Biodiversity and Livelihood: Lessons from Community Research in India E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Biodiversity and Livelihood: Lessons from Community Research in India Is a compilation of research articles on the ecological biodiversity and local conservation efforts of selected regions in India, and among local communities throughout the county. 18 chapters have been contributed by experts in ecology, sustainability and ethnic studies in India. The chapters provide information on a wide range of tops which cover local communities, their agricultural practices and the ecological relationships between their community and the species on which their livelihood depends. Contributions emphasize different aspects of these topics, such as observational ecological information about the aforementioned regions and communities, the local biodiversity, tribal customs of ethnic communities that are linked to conservation, specific programs which are aimed at the conservation of specific plant and animal species endemic to the region, the benefits shared by the communities involved with conservation programs and recommendations shared by the authors for sustainable management of the regional ecosystem and its resources. Readers will find a wealth of information about biodiversity conservation in different regions in India (most notably the western and eastern ghats and provinces such as Kerala and Andhra Pradesh), from a basic and applied perspective. The book is, therefore, an informative reference for conservationists, ecologists, environmentalists and ethnologists who are studying the biodiversity and conservation of India. Readers involved in sustainable development programs in the region will also find the content valuable to their knowledge.
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Seitenzahl: 439
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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FOREWORD
Biodiversity, something beyond its importance as a conservation science and climate change implications, has a significant role in providing sustainable livelihood especially considering the rural and forest sectors. The second and the third objectives of the Biological Diversity (BD) Act of 2002 itself highlight the sustainable livelihood. Taking a glance of its international counterpart i.e., the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), since its inception during the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, is committed to empower its parties, to achieve three major objectives (a) conserving species, (b) using biological diversity sustainably, and (c) promoting sustainable development. Sustainable management of bio-resources is much needed for countries like ours where biodiversity is directly linked with providing livelihoods to and improving socio-economic conditions of millions of our local people, thereby contributing to sustainable development and poverty alleviation. Its continuing depletion, largely because of human activities, including over consumptive lifestyles should therefore be a concern to us. The present publication is so relevant, as in this modern era, agriculture, fishery and forestry sectors mainly aim to increase production of only a few bio-resources. We must also look into the diverse aspects of bio-resources, as that only can provide livelihood security to the future generations. The chapters on mainstreaming of biodiversity, ethno-conservation practices, diversity of wild edible fruits, biodiversity and sustainable utilization of Garcinia, concepts of determining ecosystem health, bio-prospecting of marine sponge etc. will create awakening thoughts in the mind of readers.
It is my pleasure to give foreword to this publication on “Biodiversity for Livelihood” and my sincere congratulations to the entire team of authors, editors and technical staff for producing with such a piece of work and I wish more such publications are made on biodiversity related topics to mainstream biodiversity in various social sectors, and thus, creating a mass awareness among the public especially among the youth of this country.
PREFACE
India is a mega biodiverse nation and the several self-generated traditions in food and agriculture are successful models for achieving the important first three SDG goals. Now it is time to build on from traditional local level measures to end poverty and malnutrition. A large number of field based programmes related to biodiversity, livelihoods and poverty reduction are being carried out by various agencies in different regions of the country. Most of the valuable experiences, successes and significant learning are cited, contributing to our understanding of linkages between the issues and remedy.
We intend to undertake an assessment of the actions related to biodiversity, livelihoods and poverty reduction using different case studies and approaches besides establishing a platform to provide space that could promote extensive outreach to facilitate mutual learning of experiences, knowledge, processes, results, impacts etc. from field based experiences.
The sustainable management of traditional and local level resources for livelihood is better depicted in this publication. We have several articles satisfying the merits of the envisaged topic that includes, Mainstreaming biodiversity for nutritional security and well-being with special reference to fisheries sector, traditional ecological knowledge, dilapidated Ethno-Conservation practices and impending impacts among Malayali Tribes of Kolli Hills, Eastern Ghats, India, perception on mushroom ecology among Kattunaikka tribes, biodiversity based benefit-sharing activities to improve the livelihood of the local/tribal communities of India, biodiversity and sustainable utilization of the genus Garcinia of the Western Ghats, diversity and utilizations of wild edible fruits in Agasthyamala biosphere, enumeration of successful livelihood models from biodiversity management committees of India and a case study of sustainable fishery resource management from Godavari mangrove wetlands.
