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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
BIOMIMICRY MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS Since the concept of biomimetics was first developed in 1950, the practical applications of biomimetic materials have created a revolution from biotechnology to medicine and most industrial domains, and are the future of commercial work in nearly all fields. Biomimetic materials are basically synthetic materials or man-made materials which can mimic or copy the properties of natural materials. Scientists have created a revolution by mimicking natural polymers through semi-synthetic or fully synthetic methods. There are different methods to mimic a material, such as copying form and shape, copying the process, and finally mimicking at an ecosystem level. This book comprises a detailed description of the materials used to synthesize and form biomimetic materials. It describes the materials in a way that will be far more convenient and easier to understand. The editors have compiled the book so that it can be used in all areas of research, and it shows the properties, preparations, and applications of biomimetic materials currently being used. Readers of this volume will find that: * It introduces the synthesis and formation of biomimetic materials; * Provides a thorough overview of many industrial applications, such as textiles, management of plant disease detection, and various applications of electroactive polymers; * Presents ideas on sustainability and how biomimicry fits within that arena; * Deliberates the importance of biomimicry in novel materials. Audience This is a useful guide for engineers, researchers, and students who work on the synthesis, properties, and applications of existing biomimetic materials in academia and industrial settings.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Biomimetic Optics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is Biomimicry?
1.3 Step-by-Step Approach for Designing Biomimetic Optical Materials From Bioorganisms
1.4 Biological Visual Systems—Animal and Human
1.5 The Eye’s Optical and Neural Components
1.6 Application of Biomimetic Optics
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Mimicry at the Material–Cell Interface
2.1 Cell and Material Interfaces
2.2 Host-Microbe Interactions and Interface Mimicry
2.3 Alterations in Characteristics and Mimicking of Extracellular Matrix
2.4 Mimicry, Manipulations, and Cell Behavior
2.5 Single-Cell Transcriptomics and Involution Mimicry
2.6 Molecular Mimicry and Disturbed Immune Surveillance
2.7 Surface Chemistry, and Cell–Material Interface
2.8 Cell Biology and Surface Topography
2.9 3D Extracellular Matrix Mimics and Materials Chemistry
2.10 Microbe Interactions and Interface Mimicry
2.11 Hijacking of the Host Interactome, and Imperfect Mimicry
2.12 Vasculogenic Mimicry and Tumor Angiogenesis
References
3 Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria as a Potential Antimicrobial Peptide
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Bacteriocins
3.3 Lactic Acid Bacteria
3.4 Classification of LAB Bacteriocins
3.5 Mechanisms of LAB Bacteriocins to Inactivate Microbial Growth
3.6 Antimicrobial Properties of LAB Bacteriocins
3.7 Applications
3.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
4 A Review on Emergence of a Nature-Inspired Polymer-Polydopamine in Biomedicine
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of PDA
4.3 Polydopamine as a Biomedical Material
4.4 Polydopamine as a Biomedical Adhesive
4.5 Availability of Polydopamine and Its Biomedical Applications
4.6 Polydopamine Coatings of Nanomaterials
4.7 Polydopamine-Based Capsules
4.8 Polydopamine Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites
4.9 Polydopamine Properties
4.10 Dental Applications
4.11 Dental Adhesives
4.12 Conclusions
References
5 Application of Electroactive Polymer Actuator
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chronological Summary of the Evolution of EAP Actuator
5.3 Electroactive Polymer Actuators Groups
5.4 Application of Electroactive Polymer Actuators
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Bioinspired Hydrogels Through 3D Bioprinting
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bioinspiration
6.3 3D Bioprinting
6.4 Hydrogels as Inks for 3D Bioprinting
6.5 Polymers Used for Bioinspired Hydrogels
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Electroactive Polymer Actuator-Based Refreshable Braille Displays
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Refreshable Braille Display
7.3 Electroactive Polymers
7.4 EAP-Based Braille Actuator
7.5 Conclusions
References
8 Materials Biomimicked From Natural Ones
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Damage-Tolerant Ceramics
8.3 Protein-Based Materials With Tailored Properties
8.4 Polymers Fit for Easy Junction/Self-Cleaning
8.5 Recent Prototype Developments on Materials Biomimicked from Natural Ones
8.6 Conclusions
References
9 Novel Biomimicry Techniques for Detecting Plant Diseases
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preharvest Biomimicry Detection Techniques
9.3 Postharvest Biomimicry Detection Techniques
9.4 Prospects and Conclusion
References
10 Biomimicry for Sustainable Structural Mimicking in Textile Industries
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Examples of Biomimicry Fabrics
10.3 Fabric Production from Biomaterial
10.4 Current Methods of Biomimicry Materials
10.5 Future of Biomimicry
10.6 Benefits of Biomimicry
10.7 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Different aspects of recent investigation, interface mimicry, sing...
Table 2.2 Different features of mimicry, cell biology, and nanomaterials.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Major genera and species of bacteriocin producing Lactic acid bact...
