, and they would not be punished for failure; so who among these Yóushuì masters would not be all too happy to constantly use eloquent words and expressions to chase after fame and profit, thereby advancing their opportunistic agendas?" (人主之于其听说也，于其臣，事未成则爵禄已尊矣；事败而弗诛，则游说之士，孰不为用矰缴之说而徼幸其后？)

34 Wáng Xǔ 王诩 (?-? BC.): Known as Guǐgǔzi 鬼谷子 [The Master of the Ghost Valley]; as he lived in Guǐgǔ 鬼谷 [Ghost Valley] in the Yúnmèng Mountains 云梦山 (about 140 km north of Beijing), he called himself Guǐgǔzi 鬼谷子.

35 Sūnzi Bīngfǎ 孙子兵法 [Sūnzi's Art of War]: Also known as Bīngcè 兵策 [Tactical Planning for War], Wú Sūnzi 吴孙子, Sūn Wǔ Bīngfǎ 孙武兵法 [Sūn Wǔ's Art of War] or Sūnzi Shísān Piān 孙子十三篇 [The Thirteen Chapters of Sūnzi], a Chinese military treatise written in the 6th century BC. by Sūn Wǔ 孙武, better known as Sūnzi 孙子 (c. 545 - c. 470 BC), a high-ranking military general, strategist and tactician, describing in thirteen chapters the most important secrets of success, ingenuity, wisdom and intelligence of deploying troops for battle. It is one of the most influential works in the history of Chinese military strategy and is still widely read and studied today, not only in China but also in other countries.

36 Wúzi 吴子 [Master Wú]: A masterpiece of China's ancient military art, also known as Wú Qǐ 吴起, Wúzi Art of War 吴子兵法 or Wú Qǐ Art of War 吴起兵法, written by Wú Qǐ 吴起 (440-381 BC), a famous general and military strategist during the Warring States period. BC), considered one of the so-called Wǔjīng-Qīshū 武经七书 [Seven Military Classics of Ancient China].

37 Zuǒzhuàn 春秋左传 [The Commentary of Zuǒ]: Historical literary work, said to have been written by Zuǒ Qiūmíng 左丘明 (502-422 BC) from the state of Lǔ 鲁国 at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to explain Confucius' work Spring and Autumn 春秋, but was probably written between the Warring States or the two Hàn dynasties (202 BC - 220 AD); covers the period from 722 to 454 BC.

38 Guóyǔ 国语 [Discourses of the States]: Also known as Chūnqiū Wàizhuàn 春秋外传 or Zuǒshì Wàizhuàn 左氏外传, ancient Chinese text consisting of a collection of speeches attributed to rulers and other men from the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BC). According to legend, it was written by Zuǒ Qiūmíng 左丘明 (502-422 BC) of the state of Lǔ 鲁国 at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, but some modern scholars believe it was compiled from original materials recorded by historians of various countries during the Warring States period or the post-Hàn period due to its content.

39 Jiǎgǔwén 甲骨文 [Oracle bone script]: Also known as Qìwén 契文 [carved script], Jiǎgǔ-Bǔcí 甲骨卜辞 [Oracle bone divinatory script], Yīnxū-Wénzì 殷墟文字 [Yīnxū script] or Guījiǎshòugǔwén 龟甲兽骨文 [Turtle shell and animal bone script], the earliest form of the Chinese written language from the late Shāng dynasty 商朝 (1600-1046 BC).

