Bionanotechnology E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Nanoscale technologies are crucial for the characterization and fabrication of biomaterials that are useful in targeted drug delivery systems. New materials enable the delivery of therapeutic agents to specific tissues and cells in order to treat a range of diseases.
Bionanotechnology: Next-Generation Therapeutic Tools provides a quick overview of the use of nanomaterials in modern drug delivery and targeted drug therapy systems. The book starts with an overview of nanomaterial toxicity with subsequent chapters detailing their applications in nanomedicine. Concepts such as immunotherapy, cancer theranostics, molecular imaging, aptamers and viral nanoparticles are highlighted in specific chapters. The simplified presentation along with scientific references makes this book ideal for pharmacology and biomedical engineering scholars and life science readers.
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Seitenzahl: 379
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2002
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PREFACE
This book describes the design and characterization of bionanomaterials, which exhibit distinctive physical, chemical, and biological properties, and discusses how these functional nanomaterials enable the precise manipulation of the architectural, physical, and biochemical cellular environment in vitro and in vivo. Besides, it covers how they can act as carriers of diagnostic or therapeutic agents, thus providing new pathways or strategies for disease diagnosis and treatment. Specific chapters discuss protein delivery, drug delivery, tissue regeneration, bioimaging, bio-detection, molecular imaging, nucleic acid therapeutics, and DNA-based nanomaterials.
Furthermore, the book focuses on a unique subset of nanomaterials originating from biological entities and explores their potential as nanomedicine tools for selective drug delivery and molecular imaging. Bionanomaterials hold great potential as naturally occurring nanomaterials with enhanced properties, such as biodegradable, biocompatible, safety, and amenability for chemical and genetic manipulation to impart new surface functionalities for the selective targeting. Subsequently, such nanomaterials will enhance the therapeutics payload delivered selectively to the diseased cells. Besides, nanomaterials should have a higher signal-to-noise ratio, making them ideal as molecular imaging tools. Bionanomaterials can be produced in larger quantities at low cost, and most importantly, they are highly monodisperse, making them ideal candidates as tools in nanomedicine. Their composition in terms of chemical and structural point of view is unmatched to their synthetic counterparts, and as they comprise natural amino acids or natural monomers, they are safe and hold no side effects for the development as tools in nanomedicine and drug delivery.
The book series will be an international collaboration to present a comprehensive overview of bionanomaterials from natural sources and explore their benefits, advantages, and disadvantages compared to their synthetic counterparts. It will mainly help in practical academic research innovations in the areas of bionanomaterials. Furthermore, this book will explore the clinical demand for a subset material comprised of natural sources for advanced applications. The book is directed toward researchers, academics, and higher education students working on bionanomaterials in medical, pharmaceutical, environmental applications.
List of Contributors
An Overview of Biomaterial Toxicity and Excretion
Srijana Sharma1,Yachana Mishra2,Shubham Bisht1,Neha Sharma1,3,Vijay Mishra1,*Abstract
Biomaterial is a growing family of materials with specific physicochemical properties. Significant studies have been made to characterize the potential in vivo and in vitro toxicity of biomaterials. The cytotoxicity may be attributed to variations in the physicochemical properties, target cell types, particle dispersion methods, etc. The reported cytotoxicity effects mainly include the impact on the biological system and organ-specific toxicity such as CNS toxicity, lung toxicity, cardiac toxicity, dermal toxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, etc. Despite cellular toxicity, the immunological effects of biomaterials, such as the activation of pulmonary macrophages and associated inflammation, have been extensively studied. In this chapter, the latest research results on the toxicological profiles of nanomaterials, highlighting both the cellular toxicities and the immunological effects, have been incorporated. This analysis also offers details on the overall status, patterns, and research needs for dealing with the toxicological behavior of biomaterials.