Table 3.2 Lactic acid bacteria bacteriocins and their bactericidal mechanism...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
In vitro
cell studies on implants decorated by PDA-derived methods...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Summary of the benefits and drawbacks of the two primary EAP group...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 A short summary of recent bioprinting studies.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Details about Braille dot parameters recommended by European Blind...
Table 7.2 Psychophysical test result of adjacent Braille devices [15].
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Recent literature on the three aspects of biomimicking from natura...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Characteristics of NN biomimicry procedure.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Bacterial pigments from microbial species.
Table 10.2 Fibers from biomaterial and their specifications.
Table 10.3 Current methods of biomimicry materials.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Distinctive biomimetic substances. Image of smaller pieces cut fr...
Figure 1.2 (a) Perceptible picture of M. rhetenor’s scales of wings. (b) Dor...
Figure 1.3 (a) Three-cornered pit into the surface of pinion of grass blue (...
Figure 1.4 (a) This graphic depicts the equipment to determine the angular d...
Figure 1.5 (Left) Picture of cephalopod mollusc (
Nautilus belauensis
), (sour...
Figure 1.6 Illustrative representation of camera-type eyes for animals lives...
Figure 1.7 (a) Apposition and (b) superposition compound eye in nature [67]....
Figure 1.8 (a) Neural (b) refractive (c) reflecting superpositional compound...
Figure 1.9 Diagrammatical representation of the eye. (n is the refractive in...
Figure 1.10 Graph of contrast ratio vs spatial frequency.
X
-axis is spatial ...
Figure 1.11 High-magnification scanning electron microscope of cross-section...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) Proposed illustration of biointerfaces and classification. (b...
Figure 2.2 Human proteins were represented by cyan and pink proteins, while ...
Figure 2.3 Endogenous (intra-species) and exogenous (inter-species) interfac...
Figure 2.4 An illustration of ECM remodelling and mimicking of extracellular...
Figure 2.5 ECM cell microenvironment is represented graphically. (a) Interac...
Figure 2.6 Elf5 expression drives involution mimicry, as shown in a molecula...
Figure 2.7 (a) The activation of cross-reactive TH1 cells is depicted as a m...
Figure 2.8 Cells from the blood are targeted to inflamed endothelium recepto...
Figure 2.9 An understanding of the individual effects of surface chemistry o...
Figure 2.10 Underlying role of 3D extracellular matrix concepts and role of ...
Figure 2.11 (a) Antiviral T lymphocytes examine the central nervous system (...
Figure 2.12 (a) Essential host-microbe interacting proteins. (b) Host-microb...
Figure 2.13 A hypothetical method of protective central memory competition. ...
Figure 2.14 (a) An illustration of CoV-Encoded Proteins Mimic Known Regulato...
Figure 2.15 An illustration of bystander creation of pathogenic T helper (th...
Figure 2.16 VEGF is primarily responsible for CSCs promoting angiogenic and ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Mechanisms of action of bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bact...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Oxidative polymerization of dopamine to polydopamine. (Journal-Fr...
Figure 4.2 Mussel and human skin-boinspiration (b). Self-polymerization of d...
Figure 4.3 The calcification and reformation of bone rejuvenated by the modi...
Figure 4.4 FESEM pictures of dentin surface calcification after remineraliza...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Types of electroactive polymers.
Figure 5.2 Structure of ionic EAP.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic illustrations demonstrate the use of alginate and chito...
Figure 6.2 Hollow tissue produced through bioprinting. (a) Multiple luminair...
Figure 6.3 The production and dissemination of three-dimensional medicinal m...
Figure 6.4 Schematic for the inkjet bioprinting method [47] (reprinted from ...
Figure 6.5 A diagram illustrating the operating principles of extrusion-base...
Figure 6.6 Schematic representation of 3D bioprinting using Alg/Gel/CNCs hyd...
Figure 6.7 Representation advances in 3D bioprotection activation techniques...
Figure 6.8 Composite materials: one example of this would be the incorporati...
Figure 6.9 Mesoporous silica loaded with drugs on carboxymethyl cellulose hy...
Figure 6.10 Three-dimensional-printed structures of conductive and non-condu...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Dynamic Braille cell representing (a) concept and (b) assemble pr...
Figure 7.2 Photograph of the refreshable Braille displays system (RBDS): (a)...
Figure 7.3 Working principle of a dielectric EAP before and after actuation,...
Figure 7.4 Illustrative representation of EAP actuator for Braille display d...
Figure 7.5 EAP Braille actuator optic image [12].
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Design and solutions for biomimicry of materials [6].
Figure 8.2 Structure of red abalone and model of it under tensile and shear ...
Figure 8.3 Structure of fish scales to form two layered composites with over...
Figure 8.4 Different species with self-cleaning/textured adhesion capabiliti...
Figure 8.5 (a) Accordion like structure and (b) SEM image of incorporated ge...
Figure 8.6 3D-printed sharkskin offering superoleophobic and low adhesion pr...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 A typical map of plant diseases with a remote sensing technique [...
