Biomechanics of Hard Tissues E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 532

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

This monograph assembles expert knowledge on the latest biomechanical modeling and testing of hard tissues, coupled with a concise introduction to the structural and physical properties of bone and cartilage.
A strong focus lies on the current advances in understanding bone structure and function from a materials science perspective, providing practical knowledge on how to model, simulate and predict the mechanical behavior of bone. The book presents directly applicable methods for designing and testing the performance of artificial bones and joint replacements, while addressing innovative and safe approaches to stimulated bone regeneration essential for clinical researchers.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Further Reading

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Bone and Cartilage – its Structure and Physical Properties

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Macroscopic Structure of the Bone

1.3 Microscopic Structure of the Bone

1.4 Remarks and Conclusions

1.5 Comments

1.6 Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Numerical Simulation of Bone Remodeling Process Considering Interface Tissue Differentiation in Total Hip Replacements

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Mechanical Adaptation of Bone

2.3 Constitutive Models

2.4 Numerical Examples

2.5 Final Remarks

2.6 Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 3: Bone as a Composite Material

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Bone Phases

3.3 Bone Phase Material Properties

3.4 Bone as a Composite: Macroscopic Effects

3.5 Bone as a Composite: Microscale Effects

3.6 Bone as a Composite: Anisotropy Effects

3.7 Bone as a Composite: Implications

References

Chapter 4: Mechanobiological Models for Bone Tissue. Applications to Implant Design

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Biological and Mechanobiological Factors in Bone Remodeling and Bone Fracture Healing

4.3 Phenomenological Models of Bone Remodeling

4.4 Mechanistic Models of Bone Remodeling

4.5 Examples of Application of Bone Remodeling Models to Implant Design

4.6 Models of Tissue Differentiation. Application to Bone Fracture Healing

4.7 Mechanistic Models of Bone Fracture Healing

4.8 Examples of Application of Bone Fracture Healing Models to Implant Design

4.9 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 5: Biomechanical Testing of Orthopedic Implants; Aspects of Tribology and Simulation

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Tribological Testing of Orthopedic Implants

5.3 Tribological Testing of Tissue from a Living Body

5.4 Theoretical Analysis for Tribological Issues

References

Chapter 6: Constitutive Modeling of the Mechanical Behavior of Trabecular Bone – Continuum Mechanical Approaches

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Summary of Elasticity Theory and Continuum Mechanics

6.3 Constitutive Equations

6.4 The Structure of Trabecular Bone and Modeling Approaches

6.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 7: Mechanical and Magnetic Stimulation on Cells for Bone Regeneration

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Mechanical Stimulation on Cells

7.3 Magnetic Stimulation on Cells

7.4 Summary

References

Chapter 8: Joint Replacement Implants

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Biomaterials for Joint Replacement Implants

8.3 Joint Replacement Implants for Weight-Bearing Joints

8.4 Joint Replacement Implants for Joints of the Hand and Wrist

8.5 Design of Joint Replacement Implants

8.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Interstitial Fluid Movement in Cortical Bone Tissue

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Arterial Supply

9.3 Microvascular Network of the Medullary Canal

9.4 Microvascular Network of Cortical Bone

9.5 Venous Drainage of Bone

9.6 Bone Lymphatics and Blood Vessel Trans-Wall Transport

9.7 The Levels of Bone Porosity and their Bone Interfaces

9.8 Interstitial Fluid Flow

References

Chapter 10: Bone Implant Design Using Optimization Methods

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Optimization Methods for Implant Design

10.3 Design Requirements for a Cementless Hip Stem

10.4 Multicriteria Formulation for Hip Stem Design

10.5 Computational Model

10.6 Optimal Geometries Analysis

10.7 Long-Term Performance of Optimized Implants

10.8 Concluding Remarks

References

Index

Biomechanics of Hard Tissues

Further Reading

Kumar, C. S. S. R. (ed.)

Biomimetic and Bioinspired Nanomaterials

2010ISBN: 978-3-527-32167-4

Ghosh, S. K. (ed.)

Self-healing Materials

Fundamentals, Design Strategies, and Applications

2009ISBN: 978-3-527-31829-2

Öchsner, A., Murch, G. E., de Lemos, M. J. S. (eds.)

Cellular and Porous Materials

Thermal Properties Simulation and Prediction

2008ISBN: 978-3-527-31938-1

Ruiz-Hitzky, E., Ariga, K., Lvov, Y. M. (eds.)

Bio-inorganic Hybrid Nanomaterials

Strategies, Syntheses, Characterization and Applications

2008ISBN: 978-3-527-31718-9

Breme, J., Kirkpatrick, C. J., Thull, R. (eds.)

Metallic Biomaterial Interfaces

2008ISBN: 978-3-527-31860-5

Brito, M. E.

Developments in Porous, Biological and Geopolymer Ceramics

Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Volume 28, Issue 9

2008ISBN: 978-0-470-19640-3

Kumar, C. S. S. R. (ed.)