Creating an economic stake in better living with biodiversity is enumerated in the following chapters, “Economic Thoughts in Mainstreaming Biodiversity”, “Concepts of robustness and its application in determining ecosystem health, a case study from Indian context, climate change, fisheries and coastal ecosystem in India”, integrated approach for developing biologically diversified urban landscapes @ TCS: A Success Story, interface between instruments of development planning and biodiversity planning and conservation,
Bioprospecting of marine sponges associated fungi for antioxidant and neuroprotective activity in raw 264.7 cells, USAB reactor coupled contact bed process for the clean extraction of banana pseudostemfibres, commercial viability and pest status of Musa cultivars identified in Kerala, also form part of the book.
Finally, the successful stories of biodiversity and livelihood and recognition processes currently in vogue in India are presented that can be replicated elsewhere.
List of Contributors
Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Dilapidated Ethno-Conservation Practices and Impending Impacts among Malayali Tribes of Kolli Hills, Eastern Ghats, India
Oliver King E.D. Israel*Abstract
Local communities are the custodians of biodiversity and traditional knowledge and they are not only losing their rich crop genetic diversity, but also rural livelihoods. These changes have brought negative effects into their domains of knowledge, culture and management of natural resources and have affected their livelihoods significantly. This paper attempts to focus on the lives and livelihoods of the Malayalis of Kolli Hills, especially on three key areas of natural resources and associated traditional knowledge: neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS), sacred forest landscapes and local art forms that highlight ecological relationships. The experiences of several field based projects implemented by the M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation since 1994 highlights the need for a participatory natural resource management strategy (PNRMS). People friendly pathways is required to be put in place to ensure long-term sustainability of resources in such a landscape so that livelihoods are sustained.
INTRODUCTION
Natural resources have a crucial role to play in the course of human evolution. Human societies devised different strategies for the management of natural resources to create stability and sustainability of their societies. Such strategies, knowledge and innovations of communities now constitute what is recognized as Traditional or Indigenous Ecological Knowledge. Experiences in the recent past indicate that such knowledge is subjected to major changes due to numerous internal and external driving forces.
Exposure of local communities to global forces results in the rapid erosion and dilution of centuries of traditional knowledge of communities. Local communities who were custodians of biodiversity and traditional knowledge are not only losing their rich crop genetic diversity andcommunity forests, but also rural livelihoods. These changes have brought negative effects into their domains of knowledge, culture and management of natural resources and have affected their livelihoods significantly. Hence, a participatory strategy for the management of nature and knowledge is essential.
Fig. (1)) Cultural Transitions, Agro biodiversity Impacts in Kolli Hills.Malayalis are one among the major agrarian tribal groups dwelling in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. The paper attempts to focus on lives and livelihoods of Malayalis of Kolli Hills, especially on three key areas of natural resources and associated traditional knowledge: neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS), sacred forest landscapes and local art forms that highlight ecological relationships. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is the common thread that links them. Several contemporary forces influence traditional knowledge of the community that results in the erosion of knowledge and associated resources. The experiences of several field based projects implemented by the M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation since 1994 highlight the need for a participatory natural resource management strategy (PNRMS). New people friendly pathways is required to be put in place to ensure long term sustainability of resources in the landscapes so that livelihoods are sustained. Promotion of ecotourism on a Public- Private–Panchayat–People– Partnership (PPPPP) model is suggested as one of the viable pathways available.
The Kolli Hill site located in Tamil Nadu, South India in Namakkal district (78°17’05”E to 78°27’45”E and 11°55’05”N to 11°21’10”N) is a low range of hills spread over an area of 441.412 km. The altitude ranges from 180 m to 1415 m. It is inhabited by a homogenous group of tribal people known as the Malayali Gounders, who are believed to have migrated from the plains of Kanchipuram and settled in various hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats including Kolli Hills about five centuries ago [1]. Now their habitation is spread over 300 hamlets divided into 14 Revenue Villages.
TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE, CROP GENETIC DIVERSITY AND ASSOCIATED KNOWLEDGE
Malayali tribes during their process of settlement, cleared forests and utilized land for cultivation of several food crops (Appendix 1), notably minor millets. The Malayali tribal communities in Kolli Hills have maintained inter and intra specific minor millet diversity on farm through a set of practices based on local environmental and social conditions. Presently, twenty one landraces of little millet, Italian millet, common millet and kodo millet are being cultivated by these communities under different agroecological conditions (Table 1).
The Malayali Tribal’s seed system is characterized by local seed production, selection, storage, and exchange among local communities. A significant portion of harvested grain is normally stored as seed material by the farm family. Farm families used to maintain conventional implements such as Thombai (Grain Storage), Man Panai (Mud Pot used for Seed Storage) Kuthir (Larger Mud pot for Grain Storage). Rapti (Long Cloth bag for carrying Millet from Threshing yard to home), Parappi (Bamboo made plate for Drying seeds/Grain) [2]. Conventionally, seed exchange takes place among relatives and neighbors and is accessible to all. The repayment is customary and mandatory. Women play a crucial role in seed production activities and related decision-making processes [3].
These traditional seed system-practices had strong linkage in the range of locally suited traditional agricultural practices that include intercropping, multiple cropping, mixed cropping and crop rotation based on soil types and rainfall pattern that fit into agro climatic and landscape conditions. Many such practices had a strong subsistence focus, which support food and the nutritional security of people. For example, mixed cropping is practiced to maintain food security of the farm family. The system involves a combination of crops which have different food value, maturity period, input period and capacity to withstand the vagaries of monsoon and help in minimizing risks and stabilizing household food supply. Crop rotation helped in maintaining the soil health through enrichment and recycling, made optimal use of precipitation and met the multiple needs of households. The tribals have classified their agricultural lands into four types namely Low Land, Upland, Rocky Upland and Pasture land (Table 2).
Farmers have evolved a variety of locally suited cropping practices such as mixed cropping as well as crop rotation suited to micro-climatological conditions of various landscapes in Kolli Hills (Tables 3 and 4). Some of the practices followed include intercropping, multiple cropping, mixed cropping and crop rotation based on soil types and rainfall pattern within a landscape. Mixed cropping is practiced to maintain the food security system of the farm family. The project on Conservation of Nutritious and underutilized crops supported by IFAD and Biodiversity international has reported over 70 crop mixture practiced by the custodian farmers.
Mixed cropping system involves a combination of crops having different food value, maturity period, input period and capacity to withstand vagaries of monsoon and helped in minimizing risks and stabilizing household food supply. Besides, crop rotation helped in maintaining the soil health through enrichment and recycling, made optimal use of precipitation in addition to meeting multiple needs of households. Many such practices evolved through traditional knowledge had a strong subsistence focus, which supported food and nutritional security of people.
SACRED FORESTS (SFs) IN KOLLI HILLS
Malayali tribes of Kolli hills set aside a patch of forest for the veneration of a god or goddess. These Sacred Forests (SF) (Sami Sholai) are found in the midst of varying agro ecosystems, forest boundaries on hilltops and slopes distributed across the Kolli Hills, their size ranging from one hectare to five hectares. Around two hundred and forty sacred forests have been recorded in Kolli Hills [2]. Fore fathers, Mother Goddesses and Sancritized God (Peruman) worship are more prevalent in SFs of Kolli Hills. Of these, eighty percentage of the SFs had a lush forest cover earlier and now have become a sacred place. Due to the changing social conditions, the size and structure of SFs are now being altered. Many of the SFs are managed by individual family, traditional panchayat in Patta land as well as in Poromboke land as a common property. Some of them are found in the territory of reserve forest. SFs of Kolli hills harbor several rare and endangered plant species of Eastern Ghats of India. Rare species such as Myrstica dactyloides Gaertner, Persea macrantha (Nees) Kostern, Philicium decipens, Canarium strictum Roxb, Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees, Ammora rohituka (Roxb.) Wight & Arn, Agalaya eloignoides var courtalensis, Elaeocarpus serratus L, Lannea coromandalica, Michelia champaca L, Tooona ciliata M.Roemer are found in the SFs. These relict forest patches have been conserved by Malayalis through their traditional forest related knowledge (TFRK) and taboos, regulations and control mechanism were evolved by them (Box 1).