INTRODUCTION
With the development of human civilization, biomaterials evolved by incorporating various materials on various lengths from nano- to micro- to macro level with a simple focus on extending human life and improving quality of life. More than 1000 years ago, silver, in various ways, was used as an antimicrobial agent to prevent infection. Different surgical procedures can be found at the very beginning of civilization. However, perhaps the most significant development took place in biomaterials in 1901-2000. Over the past 60 years, the quality of life
for millions of people has been improved through artificial limbs. Regenerative sutures have simplified surgical procedures, and various cardiac devices have saved lives. The advent of tissue engineering and organ rehabilitation pushes science limits today to make 2001-2100 the most exciting years in the biological field.
The term biomaterial describes something derived from biological sources, and it also describes substances that can be used in the human body as a machine. Polymer science took birth with medicinal polymers in the past, and research continues to expand the performance and stability of these components in vivo. Biomaterials are needed in clinical practice as a vital part of permanent implants like large blood vessels, waist implants, catheters, etc. In surgery, the early use of polymers has mainly focused on the evolution of connective tissue. Many new systems are emerging due to significant advances in the development and molecular cell biology. The drugs based on lots of unique nucleic acid and protein, which are not administered in the form of pills, provide the impetus for new polymers that can be incorporated to control the delivery of drug and genetic treatment. Tissue engineering has new applications that are integrated with physical requirements where the biomaterials assist the regeneration of body limbs and tissues [1].
Various polymers are utilized in several environmental programs, including polyethylene etherketone (PEK), polysulfone (PS), Silicone (SR), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyacetal (PA), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyurethane (PU), polyethylene (PE). The most common composite polymer biomaterials are CF, carbon fiber/ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (CF/UHMWPE), carbon fiber/epoxy (CF/epoxy), silica/SR, and HA/PE. Polymer materials are used for medicinal applications. Application in various disciplines has been received by polymers, such as tissue engineering, orthopedics, implants, dentistry, ophthalmology, and many other medical fields. Delivery programs designed for polymer enable the slow release of the drug from the body.
An investigation on the use of polymer in genetic therapy has been done. They show safer genetic predisposition as compared to viruses and vectors. Synthetic polymeric materials are widely used for biosensors, experienced devices, and biocontrols. Polymeric essentials should be made biocompatible for biomedical applications. Many of the polymeric systems utilized in the body for medical devices are termed biocompatible, whereas collagen encapsulation after implantation separates them from the body tissues. Polymeric implants may be considered biocompatible if they do not cause adverse responses. When polymers interact with blood cells, a thrombus is generated rapidly. Therefore, items with blood adhesions that are non-thrombogenic should be utilized for bloodstream contact. Properly balanced polymers employed in treatments should detect and interact harmoniously with living cell components without unspecified interactions. Non-toxic biomaterials are used in various medical and surgical applications. During the growing phase, NDB'S are meant to degrade the body.
Polymers that can be natural or manufactured can be decomposed. The benefits offered by the latter are more significant than the first since they may be flexibly adapted to produce the required property portfolio. Synthetic polymers provide a dependable and immunogenic supply of materials. The standard method includes mechanical characteristics (friction, density, and cutting) and the breakdown time necessary for a given system as a common technique for selecting a polymer to be used as a biomaterial. After completing its goal, it should be lowered to the planting area, leaving non-toxic products. Important issues to consider here are additional biomaterial properties, such as land charge, polarity, distribution of active chemical groups, hydrophobicity, and hydrophilicity (or wettability). It is important to blend polymers with hydrolytically unstable reinforcement for biological control. Esters, anhydrides, orthoesters, and amides are the most active chemical groups [2].
Any synthetic or natural compound except drug, which treats, enhances, or alters muscle or organ function, is called a biomaterial. The most challenging issue to deal with is biomaterial selection due to its biological compatibility and needs. In recent years, material designers have shown much interest. The discovery of different polymers has significantly influenced the growth and control technologies in the tissue engineering industry. However, operators must guarantee that polymer-based biomaterials have long-term strength and dependability to be effective. Utilizing biomedical composite polymer materials gives numerous new choices and design options. Composites composed of polymers can gain several mechanical and biological characteristics that significantly enhance numerous biological applications.