Figure 9.2 Typical citrus plant diseases detected using the MV technique [43...
Figure 9.3 A robotic system for automatic in-field leaf disease detection [5...
Figure 9.4 Plant disease classification procedure using NN biomimicry techni...
Figure 9.5 Potato plant (a) appearing healthy before harvest (b) exhibiting ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic representation of algal fabrics production.
Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of mushroom leather.
Figure 10.3 Schematic representation of soy fabric production.
Figure 10.4 Schematic representation of cotton fabric production.
Figure 10.5 Schematic representation of spuima fabric production.
Figure 10.6 Schematic representation of pima fabric production.
Figure 10.7 Schematic representation of wool fabric production.
Figure 10.8 Weaving of hemp fabric.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Biomimicry Materials and Applications
Edited by
Inamuddin
Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, India
Tariq Altalhi
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Taif University, Saudi Arabia
and
Ashjan Alrogi
Hera General Hospital Makkah, Saudi Arabia
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-16621-3
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Biomimicry has been observed in the fabric industry since 4000 BC in China, but the recent works were started in 1950 by Otto Schmitt, a biophysicist developing the concept of Biomimetics. The practical applications of biomimetic materials are everywhere, from biotechnology to medicine to LED and beyond. These materials are creating a revolution and are the future of commercial work in nearly all fields.
Biomimetic materials are basically synthetic materials or man-made materials which can mimic or copy the properties of natural materials. Scientists have created a revolution by mimicking natural polymers through semi-synthetic or fully synthetic methods. There are different methods to mimic a material, such as copying form and shape, copying the process, and finally mimicking at an ecosystem level.
This book comprises a detailed description of the materials used to synthesize and form biomimetic materials. It provides the materials in a way that will be far more conventional and easier to understand. The authors have compiled the book so that it can be used in all areas of research, and it shows the properties, preparations, and applications of biomimetic materials currently being used.
Chapter 1 discusses the various types of animal eyes, biologically inspired optical systems, and various optical features in nature. The systems covered in this chapter have the potential for biomimicry.
Chapter 2 redefines cell and material interfaces. Host-microbe interactions, mimicking of extracellular matrix, and single-cell transcriptomics are explored, with the aid of colorful diagrams. Moreover, surface chemistry and topography are expounded by exemplifying cutting-edge discoveries. Additionally, for a deeper look, tumor angiogenesis, and vasculogenic mimicry were also elucidated.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of bacteriocins and their applications. Lactic acid (LA) producing bacteria, which are classified under the category of GRAS, generate a potential molecule known as bacteriocin, and this chapter discusses various classes of bacteriocins. The mechanisms of action on harmful bacteria are elaborated upon, as are various applications of LA-mediated bacteriocins in therapeutics and food industries.
Chapter 4 provides information on the properties of the keen bio-medically applicable substrate, polydopamine (PDA). To give a complete picture, this chapter discusses dentistry specific, multi-purpose PDA coatings and nanostructured PDA materials, in addition to the structural properties. Overall, PDA applicability is highlighted.
Chapter 5 details various applications of electroactive polymer actuators in day-to-day activity. Chronological evaluation and their different groups is discussed in detail. This chapter covers some important engineering applications such as soft robots, underwater, aerospace, and energy harvesting. Additionally, alternative applications including wearable electronics, smart windows, and shape memory polymers are also covered.
Chapter 7 emphasizes the utility of electroactive polymers (EAPs) in actuator-based, refreshable braille displays through tactual means for the blind using cutting-edge digital technology, and how the flexibility of EAPs makes them superior to other actuation technologies based on their strain, elastic modulus, and ease of processing.
Chapter 8 deals with conceiving bio-inspired materials starting from natural structures, such as nacre, spider silk, and the gecko’s foot, to possibly improve engineered materials, by coexisting toughness and strength, stress-modified performance, and substrate-independent reversible adhesion.
Chapter 9 discusses various biomimicry techniques for efficient management of unhealthy plants during pre- and post-harvest operations. The role of robotic techniques for on-the-field plant disease detection is discussed, as is the application of a support vector machine for the management of Gray-mold and Sclerotium rots in vegetables after harvest.
Chapter 10 discusses the role of biomimetic materials in textile industries. This chapter teaches the reader about the significance and advanced features of biomimicry fabrics such as algae fiber and mushroom leather. In addition, the future scope and challenges of fabric mimics are also discussed.
Our thanks go to Wiley and Scrivener Publishing for their continuous support and guidance.
