Biopolymers for Water Purification E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the future of water treatment with this groundbreaking introduction
There are few more requirements for human life more vital than clean water. Increasingly, however, both developed and developing countries are facing significant challenges to the maintenance of clean water sources, with population growth, industrial pollution, hazardous water contamination, and climate impact all taking a toll. With conventional methods of water purification proving less and less satisfactory, attention is increasingly turning to biopolymers extracted from natural sources, such as cellulose and chitosan, for their potential as renewable water treatment agents.
Biopolymers for Water Purification provides an overview of this growing field of study and its recent developments. It covers key techniques for synthesizing and modifying biopolymers, as well as their roles in treating water pollution and meeting targeted water quality requirements. The result is a detailed, comprehensive introduction to this field with potentially immense ramifications for long-term human life. It is the first book solely dedicated to the engineering of biopolymer-based membranes for water purification and promises to become a landmark in the field.
Biopolymers for Water Purification readers will also find:
- Detailed treatment of important polymers including chitin, glycogen, kerating, and more
- Discussion of ongoing challenges and directions for future research
- Introduction to the history and characterization of biopolymers
Biopolymers for Water Purification is a useful reference for polymer chemists, water chemists, materials scientists, engineering scientists, and advanced postgraduate researchers in any of these or related fields.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
1 A Bibliometric Analysis on the Application of Biopolymers in Water Purification
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Methodology
1.3 Results
1.4 Conclusions
References
2 Extraction of Biopolymers from Nature and Their Characterization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Production of Animal‐Derived Biopolymers
2.3 Production of Bacteria‐Derived Biopolymers
2.4 Production of Plant‐Derived Biopolymers
2.5 Production of Algae‐Derived Biopolymers
2.6 Characterization of Biopolymers
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Synthesis of Biopolymers and Characterization
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biopolymer: Source and Types
3.3 Biopolymers Used in the Treatment of Water Pollution: Synthesis and Characterization
3.4 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
4 Importance of Water and Water Quality
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Quality Measure for Water
4.3 Role of Materials to Maintain Water Quality
4.4 Challenges and Future Perspective
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Microcellulose Membranes for Water Purification
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Water Purification
5.3 Filtration
5.4 Nanofiltration Process
5.5 Ultrafiltration Process
5.6 Reverse Osmosis
5.7 Reverse Osmosis versus Nanofiltration Membrane Process
5.8 Distillation
5.9 Chlorination
5.10 Polymer
5.11 Cellulose
5.12 Tissue Engineering
5.13 Barrier Properties
5.14 Membrane Technology
5.15 Membrane Filtration
5.16 Membrane Processing
5.17 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
6 Nanocellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nanocellulose
6.3 Cellulose Nanofibrils and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification
6.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification
6.5 Bacterial Cellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification
6.6 Conclusions and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
7 Lignin Polymers for Water Treatment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conclusions
List of Abbreviations
References
8 Use of Cellulosic Material and Natural Fibers in Wastewater Treatment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cellulosic Materials (CMs) and Natural Fibers (NFs)
8.3 Use of MCs and NFs in Water Purification
8.4 Mechanisms of Contaminant Absorption
8.5 Adaptation and Modification of CMs and NFs for Application in Water Purification
8.6 Selection of the Stage of Water Treatment at Which the CMs and NFs Will Be Applied
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Starch Polymers: Their Blends, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Water Contamination
9.3 Water Treatment
9.4 Starch in Water Treatments
9.5 Future Perspectives
References
10 Chitosan Polymers: Their Blends, IPNs, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification
10.1 Chitosan – Structure and Properties
10.2 Chitosan with Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials for Water Purification
10.3 Chitosan Blends with Polymers for Water Purification
10.4 Chitosan IPN and Chitosan Gel for Water Purification
10.5 Chitosan Composite Membranes for Water Purification
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
11 The Production of Chitin, Nanochitin Polymers, and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Chitin Material Development
11.3 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Adsorption Processes
11.4 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Degradation Processes
11.5 Conclusions
References
12 Polysaccharide‐Based Water Purifying Materials
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Starch, Its Functional Derivatives, and Composites for Water Purification Process
12.3 Chitosan
12.4 Seaweed‐Derived Polysaccharides
12.5 Pectin and Gum Polysaccharides
12.6 Conclusions and Future Research Outlooks
List of Abbreviations
References
13 Biocatalytic Membrane for Seawater Purification
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types and Properties of Enzymes
13.3 Preparation Method of Biocatalytic Membrane
13.4 Application of Biocatalytic Membrane
13.5 Challenges and Applications of Biocatalytic Membrane
13.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
14 Biopolymer‐Coated Nanoparticles for Water Purification
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Synthesis of the Biopolymer‐Coated Nanoparticles
14.3 Characterization of Biopolymer‐Coated Nanoparticles
14.4 Biopolymer‐Coated Nanoparticles in Water Treatment
14.5 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
15 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels and Removing Metals in Contaminated Water
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels
15.3 Hydrogels Derived from Cellulose Acetate as a Source of Raw Material
15.4 The Diversity of Applications
15.5 Final Consideration
References
Note
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Most relevant authors of the research field of biopolymers for wat...
Table 1.2 Citation scores of the most relevant publications.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 PHA extraction methods with particular examples.