Nevertheless, the manufacturing and marketing of partial or complete medical instruments built from compounds have begun in relatively few situations. Biocompatibility is an essential condition that all living things must meet. The medical study investigates new scientific obstacles to cell/genetic diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Destroyed biomaterials change over time as the biomaterials undergo mass and surface degradation, leading to changes in the material's surrounding area. Non-corrosive materials also experience changes in chemical and structural properties. However, these changes are not so significant, and the time involved in the physical and chemical changes is much longer than in organic matter [3].
CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOMATERIALS
Biomaterials exhibit some physicochemical properties that must be according to their application. Mechanical properties, corrosion/ degradation stability, etc., are the essential physicochemical features of a material. The structure and composition of the material are directly connected to such qualities. It appears evident that the shape and size of biomaterials are of immense significance. For instance, the hip prosthesis's parts have a definite size and shape per the local implant environment. The fate of cell adhesion and proliferation are affected by the mechanical properties of biomaterial such as fatigue strength, young modulus, tensile yield stress, and toughness of titanium. The mechanical characteristics of the implanted material must be very near to that of the substance it replaces (i.e., tissue). For example, bone implants like ceramic (bioglass) have higher Young modulus and lower toughness than bone and cannot substitute for femoral or tibial bones [4].
Biological fluids possess dissolved solutes, oxygen, and other oxidants, which cause metals' oxidation rate. Metals like iron that carry a corrosive nature must be omitted due to toxic cations and noble metals exceptions. However, if metal (e.g., titanium) forms an impervious and strongly adhesive oxide layer, it will remain stable in the presence of oxidants. When the biomaterial begins to deteriorate, changes occur in the material's structure, which modifies its characteristics. Surface function groups alter the response of biomaterial because the functionality of the surface chemical impacts adsorbed protein and cell/protein interactions [5].
Biomaterials used as bulk materials are intrinsically non-porous, vital to corrosion protection. The pore size, controlled porosity, and connectivity between the pores are significant for bone tissue reconstruction applications. Substitute material such as pure titanium or its alloys are most preferred due to their osteointegration property, but it possesses high elastic modulus than bone. Therefore, elastomeric composites and powdered bioceramics have been developed because they have good mechanical and chemical compatibility with bone. Moreover, biomaterials pore size should be in the range of 400-1000 μm for bone regeneration. Due to the interaction of biomaterial with bodily fluids, physicochemical characteristics of biomaterial must be studied. These interactions take place via a surface-tension interface.
Additionally, the contact angle is used to measure biomaterial wettability, which affects biological responses such as blood coagulation, protein adsorption, cellular and bacterial adhesion. Implant materials having hydrophilic surfaces exhibit good biocompatibility and interactions with cells. However, hydrophilic surfaces are less protein adsorbent than hydrophobic surfaces [6].
The behavior of many cell types relies on material surface topography and the rigidity of the underlying material. Ion implantation, polishing, anodization techniques are used to regulate surface topography. Studies showed that human osteoblasts with varying surface roughness adhere to the orthopedic metal substrates (Ti6Al4V alloy) [7].
Although the antimicrobial property is not a physicochemical property, it results from a physicochemical modification of that material. The topographic alteration, grafting antimicrobials on the surface, chemical modification, and repellent molecules can acquire that property. Biomaterials must-have antimicrobial properties to avoid the formation of a biofilm resulting in material failure. Peri-implants occur due to the invasion of bacteria in the cavity between the dental plant and gingiva. Bone erosion, inflammation, and eventual implant failure lead to this bacterial infection. Therefore, before implantation, all medical instruments are sterilized [4].