InamuddinDepartment of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Tariq AltalhiDepartment of Chemistry, College of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
Ashjan AlrogiHera General Hospital Makkah, Saudi Arabia
1Biomimetic Optics
Priya Karmakar, Kripasindhu Karmakar, Sk. Mehebub Rahaman, Sandip Kundu, Subhendu Dhibar, Ujjwal Mandal* and Bidyut Saha†
Homogeneous Catalysis Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, West Bengal, India
Abstract
The application of natural-inspired ideas and concepts in the development of technology solutions is termed as biomimetics. “Learning from nature” is a shorthand, i.e., nickname, for biomimetic design, which translates nature’s superior designs to technological applications. Optical biomimetic blooms as a result of a recent rush of research into biological optical structures, resulting in a range of bioinspired photosensitive resources with improved visual characteristics facilitated via microstructures inherited from nature. The development of sensors and various optical devices, as well as inventive elucidation to pictorial challenges and the construction of smart systems, are all based on natural discoveries. The various types of animal eyes, biologically inspired optical systems, and various optical features in nature are all discussed in this article, which have the potential for biomimicry.
Keywords: Biomimetic, bioinspiration, visual systems, biomimicry
1.1 Introduction
When it comes to the advancement of optical science and technology throughout the years and centuries, which has resulted in novel optical working ideologies and components, it is common to find that the fundamental physical notions had already established in nature millions of years ago. Optical components, especially those that are very small, are often used in advanced visual communication and various direction-finding devices, radars, therapeutic medical equipments, etc. In modern times, small-scale independent optical structures received a lot of attention, both for commercial and military purposes. The capability to reconfigure presentation in real time to perform any job, as well as quick flexibility to ecological changes via similarity with readily reprogrammable microelectronic devices and the ability to interact and communicate with microelectronic systems, are all essential requirements for these miniature optical systems. Traditional adaptive optical systems, on the other hand, are not yet as versatile, dependable, or transportable as their electronic equivalents. The mechanical technique, which has historically been employed to tune the performance of optical systems, is being phased out. Low moving component dependability because of the higher friction of surface on the very small scale, delayed reply, excessive use of power, and unaffordable price are some of the drawbacks.
Bionic ideas have now invaded a wide range of technical sectors. For one thing, bionics offers a vast array of systematically answers derived from the natural process of evolution (principles of first-kind evolution. Alternative optical devices that mimic the functions of living species’ vision organs, such as vertebrate eyes (the human eye) [1–4] and insect compound eyes [5–7], are the best solution to the challenges mentioned above. Biological vision systems have evolved to be small, anatomically basic, and have a widespread range of adjustable functionality, as well as the capacity to adapt to changing environments through a variety of processes and reaction [8]. Owing to the opportunity of central length variation by lens redesigning, it is possible to produce eyelike single microlenses by simulating the human eye’s adaptation function, by which we can substitute a sophisticated solid-state lens system [9, 10]. Optical components that are encouraged by the insect’s compound eye can be used to make perfect optical sensors [7]. The following are a few instances of biomimetic principles in the optical realm:
Scallop eyes include catadioptric systems, which combine imaging mirrors with traditional (refractive) lenses to reduce chromatic deviations in imaging structures for example optical microscope, photo lenses, or high-end lithography optics for the semiconductor manufacturing sector [
11
].
The dazzling cover of extreme-UV optics familiarized modern generation Lithigraphy using a similar physical process as the covering of facets in the cornea of a horse-fly’s eye in the semiconductor industry at 13 nm [
12
].
Having a photonic bandgap and gradually shifting in wave length range, photonic crystals, which are three-dimensional structures with consecutive low and high refractive indices, signify that a fixed wave length value cannot propagate. Photonic-crystal fibers have been observed in nature, such as in an oceanic mouse, a naval maggot that looks like a glittering mouse. Photonic nanostructures also produce colors on butterfly wings and beetle shells [
13
].
The notion of flexible refractive surfaces was extended to liquid lenses that allow artificial optical systems to focus and zoom [
14
,
15
]. This is similar to the malleable eye lenses used by reptiles, birds, and mammals to adjust their eyes. However, creating a comprehensive technical duplicate of the human eye—replete with a muscular-like actuation—is still a huge technological hurdle.
Bionics has progressed to a new degree of technical significance in the twenty-first century. Bionics not only offers a series of self-optimized solutions but also gives us very effective routes to get there [16].
Some examples of biomimetic concepts are depicted in Figure 1.1. They demonstrate how natural design combined with artificial materials has immensely helped humanity [17].
Because of its abundance of optical structures with optimum properties, nature outperforms humans. Numerous microstructures, especially based on multilayer, photonic crystal, and nonlinear network [20], demonstrate advanced capabilities in physical light manipulation. Modifications to the fundamental structures result in a wide range of alternative structures with the addition of other optical processes, resulting in sophisticated optical effects, which are particularly frequent in multilayer-based optical structures. These fascinating optical phenomena are mostly based on five basic principles of optics: (i) interference in a thin-film, (ii) a deflection grating effect, (iii) multilayer interfering, (iv) photonic crystals, and (v) light sprinkling [21]. The appreciation of humans has been sparked by a variety of perfected optical designs seen in nature. In optical engineering, there are additional benefits for humans. A variety of optical effects using microstructures which have low refractive indexes has been accomplished by the nature. The prevalent component in invertebrate reflectors, guanine, has a refractive index of 1.83, which makes it a high refractive index biological material [22–24]. Other features of materials, such as liquid crystals and photosensitive polymers, in addition to refractive index contrast, considerably enable optical engineering. “Learning from nature” is crucial and significant for designing optical structures, such as reflectors with multiple layers, crystal fibers sensitive toward photon, and light abstraction systems [25].
