Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications, 2 Volumes E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1771

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Revolutionize the search for sustainable industry with these biodegradable materials

The search for biodegradable materials has become an increasingly essential component of the global response to climate change and the urgent need for more sustainable industrial processes. Biodegradable polymers, either synthetic or natural, have become an explosive research subject as their applications in food, medicinal, and pharmaceutical industries become more and more apparent. There is an urgent need for chemists and other professionals working in these industries to understand the range of available biopolymers and how to use them.

Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications presents an overview of all currently-known food-safe polymers and their applications for food and pharmaceutical technology. Its grasp of recent sustainable trends in biopolymer production and distribution make it a one-stop shop for researchers and industry professionals looking to understand the future of sustainable food production, pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications. Comprehensive and accessible, it has never been timelier as a contribution to these key industries.

Readers of the two volumes of Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications will also find:

• Treatment of biopolymers including collagen, chitosan, carrageenan, and more
• Detailed discussion of drug delivery systems incorporating plant- and animal-based biopolymers
• An editor with extensive research and teaching experience in biopolymer and pharmaceutical research

Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications is ideal for polymer chemists, pharmaceutical chemists, food scientists, and any other researcher looking to work with biodegradable polymers.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Volume 1

Preface

Part I: Food Applications

1 Starch in Food Applications

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Natural Starch

1.3 Modified Starch

1.4 Conclusion

References

2 Marine Collagen and its Application in Food and Nutraceutical Products

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Marine Source of Collagen

2.3 Structure of Marine Collagen

2.4 Extraction of Marine Collagen

2.5 Characteristics of Marine Collagen

2.6 Application of Marine Collagen in Food Products

2.7 Application of Marine Collagen in Nutraceutical Products

2.8 Conclusion

References

3 Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites and their Applications in Food Packaging

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Antimicrobial Mechanism of Chitosan

3.3 Nanotechnological Innovations in Food Packaging

3.4 Bionanocomposites

3.5 Conclusion

References

4 Application of Polylactic Acid (PLA) in Food Packaging

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)

4.3 PLA Synthesis

4.4 Properties of PLA

4.5 Applications of PLA

4.6 Degradation of PLA

4.7 PLA-Based Composites

4.8 Conclusion

References

5 Sericin as Food Additive

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Sericin Structure

5.3 Sericin Biochemistry

5.4 Types of Sericin

5.5 Properties of Sericin

5.6 Extraction of Sericin

5.7 Sericin as a Food Additive

5.8 Other Functions of Sericin

5.9 Conclusion

References

6 Pectin-Based Food Packaging Film

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Structure of Pectin

6.3 Pectin Extraction Methods

6.4 Important Modifications in Pectin Structure

6.5 Applications of Pectin

6.6 Food Packaging Applications

6.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgment

References

7 Alginate Application in Foods and Feeds

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Alginate for Foods

7.3 Alginate for Feeds

7.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Authors’ Contributorship

References

8 Biopolymer Films for the Preservation and Stability Improvement of Food Products

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Polysaccharide-Based Films

8.3 Protein-Based Films

8.4 Lipid-Based Films

8.5 Applications of Biopolymer Films in Food Products

8.6 Conclusion

References

9 Agar for Biodegradable Plastics Packaging

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Edible Films and Bioplastics

9.3 Agar

9.4 Plasticizer and Other Supporting Materials

9.5 Agar-Based Edible Film Packaging

9.6 Developments for Agar-Based Bioplastics

9.7 Equipment Used for Agar Bioplastic Production

9.8 Conclusion

References

10 Carrageenan for Industrial Food Processing and Preservation

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Production

10.3 Structure

10.4 Properties

10.5 Rheological Properties

10.6 Applications of Carrageenan in Enzyme Immobilization

10.7 Applications of Carrageenan in Whole-cell Immobilization

10.8 Food Applications

10.9 Other Food Applications

10.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

11 Inulin as a Prebiotic Agent in Human Nutrition and Healthcare

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Biochemistry and Metabolism

11.3 Significance as a Functional Food

11.4 Relevance of Inulin on Human Health

11.5 Applications in the Food Industry

11.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

12 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) as a Sustainable Bioplastic in Food and Non-food Applications