Adhesion and cellular behavior are greatly influenced by biomaterial roughness, which further shows its impact on in vivo and in vitro results. Rough and polished mirror surfaces have contact areas with cells and molecules. The smooth surface biomaterial is preferred when low friction applications like implants of orthopedic joints are desired, and a rough surface is chosen when utilized for tissue-implant integration, such as end bone implants [8].
TYPES OF BIOMATERIALS
Like any other materials, biomaterials can be grouped into four major categories, i.e. (i) Composites, (ii) Ceramics, (iii) Polymers, and (iv) Metals. Polymers can be used in various applications and contain the largest category of biomaterials. In drug delivery uses, polymers are also frequently employed. Collagen, sodium alginate, cellulose, or synthetic polymers such as silicone rubbers, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), PMMA, and PLGA may be natural polymers. For dental and orthopedic purposes, metals are frequently employed. Titanium, rubber-steel, and cobalt-chromium alloy are the most often utilized metals. Research on metals as biodegradable agents has recently become more widespread than in polymers. Corrosion resistance has always been one of the main requirements for metal biomaterials, as reported worldwide in literature. In this sense, the idea of considering damaged metal for temporary installation required an inevitable break of this paradigm. The first metal used to decay implants was magnesium (Mg), launched in 1938. However, Mg's degrading behavior was not well known at the time, and the explosion of stainless steel caused the metal to be abandoned. As Mg technology advances, Mg has turned the attention of biomaterials into essential elements of decaying implants. Two iron classes have been proposed, i.e., Mg and iron (Fe)-based alloys. Calcium phosphates (CaP), aluminum (Al2O3), and bioglass are the most commonly utilized biomaterials. The vital component of composite biomaterials is the polymer-ceramic composite. Biomaterials show various interactions with tissue, which can be divided into four different types.
Toxicity: Toxic substances cause the death of surrounding tissues.
Bioinert: Non-toxic but ineffective substances cause this type of reaction. The muscular tissue implantation of bioinert content is caused in vivo, leading to the implant's final release and failure. Organic coverage with metal implants can prevent tissue leakage.
Bioactive: This reaction is seen when the substance is non-toxic and practical for life. The term biologically active means forming interactions between substances and tissue handling. Bioactive crystals, many types of polymers, and many calcium phosphate ceramics fall into this category.
Possible findings: This type of reaction is seen when a non-toxic substance dissolves in vivo, such as calcium sulfate (Paris concrete), tricalcium phosphate, bioactive glass, and PLGA. As a result, surrounding tissue may be replaced by synthetic materials.
APPLICATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS
In therapeutic application, polymers have played significant roles (Fig. 1). The features of the biomaterials are (i) flexibility, (ii) resistance against biochemical attack, (iii) excellent biocompatibility, (iv) weight lighting, (v) good physical and mechanical properties available in a wide array of compositions, and (vi) readily manufactured in the required form [9].
Tissue Engineering
Biomaterials regenerate wound spaces as a unique natural matrix and in 3D cell supporters. Polymers are the most prevalent tissue engineering organisms due to their flexibility and similarities in the tissue structure [10].
Thermoplastic polyesters like polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), and polylactic acid (PLA) are being used as biomaterials. Polyester, a class of polymer, contains an active ester group in its primary series. Esters are the product of carboxylic acid-based chemical compounds (COOH) and hydroxyl compounds (OH), generally alcohol. In the human metabolism, several esters, like fatty acids, are discovered and compatible. For simple hydrolysis, several polyester materials may break down natural compounds. While they are well-characterized and engineered to imitate soft bone chemicals, mechanical coherence between thermoplastic polymer and live tissue is typically lacking. Disposable biomaterials are suitable as tissue-making sprays as they disrupt the development and growth of new tissues, and unwanted long-term reactions are prevented. The destructive biomaterials used in tissue engineering must go hand in hand, and the degradation effects must be disastrous. The time required to complete dependence damage depends on the target application and functional tissue structure [11].