Figure 1.1 Distinctive biomimetic substances. Image of smaller pieces cut from a full rack of skin of shark (a) Coating of microscopic plastic layer on aeroplane (b) Setal structures on foot (background) of the lizard G. gecko (c) are used for attachment. Superhydrophobicity of “Lotus Spray” is demonstrated by water droplets that resemble non touching nature of water in the leaf of lotus. (d) Antireflection effects are visible in the Calliphora sp. (e) due to subwavelength features on the ommatidium’s surface (f). The plane of the glass (g) having antireflection effect. [Scale bars (inset c) 2 μm, (background image c) 10 μm] [18, 19].
1.2 What is Biomimicry?
From demonstrating aeroplanes which used to be inspired by flying of bird, to building robots and technological advancement in the present day, we have studied the supremacy of nature for a thousand years, determining to emulate its excellently crafted systems. During the 1950s, an eminent biophysicist named Otto Herbert Schmitt coined the word “biomimetics.” The meaning of the word is “to replicate life and nature,” and in 1960, at a symposium at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, he coined the term “bionics.” Biomimicry, also known as bioinspiration, is the practice of employing nature’s design principles to develop incredibly intricate and sophisticated manufacturing models at numerous length scales and then applying that knowledge to tackle humanity’s most pressing problems [26, 27]. This field is becoming more closely associated with developing scientific and engineering disciplines. This branch of research has advanced significantly in recent decades through the study of the earth’s flora and fauna, with an emphasis on insects, marine organisms, and people. It has improved greatly in recent decades, and now it has vast applications in sectors such as architecture, material science, engineering, medicine, and robotics [28]. Learning from nature’s “solution handbook” and obtaining inspiration or even directly using design concepts to solve several major global concerns such as public health, food, national security, water, and renewable energy will be a very effective strategy.
The essence of biomimetics is the understanding and adopting nature’s techniques for the applications in real life scenarios. Biomimetics is divided into two categories by Gebeshuber and Drack: analogy biomimetics and induction biomimetics [29]. The former begins with technical issues and seeks answers from equivalent circumstances in nature, such as attaching winglets to aeroplanes. Biomimetics through induction has no aim of being used at first, but instead begins with biological events and considers how to apply them to the creation of technology, such as the discovery of Velcro from bursts of air. Understanding nature’s problem-solving tactics is not as simple as one may imagine. Biomimicry is defined by two fundamental elements: observation and creativity. It is not merely replicating nature, but rather absorbing clues from it to produce an efficient multifunctional system. The evolution of the eye and brain, as well as how they function in various organisms, has long fascinated researchers.
Singamaneni and coworkers’ overview summarizes the optical ingredients and phenomena in nature that are essentially the result of evolution’s arms race, natural selection. The sun’s light, for example, has affected the evolution of natural selection on the planet. As a result of their capacity to see and sense, certain animals have evolved a spectacular color palette as a result of breeding preferences, pictorial communication, and signalling. Aside from nature’s amazing color contrast, there is a huge variety of photosensitive structures that have resulted to more advanced visual indications including ultra violet and infrared vision, polarized vision, and also night vision. Nature exhibits remarkable optical phenomena such as reflection and antireflection, tailored absorption and transparency, interfering, light harvesting, scattering, diffraction, waveguiding, and bioluminescence, lensing which are all responsible for the exceptional optical properties of biological structures and materials. Bioinspired materials and approaches have unquestionably expanded the scope of various optical devices, sensors, and material development.
1.3 Step-by-Step Approach for Designing Biomimetic Optical Materials From Bioorganisms
Biomimetic design is the process of transferring great design principles of nature to technological utilizations. Numerous strategies have been used to analyze and define the physical characteristics of biological systems. The findings, which are typically gathered utilizing a variety of microscopic, optical interrogation, and modelling approaches, were extensive. Analysis of optical microstructures in nature is the initial outset in fabricating biomimetic optical materials with structure design inspired by nature. Then, in order to identify the underlying optical processes, optical characterization is performed [30]. The last phase incorporates nature’s design into man-made materials via meticulously planned production techniques.
1.3.1 Optical Structure Analysis in Biology
The characterization of optical microstructures in nature is the initial stage in optical biomimetics. Pigmentary and structural color effects are the main two types of color effects in biology. Pigmentary color results from particular light absorption by pigment electrons, whereas structural color results from selected light reflection caused by interference, diffraction, and scattering. Structural color refers to the optical effects. When there is no optical absorption, a dielectric material’s refractive index (RI) is solely real, but when light is absorbed, it contains both real and imaginary components [31]. The optical microstructure in the sequence of wavelengths of light is the source of structural color. Aside from structural color, optical structures may modify light flow to create other optical phenomena including antireflection, polarization, and light focusing. Optical microstructures are dominated by butterflies, beetles, and birds and the structural origin of optical phenomena has been recognized.