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Properties of PHB

12.3 Limitations of PHB and Strategies to Overcome Them

12.4 Production Aspects

12.5 Methods of PHB Extraction

12.6 Food and Non-food Application of PHBs and their Composites

12.7 Biocompatibility, Toxicity, and Regulatory Concerns

12.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

13 Plant-Based Biopolymers in Food Industry: Sources, Extraction Methods, and Applications

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Source, Chemical Composition/Structure of the Natural Biopolymers

13.3 Methods of Plant Biopolymer Extraction

13.4 Application of Natural Biopolymer in Food Processing

13.5 Future Prospects and Conclusion

References

14 Bamboo Fiber Applications for Food and Feed

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Nutritional Aspects of Bamboo

14.3 Food Applications

14.4 Feed Applications

14.5 Future Trends

Acknowledgments

References

15 Gum Exudates from Rosaceae Tree Species: Functional Properties and Food Applications

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Chemical Structure and Physicochemical Characteristics

15.3 Applications of Rosaceae Gums in Food Industry

15.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends

References

16 Polyphenols for Pharmacological Applications

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Pharmacological Properties of PPs

16.3 Conclusion

References

Part II: Pharmaceutical Applications

17 Recent Innovations Using Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives-Based Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Pulmonary Diseases

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Extraction of Chitin

17.3 Drug Delivery-Based Physiological Properties of Chitosan

17.4 Factors Affecting Chitosan Properties

17.5 Chitosan Derivatives

17.6 Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives-Based Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Pulmonary Diseases

17.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

18 Alginate-Based Carriers for Oral Drug Delivery Applications

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Alginate

18.3 Alginate Microspheres

18.4 Alginate Nanoparticles

18.5 Oral Drug Delivery Applications

18.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

19 Fucoidan-Based Hydrogels in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Source, Structure, and Physicochemical Properties of Fucoidan

19.3 Therapeutic Applications of Fucoidan

19.4 Drug Delivery Approaches Using Fucoidan

19.5 Hydrogels

19.6 Fucoidan Hydrogels: Applications in Pharmaceuticals, Biomedicine and Cosmetics

19.7

In Vitro

and

In Vivo

and Preliminary Reports

19.8 Clinical Studies and Patents

19.9 Conclusion

References

20 Biopolymers for Vaginal Delivery

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Biopolymers as Drug Delivery Carriers

20.3 Role of Different Biopolymers in Vaginal Drug Delivery

20.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Volume 2

21 Use of Dextran in Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Compositions

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Dextran

21.3 Use of Dextran and Dextran Derivatives in Pharmaceuticals

21.4 Dextran in Cosmetic Formulations

21.5 Side Effects of Dextran

21.6 Conclusion and Outlook

References

22 Pectin-Based Biocomposite Materials for Biomedical and Cosmetic Applications

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Brief Overview of Pectin

22.3 Properties of Pectin

22.4 Pectin-Based Biocomposite Materials

22.5 Sources and Classification of Pectin

22.6 Biomedical Applications of Pectin-Based Biocomposite Materials

22.7 Biomedical Applications of Pectin

22.8 Cosmetic Applications of Pectin

22.9 Conclusion

References

23 Recent Progress in PLA-Based Composite and their Application to Biomedical and Cosmetic Fields

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Structure and Synthesis of PLA