Table 2.2 Main biopolymers derived from plants.
Table 2.3 Extraction methods used for the production of biopolymers from var...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Antimicrobial activity of the fungal chitosan.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Shows the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) and World Health Organiz...
Table 4.2 Shows the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) and World Health Organiz...
Table 4.3 Table represents various materials for removal of water contaminat...
Table 4.4 Table represents various biopolymer composites for removal of wate...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 The synonyms, typical sources, and sizes of three common categorie...
Table 6.2 Main features of the representative CNFs and their composite membr...
Table 6.3 Main features of the representative CNCs and their composite membr...
Table 6.4 Main features of the representative BCs and their composite membra...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Comparison of various studies discussed in this section with their...
Table 7.2 Comparison of various studies discussed in this section with their...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Global production of natural fibers ([52, 214, 228, 263]).
Table 8.2 Characteristic peak wavenumbers in the FTIR spectra of NFs and CMS...
Table 8.3 Principal TAPPI standards for the assessment of CMs and NFs [11, 1...
Table 8.4 Physicomechanical properties of cellulosic materials [58, 62, 75, ...
Table 8.5 Physicomechanical properties of natural fibers utilized in wastewa...
Table 8.6 Degradation temperatures of CMs and NF components [24, 78, 249, 31...
Table 8.7 Percentages of the use of CMs and NFs for water purification by ap...
Table 8.8 Extraction of HMs and the type of CMs and NFs used in the reported...
Table 8.9 Dye/colorants extraction and the type of CMs and NFs used and repo...
Table 8.10 Scientific publications focused on the extraction of organic/inor...
Table 8.11 Use of CMs and NFs for oil/hydrocarbon extraction from water repo...
Table 8.12 Chemical modifications of CMs and NFs.
Table 8.13 Adsorption yields in percentage or concentrations of CMs and NFs....
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Comparison of different starches as flocculating agents, factors t...
Table 9.2 Comparison of different starches as adsorbents for several contami...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 The review of adsorption performances of various chitosan‐based c...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Starch, its chemically modified derivatives, and composites for w...
Table 12.2 Chemically modified chitosan composites for contaminant adsorptio...
Table 12.3 Recent seaweed‐derived polysaccharide‐based adsorbents, their che...
Table 12.4 Chemical modification and composite formulation of pectin/gum pol...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Maximum adsorption capacities and mechanisms for binding conventi...
Table 14.2 Maximum adsorption capacities and mechanisms for binding CECs on ...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Some applications of cellulose‐derived hydrogels in the last year...
Table 15.2 Recent works described in the literature on the production of hyd...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 (a) Annual scientific production from 2002, and (b) subject area ...
Figure 1.2 Dynamics of the number of publications of the most relevant sourc...
Figure 1.3 Country's scientific production.
Figure 1.4 Word cloud containing the 50 most frequently authors' keywords.
Figure 1.5 Thematic map.
Figure 1.6 (a) Conceptual structure map of the keywords according to the MCA...
Figure 1.7 (a) Factorial maps of the publications with the highest contribut...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Global bioplastics manufacturing capacity.
Figure 2.2 Global bioplastics manufacturing capacity for (a) 2022 and (b) 20...
Figure 2.3 Global manufacturing capacities of bioplastic segments in 2022 (P...
Figure 2.4 Some biopolymers derived from animals.
Figure 2.5 Benefits and drawbacks of animal‐based biopolymers.
Figure 2.6 Common characterization techniques used for biopolymers.
Figure 2.7 SEM micrograph of the isolated cellulose.
Figure 2.8 AFM images of WSH
30
.
Figure 2.9 TEM pictures for cellulose nanocrystals: (a) and (b) extracted at...
Figure 2.10 Length, width, and aspect ratio distribution histograms of WSH
30
Figure 2.11 Thermogravimetric analysis of untreated wool and regenerated ker...
Figure 2.12 FTIR spectra of keratin hydrolysate compared with feather meal....
Figure 2.13 FTIR (1) Untreated wool, (2) extracted keratin from TBPH, (3) ex...
Figure 2.14 Microstructural characterization of the samples after chemical t...
Figure 2.15 The solid‐state NMR spectrum shows the solubility of feather ker...
Figure 2.16 X‐ray diffraction spectra of isolated cellulose.
Figure 2.17 X‐ray diffraction pattern of untreated wool and regenerated kera...
Figure 2.18 Elemental analysis of keratin hydrolysate.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 World water pollution data.
Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram showing the process of magnetic chitosan bead f...
Figure 3.3 FESEM image of the formulations.
Figure 3.4 FTIR spectra of the formulations.
Figure 3.5 Preparation of graphene oxide–silicated kappa carrageenan.
Figure 3.6 Process for the formulation of cellulose–metallothionein biosorbe...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Diagrammatic sources of water pollution.
Figure 4.2 Schematic representation of water pollution sources.
Figure 4.3 Water treatment techniques.
Figure 4.4 Types of water contaminants.
Figure 4.5 Representation of various techniques used in water quality mainte...
Figure 4.6 Chemical structure of biopolymers used in water treatment and com...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Water purification method.
Figure 5.2 Schematic illustration of filtration of solid particles via micro...
Figure 5.3 Schematic sequence of filtration process.
Figure 5.4 How filtration works.