CHAPTER II: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHINA DURING THE PRE-QIN ERA

A. Overview

Traditional Chinese history begins in the pre-Qín period (21st century BC (2100-2001 BC) - 221 BC). This refers to the era before the founding of the Qín dynasty in 221 BC. and includes the historical stages of the legendary Wǔshì 五氏 [Five Clans] 40 , the Sānhuáng 三皇 [Three Sovereigns] 41 and Wǔdì 五帝 [Five Emperors] 42 , followed by the three dynasties Xià 夏朝(2070-1600 BC), Shāng 商朝 (1600-1046 BC) and Zhōu 周朝 (1046-256 BC) 43 . In a narrower sense, the Pre-Qín period encompasses the period from China's entry into civilization to the founding of the Qín dynasty 秦朝 221 BC, mainly related to the history of the Xià 夏朝 (2070-1600 BC), the Shāng 商朝 (1600-1046 BC) and the Western Zhōu 西周 (1046-771 BC) and the Spring and Autumn Period 春秋时期 (770-476 BC) and the period of the Warring States 战国时期 (475-221 BC). It represents the origin and founding period of ancient Chinese civilization.

The great thinkers of this era, particularly those from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, such as Confucius and other representatives of the Zhūzǐ-Bǎijiā 诸子百家, or the Hundred Schools of Thought 44 , initiated the first cultural and academic flourishing in Chinese history. The political systems, economic patterns, ideology, and culture that developed during the pre-Qin era laid the foundational elements of ancient Chinese civilization. The Xià, Shāng, and Western Zhōu periods were pivotal stages in China's progression from a primitive era to a civilized society, marking the emergence of the agrarian economy prototype. During these times, China was already cultivating grain and utilizing slash-and-burn farming methods, as well as plows. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the advent of the Iron Age revolutionized agriculture with the gradual introduction of plowing with oxen and the expansion of irrigation systems, as exemplified by the Dūjiāngyàn 都江堰 irrigation project. 45 The Jǐngtián 井田制, 46 or well field system of the Western Zhōu, disappeared, leading to the emergence of private land ownership forms.

One of the greatest challenges in studying China's pre-Qin period is the availability of reliable dating information. Each of the Xià, Shāng, and Zhōu dynasties had its own calendar system, which complicates chronological accuracy. To address these challenges, this book refers to the Xià-Shāng-Zhōu Dating Project (夏商周断代工程)48as a guide when doubts arise. However, it's important to note that the accuracy of the dates provided by the Xià-Shāng-Zhōu Dating Project has been criticized by scholars, including U.S. sinologists Edward L. Shaughnessy49 and David S. Nivison50 , among others.

B. Wǔshì 五氏 [Five Clans] - Sānhuáng 三皇 [Three Sovereigns] - Wǔdì 五帝 [Five Emperors]

China's history spans thousands of years, much of it enveloped in myth and legend. The accuracy of many ancient texts and artifacts is often questioned, as there is a frequent lack of reliable evidence or dependable dating information to substantiate certain claims.

The period of the Sānhuáng 三皇, or Three Sovereigns, and the Wǔdì 五帝, or Five Emperors, represents a legendary era in Chinese history and mythology that began over 5,000 years ago. It is considered by many to mark the beginning of Chinese civilization, with the mythical rulers and deities from this period credited with laying the foundations for Chinese culture, society, and governance. According to legend, the Sānhuáng and Wǔdì were a series of extraordinary or supernatural figures who ruled ancient China before the mythical Xià Dynasty. These rulers were said to possess extraordinary abilities, such as controlling the weather and communicating with the gods. They are also believed to have introduced many fundamental aspects of Chinese civilization, including agriculture, animal husbandry, the invention of fire, music, and the Chinese calendar.

Although there is no historical evidence to confirm the existence of the Sānhuáng 三皇, or Three Sovereigns, and the Wǔdì 五帝, or Five Emperors, their legacy continues to be celebrated in Chinese culture. This is evident in traditional festivals and rituals. The mythological stories and legends surrounding these rulers have been passed down through generations, enriching the tapestry of Chinese folklore and history.