These relict wild patches are the repository of several medicinal plants and source of non-timber forest produce for the community [2]. They serve as a perennial source of water for agricultural systems located nearby, and serve as a place for community gathering during festivals.
Traditional Panchayats employ several social norms and sanctions in conserving sanctity of the forest as well as the vegetation. They are:
People should enter into the SFs only after having a bath.People should enter into the SFs without wearing footwear.People should slaughter goats, chickens, 32 feet away from the main deity in SFs where the main deity is a sanskritised deity.People should restrain from entering the SF for 21 days after attending a death ceremony.No tree should be felled in the SFs.People should strictly restrain from courtship and mating in SFs.There are number of norms and sanctions with regard to women and SFs. They are:
Women should not enter into the SFs for 5 days during their menstrual period.Girls who attained puberty should not enter into the SF for 90 days.Women should enter into the SFs only after 108 days of childbirth.Women should not enter into the SF after 5th month of pregnancy.Women should not wear blouses inside the SF.The traditional panchayat deals with the violations of the norms pertaining to SFs in a variety of ways. They include:
A fine of Rs.100 to Rs. 5000 is levied depending on the offence.Offender should offer a feast to the villagers with Pork and Finger millet porridge.Fine is levied in kind in the form of lamp, bell, water storage containers, and Silk cloth as an offering to the deity.Offenders, both men and women, are beaten with Clausena dentata (Willd.) M.Roemer. twigsFOLK KNOWLEDGE: SONGS, STREET PLAY AND CULTURAL ART FORMS
Malayali tribes are rich in cultural traditions. Historically, they have been interacting with forest and agricultural landscapes. Their culture and values are embedded with the nature and natural resources which reflects in their art forms such as folk songs, cultural ceremonies, street plays and drama. Analysis of the folk songs collected by the M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation reveals that they used to have songs for all the events in their life. Table 5 indicates that their social and cultural interaction with natural resources in their neighborhood, reflect: Biodiversity, landscape and lifestyle, inter personal family relationship, traditional cultivars and landscapes, changes in the cultivation practices from the early period, belief and religious faith and spiritual activities, socio-cultural events and dilution, customs and beliefs, migration issues and related problems, relationship between the power structures and the native people, modern developmental changes and its impact, poverty and economics and impact of modernism.
CASH ECONOMY, INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND LOCAL SEED SYSTEMS IN KOLLI HILLS
The agro-biodiversity in Kolli Hills has been declining over the last three decades due to several factors such as expansion of commercial agriculture, market linkages, unsustainable use of forest resources and modification of the landscape, land alienation, land use changes and cultural erosion that resulted in shrinkage of area under cultivation of millets. The introduction of cash crops like tapioca, drudgery involved in the processing of millets, lack of market linkages for millets, expanding transport facilities, availability of food grain especially rice at reasonable cost through the Public Distribution System, rice consumption as a symbol of social status and mobility are also the key factors responsible for decline in cultivation and consumption of minor millets (Fig. 1).
During the 1970s, the state sponsored a road-laying program which linked most settlements in the Kolli Hills with tarred roads [5]. This change helped in the mobility of the people to other villages and towns in the plains and brought in its wake a band of merchants and contractors for marketing agricultural produce. Since the 1980s four market centers were developed in Kolli Hills that covered the entire hills setting the base for constant interaction of local people with outside merchants. Financial support like advance crop loan and transportation facilities for industrial cash crop - tapioca produce was provided by merchants and contractors leading to large-scale expansion of tapioca cultivation in uplands and modification of rocky undulating terrains that were traditionally under mixed cropping and monoculture of millets. The move from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture led to loss of not only food but also soil fertility due to continuous monoculture of tapioca.