Figure 5.5 Ultrafiltration process.
Figure 5.6 Reverse osmosis process.
Figure 5.7 Distillation unit.
Figure 5.8 Chlorination process.
Figure 5.9 Schematic molecular illustration of polymer.
Figure 5.10 Covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds.
Figure 5.11 Cellulose in the plant microfibril membrane.
Figure 5.12 Cellulose extraction using acid hydrolysis method.
Figure 5.13 A cellulose biofilm that was produced in the materials laborator...
Figure 5.14 Diagram illustrating four main barrier protection qualities that...
Figure 5.15 Water purification and contamination separation mechanism using ...
Figure 5.16 Cellulose membrane process characteristics.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The chemical structure.(a) and hierarchical structure.(b)...
Figure 6.2 Nanocellulose and their composite membranes for water purificatio...
Figure 6.3 (a) The Light transmittance of polished, unpolished, and freeze‐dr...
Figure 6.4 (A) SEM images of CNCs prepared from different raw materials....
Figure 6.5 (A) Schematic explaining the construction of BCMs and the oil–wat...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Representative fragment of lignin structure. The main monolignols...
Figure 7.2 Proposed mechanism for the dual system KL–METAM and KL–AA adsorpt...
Figure 7.3 (a) Schematics of obtention of PEI and lignosulfonate. (b) Schema...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Classification of CMsand NFs.
Figure 8.2 Structure of a natural fiber, components, and the different types...
Figure 8.3 Trend of research papers published since the last 20 years for (a...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Representation of the starch granule. (a) Native starch granules ...
Figure 9.2 Illustration of mechanisms: (a) Electrostatic patch model. (b) Mo...
Figure 9.3 Representative illustration of starch membrane and its applicatio...
Figure 9.4 Representative illustration of starch hydrogels and their possibl...
Figure 9.5 Representative illustration of starch aerogels and their applicat...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 3D, top‐view, and cross‐section images of glucosamine (a) and
N
‐...
Figure 10.2 Partial deacetylation of chitin–chitosan synthesis.
Figure 10.3 Chitosan linear structure. Atoms C6, C3, and C2 are indicated in...
Figure 10.4 Schematic presentation of chitosan action toward Gram‐positive a...
Figure 10.5 Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin–Radushkevich, and Sips adsorption ...
Figure 10.6 The morphology of CS/magnetite–GO composites. HRTEM images (a–c)...
Figure 10.7 SEM images of the chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogel ad...
Figure 10.8 Mechanism of Cu
2+
adsorption by FCG.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 (a) Chitin, chitosan, and cellulose adsorption research article ...
Figure 11.2 Representative examples of organic and inorganic components that...
Figure 11.3 Proposed mechanisms for the rhodamine B degradation of the so‐pr...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Molecular structures of (a) amylose and (b) amylopectin.
Figure 12.2 Chemical modification of starch forming anionic and cationic der...
Figure 12.3 Chemical structures of chitosan: (a) mixture of deacetylated and...
Figure 12.4 Chemical modification of chitosan.
Figure 12.5 Chemical structures of carrageenans and alginate.
Figure 12.6 Chemical modifications of alginate.
Figure 12.7 Chemical structures of pectin and gum polysaccharides such as xa...
Figure 12.8 Chemically modified pectin/gum polysaccharides.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Examples of biocatalytic membrane reactors with enzymes immobili...
Figure 13.2 Representation of laccase enzyme and its catalytic site. (a) Cry...
Figure 13.3 Schematic representation of ceramic membrane activation and lacc...
Figure 13.4 A schematic representation of the transport mechanism of (a) an ...
Figure 13.5 Polydopamine‐assisted electroless metallization of substrates. (...
Figure 13.6 Schematic for the construction process of multienzyme system.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Mechanism of binding of the shell to the core in core/shell stru...
Figure 14.2 Mechanism of binding of the contaminants to the studied adsorben...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The repetitive unit of the cellulose acetate polymer with DS 2.0...
Figure 15.2 Mechanism of HEDTA hydrogel synthesis.
Figure 15.3 Neutralization of HEDTA.
Figure 15.4 Potentiometric titration of acid EDTA.
Figure 15.5 Potentiometric titration of HEDTA.
Figure 15.6 (a) HEDTA before immersion in CuSO
4
solution; (b) HEDTA after im...
Figure 15.7 Partial structure of the cellulose acetate hydrogel cross‐linked...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Biopolymers for Water Purification
Edited by Sabu Thomas, Georgi J. Vadakkekara, and Hanna J. Maria
Editors
Prof. Dr. Sabu ThomasMahatma Gandhi UniversityPriyadarshini Hills P.O.Kottayam, KeralaIN, 686 560
Georgi J. VadakkekaraBharathiar University CoimbatoreChennaiIN
Dr. Hanna J. MariaMahatma Gandhi UniversityPriyadarshini HillsKottayamIN, 686560
Cover: © Peter Bocklandt/Shutterstock.com
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Foreword
It is an honor to contribute to this remarkable compilation, Biopolymers for Water Purification. Water, as we all know, is the lifeblood of our planet, and its availability in clean and safe forms is essential for the well‐being of all living organisms. Yet, the increasing contamination of water resources – driven by industrialization, urbanization, and climate change – has made water purification one of the most pressing challenges for current and future generations.