Wǔshì 五氏 [Five clans]

The Wǔshì 五氏, or Five Clans, refer to the Yǒucháo clan 有巢氏, the Suìrén clan 燧人氏, the Fúxī clan 伏羲氏, the Shénnóng clan 神农氏, and the Xuānyuán clan 轩辕氏, depending on the historical source. These clans represent five great mythical clans of origin from prehistoric Chinese civilization, from which legendary heroes with supernatural and extraordinary abilities are said to have emerged. They are credited with significant contributions to basic human living and survival conditions, such as constructing dwellings, inventing fire, introducing tribal marriage, cultivating grains, and developing animal husbandry and agriculture. These advancements helped humans transition from a harsh, primitive lifestyle of living in caves, picking fruit from trees, and eating raw food. According to legend, once these mythological rulers and deities had completed their preparations for humanity, the Chinese mythological era concluded, paving the way for the beginning of the Xià Dynasty 夏朝.

Yǒucháo clan 有巢氏 [People of the Nest Builders]

Fig. 07 Yǒucháo clan

The 'people of the nest builders' are assigned to the Huáxià ethnic group 华夏民族51. This clan comes first in the historical stage of the legendary Wǔshì 五氏 [Five Clans] 52 and is considered the first ancestor of the Huáxià people. Their tribal leader founded the ancient state of Cháo 巢国53 in the area of today's Zhèjiāng Province 浙江省. In the Daoist work Zhuāngzǐ 庄子54 contains the following reference: "I have also heard that in ancient times, birds and animals were numerous and people were few, so they lived in nests to avoid the animals. During the day they gathered acorns and chestnuts, and at night they slept in the trees; and that is why they are called the people of the nest-builders." 55

The Hánfēizi 韩非子 [Master Hánfēi] 56 , the philosophical classic from the time of the Warring States, also contains a similar description of the Yǒucháo clan: "In the most ancient times, when humans were few and creatures numerous, humans were unable to defeat birds, animals, insects and reptiles. Then a wise man appeared who made nests out of wood to protect people from harm. The people were delighted, made him ruler of the world and called him the Nest Builder." 57

Suìrén clan 燧人氏 [People of the Fire Makers]

Fig. 08 Suìrén clan

The Suìrén were indigenous inhabitants of the Paleolithic (Palaeolithic, one million years ago) state of Suìmíng 燧明国58. Their progenitor is listed as the first of the 'Three Sovereigns' in the list of the 'Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors' 三皇五帝 in the Shàngshū Dàzhuàn 尚书大传 [Major Commentary on the Book of Documents] 59 and in other ancient texts, titled as the so-called Tiānhuáng 天皇 [Heavenly Emperor] and revered as the Emperor of the Suì 燧皇. In the ancient city of Shāngqiū, the Suìrén are said to have invented 'fire drilling' and are therefore regarded as the inventors of artificial fire in ancient China. It is said that they taught people how to cook, thus ending the time when people had to eat birds and animals raw, which made them different from animals. In the Hánfēizi 韩非子 it says: "Then a sage appeared who drilled with sticks and created fire with which he could transform the rancid and rotten food. The people were delighted and made him the ruler of the world and called him the Fire Drill Man." 60 The Suìrén clan is credited with creating the Huáxià (Chinese) civilization and is regarded as the "ancestors of fire" by subsequent generations. This clan is believed to have laid the foundational elements of Chinese civilization by introducing the critical innovation of fire-making, which had a profound impact on early human development and survival. The Suìrén clan eventually gave rise to the Fúxī 伏羲氏 and Nǚwā 女娲氏 clans, continuing the lineage of legendary figures and mythical contributions. According to legends, the written history of the Huáxià civilization begins with the Suìrén clan, acknowledged as the first ancestors of the Chinese people.