Nanomaterials for Medical Diagnosis and Therapy

2007ISBN: 978-3-527-31390-7

The Editors

Prof. Dr. Andreas ÖchsnerTechnical University of MalaysiaFaculty of Mechanical Engineering81310 UTM SkudaiJohorMalaysia

Prof. Waqar AhmedUniversity of LancashireInstitute of Advanced ManufacturingPreston PR1 2HEUnited Kingdom

All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

©2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32431-6 ePdf ISBN: 978-3-527-63274-9 ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-64206-9 Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-64207-6

Preface

Biomechanics, the application of mechanical methods to biological systems, is a rapidly growing area of immense importance. The ability to influence the “lifetime” of parts of the human body or to offer adequate replacements in the case of failure has a direct influence on our entire well-being. This becomes increasingly important during old age when joints must be replaced in order to guarantee an adequate mobility of the various components of the human body. To adopt the mechanical performance of structural parts of our body or to offer alternatives if they do not function properly any more in order to meet the biological life expectancy is a major challenge that requires coordinated efforts of a number of academic disciplines.

The application of analytical, numerical, and experimental characterization methods, which were originally applied to engineering structures, allows us to model, analyze, and understand the behavior and the performance of biological structures. However, this area is much more complicated than engineering structures. For example, classical test specimens, as in the case of metals, are difficult to manufacture from biological materials. Biological materials are in many cases not as isotropic and homogeneous as traditional engineering materials and their mechanical properties depend on many factors and may be subjected to a significant variation during the entire lifetime of the structure.

This monograph focuses on hard tissues, that is, tissues having a firm intercellular structure such as bone or cartilage. Their structure and physical properties are described in detail. Modeling approaches on different length scales are presented in order to predict the mechanical properties. The influence of different biological, mechanical, and other physical factors and stimuli on the performance and regeneration ability is discussed in several chapters. Other chapters are related to the topic of bone replacement using implants. Different types of implants are characterized, tribological aspects covered, and the bone–implant interaction modeled and simulated numerically. Finally, the design of bone implants based on mathematical criteria is presented.

The editors wish to thank all the chapter authors for their participation, cooperation, and patience, which has made this monograph possible.

Finally, we would like to thank the team at Wiley-VCH, especially Dr. Heike Nöthe, Dr. Martin Preuss, and Dr. Martin Ottmar, for their excellent cooperation during this important project.

August 2010

Andreas ÖchsnerWaqar Ahmed

List of Contributors

Stephen C. CowinThe City College of New YorkDepartment of Biomedical Engineering138th Street and Convent AvenueNew York NY 10031USA

Darlan DallacostaFederal University of Santa CatarinaDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringGroup of Analysis and Design88040-900FlorianópolisBrazil

Manuel DoblaréUniversity of ZaragozaAragón Institute of Engineering Research (13A)Group of Structural Mechanics and Material ModellingBetancourt Bldg.María de Luna s/n50018 ZaragozaSpain

and

Centro de InvestigaciónBiomédica en Red en BioingenieríaBiomateriales y NanomedicinaI+D+i Bldg. Mariano Esquillors/n - 50018 ZaragozaSpain

Eduardo A. FancelloFederal University of Santa CatarinaDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringGroup of Analysis and Design88040-900FlorianópolisBrazil

Virginia L. FergusonUniversity of ColoradoDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringUCB 427Boulder, CO 80309USA

Paulo R. FernandesTU LisbonInstituto Superior TécnicoMechanical Engineering DepartmentIDMEC-ISTAv. Rovisco Pais1049-001 LisbonPortugal

Joao FolgadoTU LisbonInstituto Superior TécnicoMechanical Engineering DepartmentIDMEC-ISTAv. Rovisco Pais1049-001 LisbonPortugal

José Manuel García-AznarUniversity of ZaragozaAragón Institute of Engineering Research (13A)Group of Structural Mechanics and Material ModellingBetancourt Bldg.María de Luna s/n50018 ZaragozaSpain

and

Centro de InvestigaciónBiomédica en Red en BioingenieríaBiomateriales y NanomedicinaI+D+i Bldg. Mariano Esquillors/n – 50018 ZaragozaSpain

María José Gómez-BenitoUniversity of ZaragozaAragón Institute of Engineering Research (13A)Group of Structural Mechanics and Material ModellingBetancourt Bldg.María de Luna s/n50018 ZaragozaSpain

and

Centro de InvestigatiónBiomédica en Red enBioingenieríaBiomateriales y NanomedicinaI+D+i Bldg. Mariano Esquillors/n - 50018 ZaragozaSpain

Seyed Mohammad HosseinHosseiniTechnical University of MalaysiaDepartment of Applied MechanicsFaculty of Mechanical Engineering81310 UTM SkudaiJohorMalaysia

Kuo-Kang LiuUniversity of WarwickSchool of EngineeringLibrary RoadCoventryCV4 7ALUK

Yoshitaka NakanishiKumamoto UniversityDepartment of Advanced Mechanical SystemsGraduate School of Science and Technology2-39-1 KurokamiKumamoto 860-8555Japan