In this context, biopolymers have emerged as a promising solution, offering eco‐friendly, sustainable, and effective approaches to tackling water contamination. This compilation brings together extensive knowledge, practical applications, and groundbreaking research findings that explore how biopolymers can help address one of the most critical environmental issues of our time: Water pollution.
The diversity and interdisciplinary nature of this field are reflected in the contributions of the distinguished authors who collaborated to present various aspects of biopolymers in water purification. Each chapter explores deeply the science and application of biopolymers, covering topics ranging from their extraction and synthesis to innovative purification techniques such as membrane filtration, adsorption processes, enzymatic treatments, and biofunctionalization.
Biopolymers offer distinct advantages in water treatment. Derived from renewable and biodegradable sources, they exhibit unique properties ideal for addressing contaminants in water, including heavy metals, pathogens, and organic pollutants. The integration of biopolymers with advanced technologies, such as nanotechnology, holds particular promise, unlocking new opportunities to enhance the efficiency, scalability, and sustainability of water purification systems.
As an academic and researcher in environmental science, I have had the privilege of witnessing firsthand the transformative potential of biopolymers in addressing global water challenges. This compilation is a testament to the innovative spirit and dedication of the scientific community, and I am confident that the insights shared within these chapters will serve as an invaluable resource for researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders working toward a more sustainable and water‐secure future.
I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to the editors, Prof. Sabu Thomas and his team, for their visionary leadership in curating this insightful and comprehensive work. I also express my gratitude to all the contributors for their dedication, perseverance, and collaborative spirit, which have made this book possible.
As we look to the future, I am optimistic that this compilation will inspire further research and innovation, driving the development of biopolymer‐based solutions that ensure clean water for generations to come.
Prof. Frank Lipnizki
Division of Chemical EngineeringDepartment of Process and LifeScience EngineeringLund University, Sweden
Preface
Welcome to this comprehensive compilation, Biopolymers for Water Purification, which delves into the fascinating realm of biopolymers as a sustainable solution to water purification challenges. This book brings together the expertise of esteemed researchers from across the globe, each contributing valuable insights into the innovative applications of biopolymers for ensuring clean and safe water for all.
From the initial extraction and synthesis of biopolymers to the development of advanced membranes and materials, this collection represents a collective effort toward a cleaner, sustainable future. The chapters are thoughtfully curated to highlight the simplicity and effectiveness of biopolymers in addressing water pollution and quality issues, offering eco‐friendly solutions aligned with global sustainability goals.
The book begins with an insightful bibliometric analysis by Dr. Fabiula D. Bastos de Sousa, exploring the application of biopolymers in water purification. This is followed by Dr. Ayse Kalemtas's work on the extraction of biopolymers from nature and their characterization, and Dr. Dileep Pal's exploration of biopolymer synthesis and characterization. Dr. Pawan Kumar emphasizes the importance of water and water quality, setting the stage for subsequent discussions.
In the realm of water purification technologies, Dr. T.P. Mohan discusses the development of microcellulose membranes, while Dr. Ming‐Guo Ma elaborates on nanocellulose and its composite membranes. Dr. Fabiula D. Bastos de Sousa further contributes by exploring lignin polymers for water treatment, and Dr. Pablo González‐Morones highlights the use of cellulosic materials and natural fibers in wastewater treatment.
The versatility of starch polymers, including their blends, interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), gels, and composite membranes, is detailed by Dr. Vania Z. Pinto, while Dr. Svetlana Jovanovic examines the potential of chitosan polymers in similar applications. Dr. Guillermo Javier Copello provides an in‐depth analysis of chitin and nanochitin polymers and their composite membranes for water purification.
Expanding the discussion on polysaccharides, Dr. Aldrin P. Bonto explores polysaccharide‐based, water‐purifying materials. Dr. Wenxiang Zhang focuses on biocatalytic membranes, and Dr. Mayyada El‐Sayed introduces biopolymer‐coated nanoparticles for water purification. Finally, Dr. Vagner R. Botaro highlights the modification of cellulose for preparing hydrogels and their role in removing metals from contaminated water.
This compilation underscores the remarkable efficacy of biopolymers in removing contaminants, heavy metals, and pathogens from water systems while maintaining minimal environmental impact. Additionally, it showcases how biopolymers can be integrated with advanced technologies such as nanotechnology, biocatalysis, and biofunctionalization, paving the way for cutting‐edge materials tailored to diverse water treatment needs.
Together, these contributions provide a comprehensive overview of the potential of biopolymers in water purification. This book serves as a valuable reference for researchers, academics, and industry professionals while inspiring sustainable solutions for clean water access.
As editors, we extend our heartfelt gratitude to all contributors for their invaluable insights, unwavering commitment, and remarkable patience throughout the creation of this book. Special thanks to Ms. Thresia Silvy John for her support during the editorial process, which greatly contributed to the successful completion of this work.
We hope this book will serve as a catalyst for innovation and collaboration, inspiring researchers and practitioners worldwide to explore the incredible potential of biopolymers in ensuring cleaner and safer water for future generations.