Fúxī clan 伏羲氏

Fig. 09 Fúxī clan

Fúxī, a mythological emperor in ancient China who is said to have ruled from 2852 to 2737 BC, was the first of the so-called 'Three Sovereigns', known as the God of Creation, the earliest documented creation god in China. He was also known as Mìxī 宓羲, Páoxī 庖牺, Bāoxī 包牺, Fúxì 伏戏, Xīhuáng 牺皇, and Huángxī 皇羲. Legend has it that he, together with Nǚwā 女媧 [Chinese mythological goddess of creation], took care of people as the gods of earth and grain. In the so-called Chǔbóshū 楚帛书 [Chǔ Silk Palimpsest] 61 he and Nǚwā 女媧 are recorded as the two creator gods, the earliest documented creator gods in China. 62 Fúxī, originating from the Suìrén clan, is revered as the legendary founder of Chinese culture and is recognized as one of the earliest kings mentioned in ancient Chinese texts. He is also regarded as one of the founders of Chinese medicine. According to legend, Fúxī, depicted as a being with a human head and a snake body, married his sister Nǚwā, and together they had children. Fúxī is credited with creating the Bāguà 八卦, or Eight Trigrams, of the Yìjīng 易经, or Book of Changes, which were based on the observed constant changes in heaven and earth. He is also attributed with the invention of a system of writing, thereby ending the era of the Jiéshéng-Jìshì 结绳记事, or Knot-in-Rope-Making, method of record-keeping. 63 . Fúxī is credited with the creation of mankind, the invention of hunting, fishing, domestication and cooking.

In the book Báihǔtōngdélùn 白虎通德论 [Excellent Discussions in the Hall of the White Tiger] 64 the following description can be found: "How can we know that the emperor is a wise person? The Yìjīng says: 'In ancient times, when the Fúxī clan ruled over everything under heaven, he began to compose the Eight Trigrams'. And it goes on to say: 'The sages make the Yìjīng'. It also says: 'After the death of Fúxī [Bāoxī 包牺], Shénnóng arose in his place." 65

Shénnóng clan 神农氏

Fig. 10 Shénnóng clan

Yándì 炎帝 [Flame Emperor] was the honorary title of Shénnóng 神农, the leader of the Jiāng Yán tribe 姜炎族66 in ancient China, also known as the Kuíkuí clan 魁隗氏, Liánshān clan 连山氏, Lièshān clan 列山氏 and Zhūxiāng 朱襄. Legend has it that the leader of the Jiāngyán tribe was given the throne because he knew how to handle fire; for this reason he was also called Emperor Yán [Yán 炎 means 'flame']. 67 The following account of Shénnóng can be found in Chinese mythology:

Some time after Nǚwā had repaired the sky 68 , a child was born in a stone cave on Lièshan 烈山 [Note: in the present-day province of Húběi 湖北省] 69 . Legend has it that when he was born, nine wells naturally appeared around the stone cave. The water in these nine wells was interconnected, and when water was drawn from one of them, all the other eight would sway. Once Yándì observed a red bird holding a bundle of what looked like seeds in its beak, and when he saw the bird spit it out, he picked it up, the bird flew around him three times, chirped some more and flew away. Believing they were grain seeds sent to him by the Celestial Ruler through the red bird, Yándì buried the seeds in the ground. Yándì also made plows and plowshares out of wood (Lěisì 耒耜) and taught people to loosen the soil and dig wells to water the seedlings. In the fall of the same year, a large area of grass grew. How happy the people were! So, all the people called Emperor Yándì Shénnóng [divine farmer] in memory of his merits. Therefore, the surrounding tribes also referred to the Yándì tribe as the Shénnóng tribe and called him Shénnóng-Shì 神农氏, the leader of the tribe of cultivators. [Note: The original meaning of the word Shì 氏 referred to a deity who represented a tribal chieftain in primitive societies].