Since 1990s the interest towards commercial horticulture such as plantation of silver oak, pepper, coffee and cardamom have brought additional pressures on traditional agriculture. This change is evident from Tables 5 and 6 that convey that commercial oriented agricultural development is a key challenge to continue traditional agriculture particularly among younger generation.
The interest and attitude of the tribal community towards commercial horticulture Table 8 such as plantation of silver oaks, pepper, coffee and cardamom estates have increased the pressure on traditional agriculture Table 7. Moreover, the state policies related to crop loan, subsidies, favorable conditions for commercial agriculture, and supply of food items like rice, wheat, maida, rava at a reasonable cost through the public distribution system (PDS) have shaped the minds of people to neglect minor millets. One of the important impacts on millet farming systems brought out by these changes due to these multiple factors was the erosion of traditional agricultural practices like mixed cropping, crop rotation and relay cropping that has a strong dependence on self-reliance in local seeds systems.
Similarly, traditional knowledge related to folksongs and folk arts is restricted to elder generation. Transfer of knowledge is seldom happening in the villages due to cultural dilution and reduced interaction among people belonging to different generations. Therefore, it is essential to find a way to prevent erosion of knowledge systems and natural resources. In the changing context, community should have balanced views of conservation and sustainable utilization.
Similarly, sacred forest landscapes are also facing threats now. Although several taboos and belief systems of the people protected these remnant forests, groves are facing threats now. The survival of the existing SF patches has becoming questionable due to various factors (Box 2).
Participatory Natural Resource Management Strategy (PNRMS)
Over a decade, MS.Swaminathan Research Foundation, attempted to conserve the crop genetic diversity in Kolli Hills through participatory conservation. Based on the experiences of the past, and taking into consideration the needs of present and the near future, protection of natural and cultural landscapes would require a comprehensive approach involving Public – Private – Panchayat – People Partnership (Fig. 2). To conclude:
Fig. (2)) Public – Private – Panchayat – People – Partnership model of Ecotourism for sustainable development in the landscape. There are remnants of natural resources notably land races, sacred forests and cultural resources in the form of folk arts that have enormous potential for use in the modern context.There is a need for drafting in new recruits to sustain natural and cultural resources to act as catalysts and carry it forth to the next generation. This becomes crucial with the advent of modern education, increased transport facilities that leads to migration and inroads made by modern communication gadgets and systems like television and radio.Economics plays an important role in the contemporary lives of the Malaiyalis. Generating financial resources based on available natural and cultural resources is one of the pathways for sustainable development. In the light of the above, ecotourism could be an ideal option for blending ecology with economics. Creating linkages and relationship between various actors with the local community is crucial for the sustainable management of natural resources and sustaining knowledge with the community for the benefit of future generations.CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors confirm that this chapter content has no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the editor and anonymous reviewers for their time and valuable suggestions.
REFERENCES
[1]Thurston E, Rangachari K. Castes and Tribes of South India 1975; 4: 406-25. (K to M)[2]Oliver King EDI. Sacred Forests of Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu, India:study on Botany, Ecology and Community Interactions. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis submitted to University of Madras 2005[3]Rengalakshmi R, Dhanapal D, Oliver King EDI, Boopathy P. Institutionalizing traditional seed exchange network. Source book on Agro-biodiversity conservation: CIP-UPWARD, IDRC and GTZ 2003; 2: 302-8.[4]Vedavalli L, Rengalakshmi R, Oliver King EDI, Balasubramanian K. Biodiversity, Underutilized crops and Socio-cultural dimensions in a Historical perspective. MSSwaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai - 113 Mimeo 1999.[5]Kumar-Range SLike paddy in rocks: local institutions and gender roles in kolli hils. MSSwaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai 2001113, MSSRF/MG/O1/13.Perception on Mushroom Ecology among Kattunaikka Tribes
N.K. Shahina*,K. MadhusudhananAbstract
The study documents the knowledge and usage of symbiotic mushrooms among Kattunaikka tribes from Wayanad and assesses its significance as a source of healthy food. The study was conducted during 2014-2016 through semi-structured and free listing interviews among selected Kattunaikka individuals. Total 15 species of wild mushrooms were collected which belong to 5 orders, 6 family and 6 genera. The usage of collective names to represent the mycorrhizal association revealed the good perception of Kattunaikka tribes on mushroom ecology. Termitomyces mushrooms were the most diverse and highly appreciated mushroom. Knowledge of distribution and ecology of ectomycorrhizal fungi signifies monitoring and retention of diversity and selection of species for forest nurseries.