Prof. Dr. Sabu Thomas
(On behalf of the Editorial Team)
1A Bibliometric Analysis on the Application of Biopolymers in Water Purification
Fabiula D.B. de Sousa1,2 and Júlia R. Gouveia2
1Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Technology Development Center, Rua Gomes Carneiro, 1, Pelotas, RS, 96010‐610, Brazil
2Universidade Federal do ABC, Center of Engineering, Modeling and Applied Social Science, Avenida dos Estados, 5001, Santo André, SP, 09210‐580, Brazil
1.1 Introduction
Biopolymers are macromolecules that are biologically synthesized from living organisms [1]. Biopolymers come from animals, microbes, plants, and algae. Their abundance, low cost, expandability, and chemical structure make them promising materials for water treatment applications [2].
It is known that for the sustainable progress and development of human society in the twenty‐first century, freshwater is essential, and its scarcity has been a terrible threat [3]. So, biopolymers emerge as ideal candidates for water treatment, besides being widely used in the literature in wastewater treatment. Other applications in the field of water and wastewater treatment are the removal of heavy metals,environmental remediation, among many others.
Bibliometric analysis is a powerful tool to provide an outline and to summarize results of an issue, subject, or field based on the available literature (by using quantitative methods), including the trends, information about authors, and sources, among many others. Several research areas take advantage of this approach, proving that this analysis is relevant and interdisciplinary. Some recent examples of using bibliometric analysis are in the analysis of human–wildlife conflict [4], aerobic digestion technology [5], consumer awareness of plastics [6], plastic effects on marine and freshwater environments [7], open innovation and tourism relationship [8], and multicriteria decision making [9], among many others.
In the present work, a bibliometric analysis of the use of biopolymers in water purification was performed using Bibliometrix R‐package. The analysis was focused on the discussion of the sources, authors, affiliations, countries, publications, and keywords, mainly showing an overview of the research area.
1.2 Methodology
The Scopus search was performed on 6th December 2021 by using the keywords biopolymer* AND (water purification* OR water treatment*), and resulted initially in 2562 publications (from 1972 to 2022). All the h‐index values were calculated by Bibliometrix.
The initial result was limited to articles and reviews in English from 2002 to 2021, resulting in 2017 publications: 1802 articles and 215 reviews. The first 2000 publications were exported to a .bib file and analyzed using Bibliometrix, an R‐package.
1.3 Results
1.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis
The annual scientific production from 2002 and the subject area of the publications are shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 (a) Annual scientific production from 2002, and (b) subject area of the publications.
The results show that the area is interdisciplinary, with a predominance of publications in the environmental science area. Concerning the annual scientific production, the increase in the number of publications during the period with an annual growth rate of 19.26% can be observed. These results depict the relevance of biopolymers in the water purification research field. The discussion of results will be divided into sources, authors, affiliations, countries, publications, and keywords, which will be discussed in sequence.
1.3.1.1 Sources
The five most relevant sources concerning the number of publications are (number of publications in parenthesis). Water Research (130), Bioresource Technology (127), Journal of Applied Polymer Science (64), Carbohydrate Polymers (61), and Journal of Membrane Science (54). The dynamics of the number of publications of these most relevant sources in the last 10 years are shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Dynamics of the number of publications of the most relevant sources in last 10 years.
On the other hand, the most locally cited sources, i.e. the ones most cited from the reference lists of the 2000 analyzed publications, are (number of citations in parenthesis): Water Research (4987), Bioresource Technology (2669), Carbohydrate Polymers (2288), Environmental Science and Technology (2020), and Journal of Membrane Science (1912).
In Figure 1.2, the two most important journals in the research field of biopolymers in water purification point to an increase in the annual number of publications between 2013 and 2014, with a reduction and a tendency to stabilize by the year 2021. The other journals show greater stability regarding the annual number of publications within the analyzed period.
All the mentioned sources are relevant in the field of biopolymers for water purification. These journals are peer‐reviewed and of high quality, providing the authors the confidence to publish their works in these journals [10].
1.3.1.2 Authors, Affiliations, and Countries
The most relevant authors of the research field according to their h‐index are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Most relevant authors of the research field of biopolymers for water purification, with their number of publications and local citations.
Author
h
‐Index
Number of publications
Local citations
Zhang W.
16
28
38
Jekel M.
13
16
5
Wang J.
13
20
46
Wang Z.
13
21
14
Chang I.
11
14
8
Vigneswaran S.
11
13
4
Wang Y.
11
18
6
Zhang L.
11
21
22
Zhang Y.
11
18
15
Zhang Z.
11
17
14
In the list of the most important authors, Zhang W. is the one with the highest h‐index and number of publications. However, the author with the highest local citations is Wang J. (from the reference lists of 2000 analyzed publications). The largest number of publications of the author deals with sludge and correlated aspects. The second most important author based on Bibliometrix, Jekel M., studies the purification of wastewater by using membrane filtration and ultrafiltration. No consensus is shown in the literature about which of the measures is more effective for analyzing the importance of a certain author in a given research area (the number of publications/citations or the h‐index) [11]. An inaccurate interpretation of the measure of the author's influence may occur when the number of publications is analyzed, since in some cases the author can be at the beginning of career, whose scientific trajectory is in growth stage [12].