23.3 Biocompatibility of PLA

23.4 Properties of PLA

23.5 Biodegradation Mechanism of PLA and PLA-Based Composites

23.6 Biomedical Application of PLA-Based Composite Materials

23.7 PLA-Based Polymeric Materials Used in Cancer Therapy

23.8 PLA-Based Material Used in Drug Delivery Systems

23.9 PLA Used as Implant Materials

23.10 Cosmetic Packaging Application of PLA-Based Materials

23.11 Future Prospective and Conclusion

References

24 Drug Delivery Systems Based on Xanthan

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Chemical and Secondary Structure of Xan

24.3 Properties of Xan

24.4 Drug Delivery Systems Based on Xan

24.5 Xan Derivatives as Drug Delivery Systems

24.6 Conclusion and Perspectives

References

25 Drug Delivery Systems Based on Proteins and Peptides

25.1 Introduction

25.2 General Notions on Proteins

25.3 Drug Delivery Systems Based on Proteins

25.4 Proteins and Peptides as Ligands in Active Drug Targeting

25.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

26 Carrageenan Hydrogel for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Source, Type and Chemical Structure of Carrageenan

26.3 Gelation Mechanism of Carrageenan

26.4 Physicochemical Properties of Carrageenan of Interest for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

26.5 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications of Carrageenan

26.6 Carrageenan as Encapsulating Agent for Fertilizer

26.7 Carrageenan as Stabilizer and for Controlling Release and Retention

26.8 Biological and Toxicological Properties

26.9 Economic and Future Perspectives

26.10 Conclusion

References

27 Gellan-Based Delivery Systems for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Properties of Gellan Gum

27.3 Derivatives of Gellan Gum

27.4 Applications

27.5 Patents on Gellan Gum-Based Drug Delivery Systems

27.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

28 Pharmaceutical, Therapeutic, and Cosmetic Applications of Sericin

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Structure, Sources, and Separation Methods of Sericin

28.3 Physiochemical and Biological Properties of Sericin

28.4 Sericin as Therapeutic Protein

28.5 Sericin in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

28.6 Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials of Sericin

28.7 Sericin in Cosmetics

28.8 Clinical Trials and Patents

28.9 Global Market for Sericin, Outlook, and Conclusion

References

29 Natural Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Different Types of Polysaccharides-Based Polymers for Tissue Engineering

29.3 Different Types of Protein-Based Polymers for Tissue Engineering

29.4 Future Perspective and Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

30 Biopolymers for Enzyme Immobilization

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Selection of Biopolymers for Enzyme Immobilization

30.3 Biopolymers Used for Enzyme Immobilization

30.4 Conventional Methods for Enzyme Immobilization

30.5 Novel Techniques for Enzyme Immobilization

30.6 Applications of Immobilized Enzymes

30.7 Conclusion

References

Note

31 Cellulose for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Cellulosic Biomedical Material’s Biological Properties: Biocompatibility and Toxicology

31.3 Applications of Cellulose in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Field

31.4 Challenges and Future Prospects

References

32 Lignin in Pharmaceutical and Allied Applications

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Lignin for Pharmaceutical Applications

32.3 Lignin as a Bioactive Agent in Cosmetics

32.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

33 The Use of Natural Polysaccharides in Spray-dried Microparticles for Pulmonary Drug Delivery

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Chitosan-based Spray-dried Inhalable Microparticles

33.3 HA-based Spray-dried Inhalable Microparticles

33.4 CMC-Based Spray-dried Inhalable Microparticles

33.5 Pullulan-based Spray-dried Inhalable Microparticles

33.6 Conclusion

References

34 Use of Agarose for the Extraction of Pharmaceutical Compounds

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Fundamental Principles of Liquid-Phase Extraction

34.3 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Modified starches by the process of HMT and their uses in food app...

Table 1.2 Modified starches by the process of annealing and their uses in fo...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Collagen content of the waste of several types of fish.

Table 2.2 Yield of marine collagens produced by AcOH extraction.

Table 2.3 Process condition and the yield of marine collagens produced by en...

Table 2.4 Yield of marine collagens produced by new method or combination of...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Antibacterial activity with diameter of zone of inhibition exhibit...