Two sheets of chitinous scales are patterned laterally across the dorsal and ventral flaps along both sides of the butterfly’s wings. The basal scales are placed immediately on pinnacle of the wing membrane, like roofs on a house. This is depicted in Figures 1.2a and b. Within the wing membrane, each scale is a flattened cuticle protrusion from a single epidermal cell. Scale dimensions are approximately 75 by 200 µm [32]. As shown in Figure 1.2d, the derivation of each structural component, namely the ridge, microrib, and internal structure, results in a variety of microstructures. Barbs with barbules (has optical multilayer microstructures) are embedded in the primary shaft of bird feathers is shown in Figure 1.2e.
Figure 1.2 (a) Perceptible picture of M. rhetenor’s scales of wings. (b) Dorsal areas and (c) ventral areas M. rhetenor scale. (d) Geometrical categorization of shimmering Lepidoptera lamella. The microstructures seen on the moths and the butterflies are depicted in this schematic picture. (e) Schematic representation of neck feather of the rock dove. Detailed features inside barbules and cross-sectional structures are sketched [Scales of wings 100 μm, dorsal and ventral areas 25 μm] [33–35].
Some very important methods to mention are SEM, TEM, AFM, FIBSEM, etc. FIBSEM suppliments the 2D viewing limitation of traditional SEM. Figure 1.3a depicts a punch a three-cornered notch into a butterfly with FIBSEM, with a side length of roughly 10 µm, allowing the internal structure to be seen straight away. Sequential FIBSEM, in combination with computational reconstruction, reveals a diamond structure at beetle size (Figure 1.3b) [37]. These computer-assisted microscopic procedures are nonetheless time-consuming and challenging, particularly when it comes to developing a section. 3D photonic crystal structures at single scales without the requirement for pre-treatment can be characterized by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The gyroid structure of butterfly scales has been studied using SAXS [38]. SAXS is useful for characterization of 3D photonic crystal structures on single scales without the requirement to pre-treat the scales.
Figure 1.3 (a) Three-cornered pit into the surface of pinion of grass blue (Zizina labradus). (b) 3D assembly of sequential empowered data from the FIBSEM by a computer. Direction of process is indicated by the arrow [30].
1.3.2 The Analysis of Optical Characteristics in Biological Materials
The uncovering of fundamental optical processes requires the interpretation and analysis of optical aspects. Gonio-spectrometry is used extensively along with the spatial scatterrometry (Figure 1.4) in this purpose. Figure 1.4a schematically depicts a simple and direct approach for detecting light scattering from biological materials. It is a technique that has been applied for a variety of animal samples of varied sizes. In nature, optical structures are frequently made up of microscopic components such as scales and barbules, so to investigate the optical process, it is necessary to optically characterize each small skeletal component. The metric settings, particularly the light source and lens, must be precisely prepared because of the very small size of optical microstructures. Researchers employed a gonio-spectrometric system that included a beam of laser as the source of light, micromanipulator along with a lens which is achromatic to characterize a single butterfly scale [39]. Figure 1.4b depicts a simple and effective way for viewing a little to medium-sized object, like a bird feather barbule or a butterfly scale disperses spatial light.
Figure 1.4 (a) This graphic depicts the equipment to determine the angular distribution of scattered photon, (b) Schematic representation of perceptual dispensation of light by butterfly scale [36].
Calculation prediction is commonly used to aid in the explanation of complicated optical effects in nature. On lamellar and crystal-like arrays, traditional approaches, such as Bragg’s law computer modelling and thin-film optics are used. Most importantly, selected light source for spectrometric research is sufficiently wide and have adequate intensity over the full wavelength range of interest. After an appropriate warm-up period, this intensity should either not change with time or be compensated for in the data processing [40]. The 2-D Fourier analysis may be used to estimate a biological nanostructure’s back scattering reflectance spectrum by varying in refractive index. Scientific study on Morpho butterflies has advanced quickly during the 1990s, with a variety of extensive observations and complex computations and this approach may be used to directly compute the electromagnetic field surrounding the optical microstructure as well as the distant field [41–43].
1.3.3 Optical Biomimetic Materials Fabrication Strategies
Nature is a great resource of creativity for optical structure design and fabrication for a number of applications. A butterfly’s structural colors have been studied [44–46]. Optical biomimetic refers to the creation of materials that mimic natural optical microstructures. A number of microfabrication processes have been developed, each with its own set of properties. Biomorphic mineralization is a simple, low-cost process that can replicate complicated microstructures seen in nature. Precursors (vapor, liquid, solid) are deposited or penetrated into biostructures as templates. Synthetic reproduction of clearly valuable structures of biology using an easy casting technique is utilized to bring a few biological structures’ superior qualities to man-made materials [47, 48]. Biomorphic mineralization is a typical method for producing optical biomimetic materials. Micropatterns that resemble natural microstructures are frequently created using electron beam lithography. Nanoimprinting and soft lithography are low-cost, effiecient-throughput production technologies that may be used to make optical biomimetic materials with flat and basic 3D microstructures [49]. Additive manufacturing which is also known as 3D printing has unfolded new possibilities for altering along with replicating objects that are inherently multiscale, multimaterial, and multifunctional. It might be a useful technique for creating speculative strategies to better explore biological process and its interplay with environmental restrictions in manmade systems, as well as for overcoming the manufacturing challenges posed by biomimicry research [50].