The most relevant affiliations according to the number of publications are (number of publications in parenthesis). Tsinghua University (40), China University of Geosciences (31), Tongji University (31), Nanyang Technological University (27), Chinese Academy of Sciences (25), and Delft University of Technology (25). Nanyang Technological University is from Singapore, Delft University of Technology is from the Netherlands, and all the others are Chinese.
The country's scientific production is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Country's scientific production.
In Figure 1.3, the chart shows the scientific production which is presented on a scale of shades of blue, in which the darkest blue in the chart represents the most productive, and gray represents the countries with no publications. Through this general overview, it can be observed that the subject is studied across the globe, given its importance, showing that this issue is an international concern [11, 13]. The most productive countries are (number of publications in parenthesis). China (854), the USA (394), India (381), Brazil (283), Italy (211), South Korea (195), Canada (171), Australia (170), Spain (165), and France (162). However, when the most cited countries are presented, the scenario changes (number of citations in parenthesis): China (12502), the USA (7574), France (6511), India (5183), Canada (3512), Malaysia (3327), Italy (2580), Korea (2535), Australia (2083), and Germany (2073), being the countries with the highest average citations per publication France (155), Serbia (109), Switzerland (89), Hong Kong (81), Malaysia (70), Greece (69), Ethiopia (69), Egypt (63), the USA (54), and Singapore (53). These results depict the importance of countries such as China, the USA, and France in the literature about biopolymers for water purification, even knowing that each country, no matter the number of publications, plays an important role in the construction of the whole literature.
The results of the most prominent countries are in accordance with the most important authors since the most relevant authors in the field of biopolymers for water purification are Chinese.
1.3.1.3 Publications
Table 1.2 brings the 10 most relevant publications (top 10) concerning the total number of local citation scores (LCS), and 10 more relevant publications according to the total number of global citation scores (GCS). LCS refers to the documents resulting from the Scopus search (the number of citations of publications in the local data set). The higher the LCS, the more important the publication about biopolymers for water purification. GCS denotes the total number of citations of publications in the Scopus database, but the cited publications may be from fields different than biopolymers for water purification. The analysis allows benchmark studies in the research field of biopolymers for water purification to be identified [31].
Table 1.2 Citation scores of the most relevant publications.
Group
Publication
GCS
LCS
Top 10 GCS
Azizi Samir et al.
[14]
1897
5
Sheng et al.
[15]
1750
40
Crini
[16]
1578
19
Wan Ngah et al.
[17]
1460
30
Kenawy et al.
[18]
1178
4
Leenheer and Croué
[19]
1008
6
Renault et al.
[20]
572
5
McSwain et al.
[21]
567
17
Wang et al.
[22]
527
1
Meng et al.
[23]
517
11
Top 10 LCS
Sheng et al.
[15]
1750
40
Hallé et al.
[24]
125
36
Tian et al.
[25]
151
32
Kimura et al.
[26]
132
30
Wan Ngah et al.
[17]
1460
30
Zheng et al.
[27]
126
24
Bala Subramanian et al.
[28]
247
21
Baghoth et al.
[29]
354
19
Haberkamp et al.
[30]
152
19
Crini
[16]
1578
19
LCS, local citation score and GCS, global citation score.
Among the 2000 analyzed publications, the most globally cited one is Azizi Samir et al. [14] with 1897 citations, and the most locally cited is Sheng et al. [15] with 40 citations. According to Farrukh et al. [32], the citation analysis provides the value of the publication.
Among the top 10 GCS publications, most of them are reviews. The subjects addressed by the authors differ greatly – Azizi Samir et al. [14] reviewed recent research into cellulosic whiskers, their properties, and their application in nanocomposite field; Sheng et al. [15] reviewed extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) of microbial aggregates in biological wastewater treatment systems; Crini [16] studied the recent developments in polysaccharide‐based materials used as adsorbents in wastewater treatment; Wan Ngah et al. [17] reviewed the adsorption of dyes and heavy metal ions by chitosan composites; Kenawy et al. [18] reviewed the chemistry and applications of antimicrobial polymers; Leenheer and Croué [19] featured the organic matter dissolved in water for the better treatment of drinking water; Renault et al. [20] reviewed chitosan for coagulation/flocculation processes; McSwain et al. [21] analyzed the composition and distribution of EPSs in aerobic flocs and granular sludge; Wang et al. [22] studied the recent advances in regenerated cellulose materials; and Meng et al. [23] reviewed the fouling in membrane bioreactors. All the themes addressed in these publications have paramount importance in the field of biopolymers for water treatment due to the high number of citations.
Concerning the top 10 LCS publications, Hallé et al. [24] studied the performance of biological filtration as pretreatment to low‐pressure membranes for drinking water; Tian et al. [25] analyzed the correlations of relevant membrane foulants with ultrafiltration membrane fouling in different waters; Kimura et al. [26] studied the microfiltration of different surface waters with/without coagulation; Zheng et al. [27] identified and quantified major organic foulants in treated domestic wastewater, which affect filterability in dead‐end ultrafiltration; Bala Subramanian et al. [28] analyzed the EPS in the production of bacterial strains of municipal wastewater sludge; Baghoth et al. [29] investigated the natural organic matter (NOM) in a drinking water treatment plant using fluorescence excitation–emission matrices and parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC); Haberkamp et al. [30] studied the impact of coagulation and adsorption on dissolved organic carbon (DOC) fractions of secondary effluent and resulting fouling behavior in ultrafiltration. All the cited publications have utmost importance in the literature regarding biopolymers for water purification, and their subject can be considered hotspots in the research field, as can be observed in the sequence. Based on the results, it seems that the literature is more focused on the use of biopolymers for wastewater treatment, and the high number of citations overall (global and local), in publications addressing membrane fouling subject, depicts its importance in the research field.