The mystical circumstances of Shénnóng's birth are described in the Qiánfūlùn 潜夫论, a political-metaphysical text by the philosopher Wáng Fú 王符 (ca. 82-167) from the later Hàn dynasty (25-220): "A divine dragon came down from Mount Chángyáng 70 , impregnated Rèn Sì 71 , and the Red Emperor 72 Kuí-Kuí was born. He is called Yándì, posthumous title Shénnóng, and replaces the era of the Fúxī clan. His virtue is the discipline of fire, he is remembered as the master of fire and so he is named after fire." 73

Xuānyuán clan 轩辕氏

Fig. 11 Xuānyuán clan

The Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Grand Historian] gives the name of the Yellow Emperor as Xuānyuán 轩辕 74 . Xuānyuán thus refers to the descendants of the Yellow Emperor who came from the Yǒuxióng clan 有熊氏75. The Shǐjì 史记 notes the following: "From Huángdì to Shùn and Yǔ, all rulers bore the same surname but different dynastic designations, thus displaying their illustrious virtue. Thus, Huángdì was known as Yǒuxióng [Owner of Bears], Emperor Zhuānxū as Gāoyáng, Emperor Kù as Gāoxīn, Emperor Yáo as Táotáng, Emperor Shùn as Yǒuyú [Owner of Foresters] and Emperor Yǔ as Xiàhòu [Prince of Xià]; and he [Emperor Yǔ] also had the name Sì. Xiè is the ancestor of the Shāng and bears the surname Zi [son]. Qì is the ancestor of Zhōu and his surname is Jī." 76

It is said that the Yellow Emperor once lived in the Xuānyuán Hills 轩辕之丘77 hence the name Xuānyuán 轩辕, and the descendants of the Yellow Emperor were counted among the Xuānyuán clan. After King Wǔ of Zhōu 周武王 defeated King Zhòu of Shāng 商纣王 (?-1046 BC, also known as Dì Xīn 帝辛) in battle, he enfeoffed the descendants of Xuānyuán with the kingdom of Zhù 铸国78 and renamed them the Zhù clan 铸氏.

Sānhuáng 三皇 [Three Sovereigns] and Wǔdì 五帝 [Five Emperors]

Fig. 12 Three sovereigns and five emperors

In their original sense, the Sānhuáng 三皇, or Three Sovereigns, were the three god-rulers: Tiānhuáng 天皇, the Emperor of Heaven; Dìhuáng 地皇, the Emperor of Earth; and Rénhuáng 人皇, the Emperor of Humans. 79 . Over time, the term came to refer to three prominent tribal leaders or leaders of tribal alliances during China's prehistoric period: Suìrén 燧人, also known as the Sui Sovereign 燧皇; Fúxī 伏羲, also known as the Xī Sovereign 羲皇; and Shénnóng 神农, also known as the Nóng Sovereign 农皇. It's worth noting that the names and identities of these figures can vary in different literary works: For example, in the Shàngshū-Dàzhuàn 尚书大传 [Major Commentary on the Shàngshū] 80 they are referred to as Suìrén 燧人, Fúxī 伏羲 and Shénnóng 神农; in the Fēngsú-Tōngyì 风俗通义 [Comprehensive Meaning of Customs and Mores] 81 as Fúxī 伏羲, Zhùróng 祝融 and Shénnóng 神农 82 , in Sānzìjīng 三字经 [Three-Character Classics] 83 as Fúxī 伏羲, Shénnóng 神农 and Huángdì 黄帝 and in Zhuāngzǐ 庄子 [Master Zhuāng] 84 as Yǒucháo 有巢氏, Suìrén 燧人, and Zhī-Shēng 知生氏 .

Depending on the source, there are different versions of who is counted as one of the Three Sovereigns:

SOURCE

Sānhuáng 三皇

Shàngshū-Dàzhuàn

尚书大传

Fúxī

伏羲

Shénnóng

神农

Suìrén

燧人

Fēngsú-Tōngyì

风俗通义

Fúxī

伏羲

Shénnóng

神农

Zhùróng

祝融

Sānzìjīng

三字经

Fúxī

伏羲

Shénnóng

神农

Huángdì

黄帝

Zhuāngzǐ

庄子

Yǒucháo