Fig. (1)) Different applications of biomaterials.Implantation of Medical Devices
Perishable synthetic polymers have drawn a great deal of attention to the performance of medical devices. The drug-eluting stents (DES) were frequently utilized in coronary artery disease patients as an automated therapy. Decomposing polymers are commonly used in stents to control the release of drugs as a decaying and recyclable covering. In addition to being used as a decay coating, decomposing polymers are also material for decomposing decaying stents due to their efficient drug-resistant properties and machinery efficiency to prevent stents from cracking [12].
Bone marrow transplants have more advantages than non-corrosive materials or steel. These can relocate the pressure over time to the affected area as it cools, allows tissue, and does not need a second operation to remove implanted equipment. It is observed that much commercial orthopedic replacement equipment such as nails and crutches for joint repair and screws and maxillofacial repair plates consist of PLLA, polyglycolide, and other perishable polymers. Various devices are frequently constructed from non-corrosive plastic, leading to significant environmental and economic concerns, such as syringes and surgical gloves. PLA, polyglycolide, poly-d, l-(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) can be compromised. Therefore, the adoption of disposable medical equipment that fulfills environmental standards is promising. These decomposing polymers have been utilized to repair and develop some disposable medical devices [13].
Joint Prosthesis
The joints allow our body and limbs to move. The majority of joints inside the body are synovial, allowing freedom of movement to perform various body functions such as walking, running, jogging, jumping, turning, bending, standing, and sitting. Synovial joints are present in the elbow, knee, hip, and shoulder. The most common combination of implants is Total Hip Replacement (THR). The typical THR is an acetabular type cup, and the femur section with the head is incorporated into the acetabular cup, which allows movements. Flexible thickness, high UHMWPE, and plastic distortion are all possibilities. The temporary performance of UHMWPE acetabular cups is acceptable; however, their long-term use is challenging. Geometry and biomechanics of movement in a total knee replacement (TKR) are more complicated than in a hip joint. Knee degeneration and injuries are more common as compared to other joints. The femora and tibia are the significant components of a typical TKR. A metal tray supports a section of the tibia composed of UHMWPE polymer. Although the compound may not be optimal for conveying low concentrations on its own, the combination of composite substrate and UHMWPE is more advantageous. Finger joints, ankle, shoulder, toe, wrist, and elbow are among the other joints that can be replaced. Because of the low success rate of these joint replacements due to the flexibility of the transplant components, they are utilized less frequently than TKR and THR. Silicone rubber (SR) is being investigated for specific sorts (space-filling design) of finger joint replacement. Rupture of the prosthesis and roughening of the arthritic bone is a serious issue. It has been reported that a combination of implants has also been shown to reduce pain, improve stability, increase manual labor, and provide an adequate range of motion [14].
Bone Repair
Collagen fibers with hydroxyapatite nanocrystals pressed alongside collagen fibrils made bones. The lower fibers of the elastic modulus collagen are aligned with bone and stress indicators. Hydroxyapatite mineral having high elastic modulus contains about 70% of dry bones and enhances bone strength. Internal fixation and external fixation are the two categories of orthopedic treatment. External repairs do not require cracks opening, whereas internal repairs require a fracture site's opening. Plaster bandages or imitation materials are used to create wrists, cones, or metal. Composite material such as spreading material is made of woven cotton cloth, Plaster of Paris, and other reinforcements, including glass cloths and polyester fibers. Cement has been made of glass or polyester, and petroleum products are popular. A good imitation material must have these characteristics- easy to carry and remove, compliant with anatomical shape, lightweight, radiolucent, and waterproof.