1.3.1.4 Keywords
The word cloud containing the 50 most frequently used authors' keywords is presented in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Word cloud containing the 50 most frequently authors' keywords.
Around 5057 authors' keywords are present in the 2000 analyzed publications. From this total, the most frequent are shown in the word cloud present in Figure 1.4, in which the size of the letters represents the frequency of the keyword. It can be observed that the keywords with the highest frequency are biopolymer and biopolymers, which were expected since they were keywords used in the Scopus search.
The keywords with the highest frequency (except for the keywords biopolymer, biopolymers, and extracellular polymeric substances that is not present due to its length) are as follows (frequency in parenthesis): chitosan (159), adsorption (145), membrane fouling (96), wastewater treatment (86), water treatment (67), ultrafiltration (59), coagulation (50), EPSs (47), polysaccharides (39), and heavy metals (38). According to Yunfeng et al. [33], the higher the frequency of a keyword, the more research results, and the more hotspot it reflects in a given field. So, the most frequent authors' keywords depict the hotspots of the research field of biopolymers for water purification [6].
“The deep analysis of the strongest keywords can provide a panorama of the field” [11]. In the present work, a panorama of the literature regarding the use of biopolymers for water purification is obtained. Like so, the literature appoints some processes used for water purification such as microfiltration [34, 35], ultrafiltration [36–40], adsorption [41–46], pretreatment [47, 48], flocculation [49–52], coagulation [44, 52–54], electrospinning [55–58], reverse osmosis [59–62]; different materials such as chitosan [17, 20, 42, 43, 49, 52, 63–78], cellulose [2, 38, 66, 79–85], nanoparticles [3, 36, 38, 51, 64, 69, 71, 86, 87] (both used for water purification or their presence in the environment as contaminants resulting from human activity, causing problems in drinking water purification [51]), lignin [46, 55, 58, 85, 88], starch [70, 76, 77, 84, 89–91], chitin [65, 75], alginate [64, 68, 72, 80, 92], polysaccharides [65, 75], composites [41, 45, 68, 73, 93, 94], hydrogel [78, 85, 93, 95, 96], polyhydroxyalkanoates [97–99]; revaluation of biomass [80, 87]; characterization [56, 74, 84, 100]; removal of arsenic [52, 86, 100–102]; membrane fouling [36]; among others.
The thematic map is presented in Figure 1.5. In the production of the map, the parameters used were 50 as the number of words, with a minimum cluster frequency of 10 (per 1000 documents). Based on this, the map contains 31 authors' keywords divided into 4 different clusters. The map presents the authors' keywords grouped according to the relevance and development degree of the research field. It is divided into four quadrants: (i) motor themes, (ii) basic themes, (iii) emerging or declining themes, and (iv) very specialized/niche themes [5].
Figure 1.5 Thematic map.
The clusters with the highest development degree and relevance degree, i.e. the motor themes, are the ones containing the keywords membrane fouling, ultrafiltration, and coagulation (cluster 1). However, these are only the keywords with the highest number of occurrences; all the keywords from cluster 1 are as follows (number of occurrences in parenthesis): membrane fouling (96), ultrafiltration (59), coagulation (50), EPSs (47), fouling (36), membrane bioreactor (28), NOM (28), anaerobic digestion (22), and microfiltration (21). According to Su et al. [4], these themes play a fundamental role in defining the structure of this field and have the highest degree of relevance.
The keywords present in cluster 2, which are considered niche themes are (number of occurrences in parenthesis): wastewater treatment (86), flocculation (34), activated sludge (27), and EPSs (27). This cluster presents very specialized themes in the research field of biopolymers for water treatment.
The keywords present in cluster 3, which is present in the emerging or declining quadrant, are as follows (number of occurrences in parenthesis): biopolymers (185), polysaccharides (39), biopolymers and renewable polymers (29), mechanical properties (28), and surface modification (26). Given their high relevance level and the presence of these keywords in the word cloud, these themes can be considered emerging themes. These themes require further development.
In cluster 4, i.e. the cluster present in the basic themes quadrant, the keywords contained are as follows (number of occurrences in parenthesis): biopolymer (177), chitosan (159), adsorption (145), water treatment (67), heavy metals (38), wastewater (37), cellulose (33), alginate (32), biosorption (26), and chitin (26). According to Su et al. [4], this quadrant groups transversal, general, and basic themes, which are important for a research field but are not highly developed. Once the research around these keywords is further corroborated, they may turn into motor themes [5].
The conceptual structure map of the keywords according to the multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) method and the dendrogram of hierarchical cluster analysis of the keywords are presented in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6 (a) Conceptual structure map of the keywords according to the MCA method. (b) Topic dendrogram regarding the use of biopolymers in water purification.