Andreas ÖchsnerTechnical University of MalaysiaFaculty of Mechanical EngineeringDepartment of Applied Mechanics81310 UTM SkudaiJohorMalaysia

and

The University of NewcastleUniversity Centre for Mass and Thermal Transport in Engineering MaterialsSchool of EngineeringCallaghan2308 New South WalesAustralia

Michelle L. OyenUniversity of CambridgeDepartment of EngineeringTrumpington StreetCambridgeCB2 1PZUK

María Ángeles PérezUniversity of ZaragozaAragón Institute of Engineering Research (13A)Group of Structural Mechanics and Material ModellingBetancourt Bldg.María de Luna s/n50018 ZaragozaSpain

and

Centro de InvestigatiónBiomédica en Red en BioingenieríaBiomateriales y NanomedicinaI+D+i Bldg. Mariano Esquillors/n - 50018 ZaragozaSpain

Carlos R. M. RoeslerBiomechanical Engineering LaboratoryUniversity HospitalFederal University of Santa Catarina88040-900FlorianopólisBrazil

Rui B. RubenESTG, CDRSPPolytechnic Institute of LeiriaP-2411-901 LeiriaPortugal

Duncan E. T. ShepherdUniversity of BirminghamSchool of Mechanical EngineeringEdgbastonBirminghamB15 2TTUK

Ryszard WojnarIPPT PANul. Pawiskiego 5B 02-106WarsawPoland

Humphrey Hak Ping YiuHeriot-Watt UniversitySchool of Engineering and Physical Sciences Chemical EngineeringEdinburghEH14 4ADUK

Chapter 1

Bone and Cartilage – its Structure and Physical Properties

Ryszard Wojnar

1.1 Introduction

Here we describe the morphology and biology of bone, analyzing its components. The chapter is divided into two sections:

1. Macroscopic structure of bone

a. Growth of bone

b. Structure of body

c. Structure of bone

2. Microscopic structure

a. Osteons

b. Bone innervations

c. Bone cells

d. OPG/RANK/RANKL signaling system

e. Proteins and amino acids

f. Collagen and its properties

g. Polymer thermodynamics

h. Architecture of biological fibers

All organs of the body are made up of four basic tissues: epithelia, connective tissue (CT), muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Blood, cartilage, and bone are usually regarded as CTs. All tissues of an organism are subject to different stimuli, among others, to mechanical forces. These forces arise from various reasons, such as blood circulation, inertial forces created during motion, and gravity forces that act ceaselessly in normal conditions.

Bone is a specialized form of CT that serves as both a tissue and an organ within higher vertebrates. Its basic functions include mineral homeostasis, locomotion, and protection. Bone has cellular and extracellular parts. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the bone comprises approximately 9/10 of its volume, with remaining 1/10 comprising cells and blood vessels. The ECM is composed of both organic and inorganic components.

Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle of Stageira maintained that “Nature, like a good householder, is not in the habit of throwing away anything from which it is possible to make anything useful. Now in a household the best part of the food that comes in is set apart for the free men, the inferior and the residue of the best for the slaves, and the worst is given to the animals that live with them. Just as the intellect acts thus in the outside world with a view to the growth of the persons concerned, so in the case of the embryo itself does Nature form from the purest material the flesh and the body of the other sense-organs, and from the residues thereof bones, sinews, hair, and also nails and hoofs and the like; hence these are last to assume their form, for they have to wait till the time when Nature has some residue to spare” [1].

About two-thirds of the weight of a bone, or half of its volume, comes from an inorganic material known as the bone salt that conforms, so to say, the bone to a nonliving world. It is an example of biomineralization: the process by which living organisms produce minerals. Owing to the inorganic architecture of the bone its biological properties may often be assumed as time independent, and the bone may be described by the methods of mathematics and mechanics developed for inanimate materials. However, by treating the bone as a live tissue, we observe that its biological activity is essentially directed toward keeping the whole organism in a state of well-being. The functionality of a bone is closely related to that of a cartilage tissue. In embryogenesis, a skeletal system is derived from a mesoderm, and chondrification (or chondrogenesis) is a process by which the cartilage is formed from a condensed mesenchymal tissue, which differentiates into chondrocytes and begins secreting the molecules that form an ECM. Cartilage is a dense CT and, along with collagen type 1, can be mineralized in the bone.

The high stiffness and toughness of biomineralized tissues of a bone are explained by the material deformation mechanisms at different levels of organization, from trabeculae and osteons at the micrometer level to the mineralized collagen fibrils at the nanometer length scale. Thus, inorganic crystals and organic molecules are intertwined in the complex composite of the bone material [2].

Bone, like every living tissue, cannot be described completely in terms of a nonanimate matter description. It breaks as a lifeless stick if overloaded, but if set up it recovers after some time. Under some loads, microcracks can appear; these are healed, and the bone undergoes reinforcement. These properties of a bone are due to a complicated but coordinated structure, as it is seen during remodeling. Living bone could be treated as a solid-state fluid composite with circulating blood and living cells, while a bone skeleton has hierarchical structure and variable biomechanical properties. In addition, the blood flows through bones according to the rhythm of the heart beat.