Due to the lightweight, the external fixators built of CF/epoxy composite biomaterials are attaining [15]. Bone plate application materials like polyester and polymers like PTFE and PA should be of sufficient strength for fatigue (such as stainless steel), as orthopedic equipment is subject to very high rotating loads and should not be led to heavy rains in a fractured area, which could sway the skeletal union. Non-removable composite plates are composed of thermoplastic composite materials or a thermoset polymer. Non-renewable thermoset compounds include CF/epoxy and GF/epoxy. Researchers have produced CF/PP, CF/PMMA, CF/PEEK, CF/PE, CF/PS, CF/PBT, and CF/nylon thermoplastic, non-resorbable composite bone plates as the technology to create high-quality thermoplastic composites. In several research, CF/PEEK has been reported to be compatible with improved resistance to hydrolysis and radiation (sterilization method) reduction. Other significant characteristics include resistance, high strength, and inertness of organisms with no carcinogenicity or mutagenicity [16].
Drug Delivery Systems
The polymeric material is utilized as a drug delivery device via new approaches, including biodegradability in the system. Many perishable polymers - a variety of natural and synthetic materials can be helpful for this purpose. Drug delivery system advancements have emphasized the use of purposely humiliating medicinal polymers. The limitations of conventional drug delivery modalities, like pill or injection, are well understood. A popular approach is to combine drug within the polymer or embed it in the polymer matrix and then implant it to spread into the tissues. In some circumstances, the release process is influenced by polymer erosion or melting. Chitosan is preferred in drug delivery, such as drug conjugate, hydrogel system, breakdown release system, and PEC. Disposable polymers such as poly orthoesters and polylactic acid are employed in drug delivery methods. For several goods, chitosan is preferred in drug delivery, such as drug conjugate, hydrogel system, breakdown release system, and PEC. Protein/peptide delivery, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, genetic treatment, growth factors, and bioimaging applications utilize chitosan-based systems. Polyelectrolyte complexes of chitosan particles were produced for the delivery of nasal protein. Insulin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) have been proven to increase protein absorption more than suitable chitosan solutions [17].
Heparin is mainly utilized as an antiplatelet and anticoagulant agent. As heparin's routine administration increases bleeding risk, direct site delivery of heparin to damaged vessels offers an excellent substitute to system delivery. The effect of heparin loading on endothelial cell damage is assessed by a mixture of heparin powder and melted polymer. In vitro extraction investigations have revealed that loaded heparin may be recovered completely, provided that the heparin stays inert throughout the polymerization. The findings indicate that heparin within polymeric devices for local medication delivery looks promising [18].
TYPES OF TOXICITY
Nanocarrier toxicity can occur in several ways. It can be hazardous since it develops new species by interacting with biological processes. In some cases, NP formation itself causes toxicity. As a result, a comprehensive toxicity investigation is required for any nanocarrier to be considered for in vivo treatment. As previously stated, the treatment method can influence the toxicity of nanocarriers [19].
When NPs consist of two or more components, then the toxicity of each ingredient should be investigated. However, a recent study proved the synergistic effect of NPs and Polysorbate 20, a surfactant often utilized in NP systems to aid dispersal and performance. Although gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and individual surfactants exhibit less toxicity in zebrafish, the concentration of toxins has increased significantly. These findings highlight the importance of undertaking toxicological research on the NP of interest and the matrix in which it will be given [20].
Hepatotoxicity
The most common source of NPs is the liver because the NPs will be placed, digested, and disposed of there, which is why liver toxicity is often considered first. The AuNPs are widely investigated for their extensive pre-surgical and clinical applications in various NPs. In the lower concentrations, the AuNPs are safe because of their chemically neutral properties. However, there have been findings of AuNP poisoning, which is often the result of NP size, surface chemistry, and shape. Research was conducted to assess the potential toxicity of AuNPs. Naked AuNPs (8 mg/kg/week dose) with the size range of 3-100 nm were introduced in BALB/c mice. At sizes 3, 5, 50, and 100 nm, the AuNPs showed no adverse effects; however, AuNPs caused severe illness in mice, ranging from 8 to 37 nm. Pathological studies of large mice in sick groups exhibited an increase in liver Kupffer cells, increased white pulp in the brain, and integrity loss in the lungs. These toxic symptoms were because of the presence of AuNPs in infected areas. Despite the improvements in cytocompatibility provided by biological coverage, liver toxicity's primary mechanism is thought to result from a significant change in inflammation and subsequent apoptosis [21].
Increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) causes the toxic effects of iron oxide NPs. This produced ROS, continuously releasing lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. More efforts are needed to develop a magnetic iron oxide NP with more advanced engineering in the field to detect less toxic, diverse applications in biomedicine. A study has reported that excess iron due to high doses of iron oxide NPs may be detrimental to cirrhosis due to the manifested effects of disruption of iron homeostasis, elevated lipid metabolism, and possible loss of liver function [22].
The toxicity of the metal itself poses further problems with NPs containing heavy metals. Under certain conditions, a study found that cadmium selenide (CdSe)-cored quantum dots (QDs) were very hazardous. The CdQDs cytotoxicity was determined by analyzing parameters during fusion, ultraviolet light exposure, and ground coverage. Data also suggested that cytotoxicity was associated with the release of Cd-free ions. Properly coated CdSe-core QDs are non-toxic and employed for in vitro reorganization and tracking of cell migration. In a study, the cytotoxicity of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), -NH2, and -COOH functionalized CdTe CdSe cored QDs with zinc sulfide (ZnS) shell was examined. The cytotoxicity of each type of exposure was assessed by monitoring macrophage cell activity and performing a double hydroxide extraction. After 48 hours, all QDs tested were found to produce considerable cytotoxicity, and coating materials and Cd ions emitted were suspected to be the causes. The deterioration of the materials apparent smoothness led to the release of ions and subsequent toxicity [23].
Nephrotoxicity
Nanoparticles show potent nephrotoxicity at both glomerular and tubular levels as per in vivo studies. With NPs sizes less than 6 nm, the kidneys have been studied as a target component of NPs. Nephrotoxicity is noticed, for instance, when CdSNPs are regulated by gavage. One proposed explanation is that Cd can generate ROS and bind cysteine residues to proteins. Iron oxide NPs were tested with a base size of 10 or 30 nm and applied PEI (SEI-10) or PEG (SMG-10, SMG-30) to detect variations in cell acquisition, clearance, biodistribution, and toxicity. In vitro, SEI-10 demonstrated intense cell proliferation in cancer cells and macrophages, showing early toxicity. Iron oxide NPs were introduced parenterally into SKOV-3 tumor-bearing mice.
The SEI-10 (negatively charged) has a high kidney transplantation rate, but PEG-iron oxide NPs were mostly eliminated from the spleen and liver. The SEI-10 injected rats had a 1.5 mg/kg high tolerance dose. However, mice injected with SMG-30 or SMG-10 at doses up to 5 mg/kg had no fatalities [24]. The renal system removes NPs. The modified QDs were covered with a neutral or zwitterionic coating that inhibited the release of serum proteins, kept their modest size (6 nm), and were fully cleansed by the kidneys by passing a unique structure of numerous glomeruli cells. A little contact between NPs and kidneys reveals low nephrotoxicity. Those without a protective layer grew more than 15 nm and were kept in the liver and mirror [25]. However, a recent study showed the drawbacks of the relationship between size and kidney. How these NPs will be eliminated is a question that needs further investigation [26].
Cardiac Toxicity
Sensitive organ systems should also be tested with any NP intended for translation. It has been demonstrated that AgNPs showed immediate toxicity on myocardial electrophysiology and cause symptoms of dependence in rats, which involves undiminished resting energy, possible decrease in heart function, loss of happiness, and fatal bradyarrhythmia [27]. These toxic pains did not occur in mice treated with Ag+ ions, demonstrating that the toxins originated in AgNPs without silver exposure.