MCA uses measurable strategies for disentangling the complex keyword connection into few relative groups, which is based on the repetition of the coexisting rate of two keywords [103]. The compression of large data with multiple variables forms a two‐ or three‐dimensional structure and the similarity between the keywords is demonstrated by the plane distance. The proximity to the central point of the cluster shows the relevance of the keyword, and narrow themes are near the edge [7, 10].
In Figure 1.6a, two clusters can be observed: a red and a blue. The red cluster contains the keywords belonging to a central theme, while the blue the ones belonging to other themes [104]. The red one contains a higher number of keywords, and demonstrates, among others, some materials used for water purification and their applications being central themes in the research field of the use of biopolymers in water purification. The blue cluster seems to be focused on flocculation.
The keywords closer to the center point, i.e. the most popular in the literature, are in the red cluster, anaerobic digestion, water treatment, rheology, characterization, biopolymers, and surface modification. On the other hand, there are only keywords on the edge in the blue cluster, which means that all of them are narrow themes. But since the distance from keywords polysaccharide and flocculation to the center point of the cluster are similar to those of the most popular keywords in the red cluster, they can also be considered hotspots in the research field. It is important to mention that all the keywords close to the center point of a cluster are trend topics in the current literature [10]. In the red cluster, the narrow themes are kinetics, wastewater treatment, EPS, membrane bioreactor, fouling, polymers and renewable polymers, and arsenic.
Regarding the dendrogram, the association between the research areas can be obtained through its analysis [105]. In Figure 1.6b, two strands can be observed, a blue and a red, containing the keywords present in the two clusters (Figure 1.6a). Topics with the same height present a strong connection [10] and are shown in the dendrogram with the same background color. As an example, the keywords with the background gray, i.e. membrane bioreactor (mbr), polysaccharide, wastewater, and sodium alginate, have a close connection among them.
Since the dendrogram demonstrates the hierarchy of keywords, the pairs with the highest weight are those in purple, containing the keywords fouling, microfiltration, polysaccharides, and biomaterials. These keywords can also be considered hotspots in the research field, as previously observed in the word cloud.
Another interesting thing to notice is that the height of the keyword wastewater treatment is higher than the keyword water treatment. In other words, it seems that, in the literature, the use of biopolymers has more relevance for wastewater treatment, which can also be observed in the word cloud (Figure 1.4).
The factorial maps of the publications with the highest contribution and of the most cited publications from each cluster (Figure 1.6a) are shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 (a) Factorial maps of the publications with the highest contribution, and (b) the most cited publications.
According to Figure 1.7a, the publications with the highest contribution to the red cluster are Renault et al. [20], Buthelezi et al. [106], Salehizadeh et al. [107], Yamamura et al. [108], and Siembida‐Lösch et al. [109, 110]. Some authors [20, 106, 107] deal with flocculation/bioflocculation from eco‐friendly materials, and other research groups [108–110] study microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and biofiltration processes membranes.
Even if Bibliometrix did not provide results on the publications with the highest contribution to the blue cluster, by limiting the search results of Scopus it was possible to obtain the publications with the greatest contribution to the blue cluster. The publications with the highest contribution to the blue cluster, according to Scopus, are as follows: Fabris et al. [67], Kumar et al. [111], Hijnen et al. [112], Mugesh et al. [113], and Manikandan et al. [114]. Some research groups analyzed the use of biopolymers for drinking water [67, 111, 112], such as Fabris et al. [67], who evaluated the use of chitosan as a natural coagulant for drinking water treatment, Mugesh et al. [113] studied the defluoridation of water by using a bacterial cellulosic material, and Manikandan et al. [114] the emerging nanostructured innovative materials as adsorbents in wastewater treatment.
Concerning the most cited publications, all of them are part of the top 10 GCS previously shown in Table 1.2 [15–17, 20, 23]. It can be observed that the most cited publications are closer to the central point since these publications deal with the hotspot themes.
From these results, it can be observed that chitosan, an important biopolymer obtained from marine sources, is a significant material used for water purification according to the literature [42, 43, 49, 52, 63, 64, 66, 68–75, 78, 115–119], as previously observed in the word cloud results (Figure 1.4).
1.4 Conclusions
A bibliometric analysis based on the results of a Scopus search by using the keywords biopolymer* AND (water purification* OR water treatment*) was performed and the most recent 2000 publications (articles and reviews in English) from 2002 to 2021 were selected. The .bib document generated was analyzed by Bibliometrix R‐package. The analysis provided a general overview of the literature about biopolymers for water purification.
The research field is interdisciplinary, with an annual growth rate in publications of 19.26%. Water Research is the most locally cited journal, with the highest number of publications as well. Concerning the most prominent authors, Zhang W. is the one with the highest h‐index and the highest number of publications, and Wang J. is the author with the highest local citation. China is the frontrunner country, and some of the most relevant affiliations are Chinese. Azizi Samir et al. [14] is the top GCS publication, whereas Sheng et al. [15] is the top LCS publication.
Regarding the analysis of the authors' keywords, the ones more frequently used are chitosan, adsorption, and membrane fouling. Keywords with high relevance are membrane fouling, ultrafiltration, and coagulation. Some very specialized themes in the field are water treatment, flocculation, and activated sludge, whereas some popular themes are anaerobic digestion, water treatment, rheology, characterization, and surface modification. The analysis is important since it may provide a panorama of the research field of the use of biopolymers for water purification.
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