1.4 Biological Visual Systems—Animal and Human
The first scientific theories on vision emerged in ancient Greeks time. They defined sight as rudimentary fire erupting from the eye. In its most basic form, sight requires that rays of light be concentrated on a detector which detects light. Visual systems have evolved in a converging and progressive manner, with numerous species achieving identical functional goals via diverse routes.
Animal eyes have developed from rudimentary structures that sense light, such as those found in flatworms, to complicated systems that can generate images, such as those seen in insects and humans. The structural intricacy of biological eyes is astounding, with components ranging in size from nanometres to centimetres. Correlative biological investigations reveal the nature of other creatures’ visual systems differ from ours. There are a different kind of eye forms and structures which support the animal’s path of existence, on the basis of whether it is hunted or hunter [51]. Nature has revealed a total of ten generalized optical systems, each with its unique set of variants. Most important types of animals eyes are: (1) camera-type eyes or single-chambered simple eyes and (2) compound eyes.
1.4.1 Simple Eyes
Simple eyes contain only one element which focuses the light onto a neurological component [52]. This optical device in the animal kingdom might be a mirror, a normal slit, or, more typically, a lens. Nautilus’s eyes, which are like pinhole, only allow the light to pass through to its retina [52]. This eye structure simply facilitates the organism in detecting light and its direction.
Simple eyes which are camera-type are very well known among this category, as they resemble a camera. The principal parts in this type of eye are lens and retina. Such an eye type may be found in vertebrates, aquatic species such as cephalopods and mollusks, and arthropod arachnids (Figure 1.5) [51]. The refractive index and lens shape alter according to the medium (water or air) of outside of eye.
The most well-known biological optical system is the human eye. It is called a camera eye since it just has one lens for focusing images onto the retina. Four tissues which are responsible for refraction, in the eye of human, work together to generate a picture on the retina. The cornea has a fixed focal distance and controls the eye’s ability to focus. If the intensity of light is too intense, the pupil closes to minimize the light flow and protect the delicate retina. In strong light, the diameter of pupil ranges from 2 to 4 mm, whereas in dark it ranges from 4 to 8 mm. The clear bi-convex structure of the crystalline lens, which is also flexible, enables the eye to change the distance of focus in between the lens and the object (Figure 1.6) [53]. The term “accommodation” refers to this process. Aqueous humor separates the aspherical cornea from the biconvex gradient index (GRIN) lens in humans [54]. Ciliary muscle contractions govern alterations in the radii of curvature of the lens via zonule tissue, and as a result, focal length changes [55]. Rods and cones (two very important receptors of photons) and connecting neurons are responsible for the transfer of information to the brain via the retina. The capacity to follow moving objects and stabilize the picture of the item is also an essential adaptive function of the human vision system [56].
Figure 1.5 (Left) Picture of cephalopod mollusc (Nautilus belauensis), (source: Wikipedia). (Right) Illustrative representation of pigment cells along with photoreceptors of eye [51].
Figure 1.6 Illustrative representation of camera-type eyes for animals lives in water (left) and lenses with a spherical form and a flat surface are seen in terrestrial animals (right), respectively [53].
1.4.2 Compound Eyes
Optical engineers have been focusing on the compound eye in order to emulate the architecture in imaging systems and sensors. Compound eyes, in contrast to simple eyes, are more complicated. comprised of a number of optical components, each of which concentrates light on a different part of the neural element. Compound eyes, unlike single-aperture eyes, have a low picture resolution, but because of their faceted shape, they have a vast view angle and can detect quick movement [57]. In ark clams, the proto-compound eye is so primitive that it only has one line of photoreceptors, each with its own-colored tube [58]. This design aids the creature in detecting predators that are moving. Depending on the insect species, a natural compound eye comprises 10 to 10,000 of ommatidium, which are distributed disseminated spherically on the exterior of eyes, the majority are hexagonal in shape and range in size from 10 to 140 m [59]. Each ommatidium may be thought of as its own imaging system, with a micro lens, crystalline cone, and rhabdom as the most common components. Insect compound eyes are classified into two categories based on their light pathway: apposition and superposition compound eyes [60–62].