Brain Toxicity
Nanomaterial systems pose a considerable threat to the central nervous system (CNS) and brain. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) controls the entries of circulating molecules in the bloodstream to the brain. As a result, the crossing of the BBB by drug delivery pathway has become the focused area [28, 29]. There is no specific route for NPs to be delivered in the brain, and they may pass through cerebrospinal fluid, blood, lymph system, and olfactory mucosa. These are some established approaches; however, they show limited efficacy. Continuous research for the application of nanomedicine in the treatment of deadly brain illnesses and attention to minimizing the potential nanotoxicity is going on [29].
Lung Toxicity
Inhalation is one of the most direct and promising routes of drug administration to the pulmonary system. Exposure may not be unintentional, as in identifying or treating NPs, or unintended, by inhalation or dermal exposure due to the increased number of industrial applications of the NPs. Its toxicity relies upon size, composition, and intended use. The therapeutic lung applications of NPs usually focus on the diagnosis and treatment. Most of these applications rely on blood flow and the pulmonary organ system. These NPs are usually eliminated by the MPS system and do not carry poisons directly to the lung. A report considered the size effect and focused on AgNP toxicity. In vitro, Ag-15 nm, Ag-30 nm, or Ag-55 nm in the concentration of 10-75 g/mL interacted with alveolar macrophages. Cell morphological and performance alterations, glutathione and cytokine concentration, and ROS were assessed. These showed concentration and size-dependent toxicity after 24 hours. The Ag-15 nm particles were found to be the most destructive to the cells. The cytotoxicity could be caused by increased ROS and cytokines (monocyte chemotactic protein 1).
In a study, 24 NPs having the same size but different shapes were tested for lung toxicity using two lung cell lines, A549 and THP-1. Toxicity was estimated by 3- (4,5-dimethylthiazo(-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and neutral red tests. Titanium, zirconium, cerium, and aluminum NPs were the most hazardous, with TC50 values less than 15 g/mL, followed by copper and zinc NPs. Intratracheal instillation of copper oxide NPs treated the C57BL/6 mice lung model. Within seven days of implantation, inflamed cell infiltration and lymphocyte fusion were found, which intensified after that. Granulomatous inflammation, fibrosis of the lungs, an increase in ROS, and epithelial cell death were also seen [30].
MECHANISM OF TOXICITY
Toxic substances can cause biomembrane damage, impairment of metabolic functions, and genotoxicity in cells. Membrane damage occurs when a hazardous substance interferes with creating a biological membrane by increasing penetration and modifying water transport, ion transport, and metabolite transport mechanisms. These events can eventually lead to cell death. Surfactant-like chemicals, residual monomers, and plasticizers are all components of potentially harmful biomaterials. Active substances like residual monomers, heavy metal ions, or radicals can damage cell metabolic function by inhibiting the activity of the cellular enzyme. The harmful effects of these compounds can cause a decline in energy generation and synthesis of protein, resulting in the alteration of active transport through cells, decreasing cell proliferation, and ultimately cell death. The generation of DNA damage by binding a chemical; covalent to DNA, affecting the structure and quantity of chromosomes and genes, is genotoxicity. Many studies predict that an organism's genotoxicity uses a variety of bacteria or mammalian cells. Indeed, it should be underlined that most genotoxic chemicals cause gene damage. A highly high concentration causes nuclear disintegration, which allows the cytotoxic impact of a specific chemical to be determined. Various ceramic substances (such as aluminum nitride, sodium titanium dibromide) and monomers (such as methacrylate) exhibited cell toxicity due to direct or indirect interaction between cells and the test material. Direct interaction involves the transplantation of cells where there is a test material. The restricted growth of cells adjacent to that material indicates a toxic effect. Internal toxicity was discovered when fibroblasts were cultured on several biomaterials that did not produce hazardous chemicals.
Cell Death
After an indirect or direct interaction with biomaterials, cell death is one of the essential elements in toxicology. Cell death assays depend on the cell membrane integrity, which signals the entry of foreign molecules (e.g., neutral redness), or on the loss of other cell molecules (e.g