INTRODUCTION
Mushrooms are important forest resources which contribute to food diversity and security. They also function in nutrient recycling and act as a niche for several animal resources [1]. The ectomycorhizal mushrooms, especially play a vital role in nutrient transport as well as in maintaining the health and vitality of forest trees. They helps forest ecosystem to stand stable during changing environmental factors [2]. Many symbiotic fungi are functional foods with high nutritional and medicinal properties. The symbiotic mushrooms are difficult to domesticate, and one needs thorough understanding of the relation between the partners and the environment under which this relation can be optimized. These multivalued resources are threatened by several anthropogenic and natural causes such as land use change, habitat destruction, over-harvesting, over-grazing, and invasive species [3].
Mushrooms generate strong and contrasting feeling in people like profound liking to extreme aversions. These feelings are generally part of culture and tradition. Through ethnomycological studies around the world that explored the diversity of useful mushroom species over the poisonous ones and it enhanced awareness into their indigenous uses in different cultures.The cultural significance (CS) of an organism is used to determined by its value to specific group of individuals [4]. The knowledge and perception may vary based on gender and age group. Turner [5] observed that cultural significance is useful for decision-makers who want to identify which species to protect at sites threatened by human activity.
Wayanad region of Kerala has good microclimatic conditions for mushrooms. Preliminary ethnobotanical works in Kerala showed that ethnic tribes in Kerala are food gatherers and few gath-er mushrooms from the wild [6]. Kattunaikka tribes maintains traditional knowledge, they known to be consumed around 20-25 species of mushrooms for food [7]. The present work focuses on the usage and knowledge of symbiotic mushrooms among Kattunaikka individuals from Wayanad.
STUDY AREA, TRIBAL COMMUNITY AND SURVEY METHODS
Wayanad district is a hilly terrain on the southern Western Ghats and located in the North east part of Kerala State. The area lies between North latitudes 11°26´ to 12° 00´ and East longitudes 75° 75’ to 76° 56´. The altitude varies from 700 to 2100 metres above Mean Sea Level (MSL). The moist deciduous forest is the dominant vegetation type. Southern moist-mixed deciduous forests consists the ‘evergreen families’ of Western Ghats namely, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae and Myristicaceae. During wet season, because of the thick foliage, the canopy of West-coast tropical evergreen forests of Wayanad looks similar to that of semi-evergreen forests. During January-April, the trees become more or less deciduous but the forests never become deciduous in toto. The leafless period varies from a few weeks to five months depending on the species.
Kattunaikka is one of the primitive tribes in Kerala and are prefer to live in and around the forest. They speak Dravidian language mixed with Kannada. Food gathering, hunting, fishing, trapping of birds and animals are the traditional occupations of the Kattunaikka. Most of them do not possess land.
The informations about mushroom were collected through semi-structured and free listing interviews [8, 9] during monsoon seasons of 2014-2016 among 35 selected individuals from Kattunaikka, including 19 women and 16 men (ages 10 to >58 years) at class interval 15 to assess the traditional knowledge on mushroom. The other activities included transect walk with key knowledge holders, collection trials and taxonomic identification. The cultural significance of each mushroom was calculated by using different sub indexes [10]. Perceived Abundance Index (PAI), Taste Score Food Appreciation Index (TSFAI), Health Index (HI), Knowledge Transmission Index (KTI) and Conservation Effort Index (CEI). Categorisation and values were assigned to the answers for each Sub index. All values were given equal weightage and each sub-index was averaged across all persons interviewed (Table 1).