1.4.2.1 Appositional Compound Eyes
Dragonflies, bees, diurnal insects, lower crustaceans, etc., have this kind of eye. All ommatidiums are separated optically and accept a distinct component of the picture [52, 58, 63, 64]. The ommatidium, which is made up of single microlens-receptor units, is found in natural apposition complex eyes and consists of several identical and repetitive visual units. Only one photoreceptor receives light that passes through an ommatidium. The visual resolution is determined by factors other than photoreceptor density, such as the ommatidial angle and the numbers of ommatidia. The organism’s ultimate picture is vertical, and it is made by sewing together all of the ommatidia’s images. The pigment cell is inserted to the intermediate space of neighboring ommatidia to reduce optical crosstalk [65]. As, the apposition eyes have tiny lenses with a diameter of 10µm, they provide incorrect visual signals at low densities. As a result, they perform best at high highlight intensities. In bees, all ommatidia photoreceptors point to almost the similar kind of vision, whereas in houseflies and drosophila, every receptor has its own view which is distributed with nearby ommatidium receptors [51]. A similar neural bundle is created by all this-axons to receive information from seven neighboring ommatidia. This unusual neuronal architecture is known as neural superposition, and it is similar to the spatial summation mechanism of human rod photoreceptors, which boosts neuron sensitivity [52, 66]. To boost light sensitivity, the rhabdom in certain flies is split into several light guides. Individual light guiding signals are neutrally accumulated to generate a powerful response from the brain.
1.4.2.2 Superpositional Compound Eyes
Light from various aspects is routed to a general receptor to generate a picture of the object, demonstrating that superposition compound eyes are substantially more sensitive towards light than apposition eyes (Figure 1.7) [67]. Furthermore, the superposition compound eye has a 10 fold greater imaging resolution than the apposition compound eye [68]. In contraty to apposition eyes, superposition eyes’ visual units do not operate independently because hundreds of neighboring facets work together to collect light, expanding the aperture. This genotype has been linked to deep-water crustaceans and nocturnal insects that live in low-light environments [62]. Refractive, reflective, and neural superposition are the three forms of super-positional compound eyes, as depicted in the diagram.
Figure 1.7 (a) Apposition and (b) superposition compound eye in nature [67].
Optical superpositional compound eyes (refractive and reflective) are commonly found in moths, lobsters, nocturnal insects, and fireflies, and moths. By integrating optical input from neighboring ommatidia in a neural line, which is single and isolated from the optical units, the neural superpositional compound eyes increase light sensitivity more than the neural superpositional compound eyes. The superpositional eye contains a slender rod that not only functions as a light guide but also structurally separates the crystalline cone and the rhabdom. Furthermore, because of the lack of a shield consist of pigment, every rhabdom may collect light from its own ommatidium along with that of other nearby Ommatidia [52, 63]. In moths and many beetles, the refracting superpositional eye has a descent refractive index and this suggests that light bends occur within the lens (Figure 1.8(b)). Light is directed to the photoreceptor in refractive superposition eyes via the ommatidial lenses’ refraction [51]. Photo-sensitivity is magnified three times in the refractive superposition eye, compared to ordinary eyes. The outside walls of the ommatidia of lobsters and shrimps seem silvered, so incoming light is mirrored on the wall’s sides and reaches the receptors which absorbs and senses the light (Figure 1.8(c)). To remove scattered reflections from various angles, the ommatidia are square in form. Each ommatidium in the neural superposition eyes is made up of numerous rhabdoms that are overlaying this very same nerve (Figure 1.8(a)). Because of this result, incoming light from various lenses is gathered on various rhabdoms inside a single ommatidium. Because one optical nerve combines several rhabdoms, it can give improved resolution without raising the ommatidium.
Figure 1.8 (a) Neural (b) refractive (c) reflecting superpositional compound eyes [51].
Even though some organisms lack an eye, they are able to detect light. Chiton and brittle stars on their dorsal surfaces have crystals for fixed lenses, which help to focus light through neurons and makes sensitive toward photons [69, 70]. For example, Melanophila acuminate uses some special frameworks termed as “pit organs,” to perceive the infrared part of electromagnetic radiation [71]. This sensibility aids them in sensing forest fires and laying their eggs on the charred wood.
1.5 The Eye’s Optical and Neural Components
From the cornea to the percept, we will go over a few of the distinctive aspects of the eye’s optical parts and neurological systems of eye. that may be found in nature, as well as bioinspired materials and technologies applied to each section of the eye.
1.5.1 Cornea
The cornea, or more often known as the optical window, has evolved into a substantial refracting element in vertebrates, which results almost 2/3 parts of the power of eye. Unlike the tiny eyes of Nautilus, it works as a protective barrier by protecting the eye’s content from the surroundings [72]. As having a larger curvature radius at the perimeter than at the middle, the human cornea results in an aspheric design, which helps to eliminate aberration [73].
Cornea with a biomimetic structure
Cornea is the anterior layer of the human eye, and it is damaged easily by chemical damage as well as physical trauma, requiring wound care in the early phases and replacement of cornea in more dreadful situations. Despite worries about adulterant, the transmission of contagious infection, and the unsatisfied demand for donor tissue, studies have suggested at a variety of ways of developing biomimetic transplants of cornea (Figure 1.9) [51]. Electrospinning has sparked considerable interest in fabricating biomimetic nanofibrous wound dressings [74