Table 3.2 Chitosan-based nanocomposites and its properties.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Sericin application.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Some recent reports on pectin-based bioactive various active packa...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Polysaccharide biopolymer.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Overview of applications of enzymes immobilized in carrageenan.

Table 10.2 Overview of applications of whole-cell systems immobilized in car...

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Sources, origin, and content of inulin.

Table 11.2 Applications of inulin in food industries.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Comparison of PHB and PP physical properties.

Table 12.2 Mechanical and physical properties of PHB and PP.

Table 12.3 Modification in PHB property by copolymerization.

Table 12.4 Bio-extraction methods for PHB.

Table 12.5 Advantages and disadvantages of PHB extraction methods.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Sources, chemical structure/polysaccharide composition of natural...

Table 13.2 List of extracted natural biopolymers by using different extracti...

Table 13.3 Application of natural biopolymers in food processing.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Papers available on Google Academic on 28 April 2021.

Table 14.2 Physicochemical composition (g.100 g

−1

) of young bamboo cul...

Table 14.3 Potential application of bamboo in animal feed.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Composition of Rosaceae gums.

Table 15.2 Monosaccharide content (%) of Rosaceae gums.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Classification and sources of polyphenolic compounds.

Table 16.2 Experimental and clinical studies evaluating the effect of silyma...

Table 16.3 Antibacterial activities of polyphenols against foodborne pathoge...

Table 16.4 Phenolic compounds’ pharmacological profile against cancer cell l...

Table 16.5 Morin anticarcinogenic effects and mechanisms of action.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Various modifications of chitosan and their pharmacodynamics acti...

Table 17.2 Patent technologies using chitosan and its derivatives.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Biopolymer based vaginal formulations.

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Linkage pattern of various classes of dextrans.

Table 21.2 Dextran conjugates used in medicine.

Chapter 22

Table 22.1 Percentage of pectin in different fruits.

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Properties of PLA and its value.

Table 23.2 Commercially used medical devices made of PLA-based materials in ...

Table 23.3 Study of different scaffolds applicable to various bone tissue en...

Chapter 24

Table 24.1 Miscellaneous formulations based on Xan.

Table 24.2 Miscellaneous Xan derivatives.

Chapter 25

Table 25.1 Examples of animal proteins and their chemical structure.

Table 25.2 Characteristics of different plant proteins.

Chapter 27

Table 27.1 Structure and composition of gellan gum.

Table 27.2 Gellan-based drug delivery systems.

Table 27.3 Patents on gellan gum-based drug delivery systems.

Chapter 28

Table 28.1 Different properties of sericin observed during different extract...

Table 28.2 Patents of sericin’s formulations.

Chapter 29

Table 29.1 Different types of polysaccharides-based polymers with its struct...

Table 29.2 Different types of protein-based polymers with its structures, or...

Chapter 30

Table 30.1 Classification of biopolymers.

Table 30.2 List of immobilized enzymes on various support materials for inte...

Table 30.3 Enzyme immobilization using various biopolymer supports and its a...

Chapter 31

Table 31.1 Toxicological testing of cellulosic substances for biomedical use...

Table 31.2 Hydrogel systems constructed by cellulose or its derivative as ph...

Table 31.3 Studies about the cellulose-based aerogels as pharmaceutical carr...

Table 31.4 Examples of recent CNF-based materials as pharmaceutical carriers...

Chapter 32

Table 32.1 Examples of antibacterial activity of lignin.

Table 32.2 Examples of antiviral activity of lignin.

Table 32.3 Other pharmaceutical applications of lignin.

Table 32.4 Cosmetic applications of various types of lignin obtained from di...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Modification of native starches.

Figure 1.2 Various types of chemical modifications.

Figure 1.3 Effect of various enzymatic modifications on the properties of na...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Collagen extraction methods.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Digital images of fish gelatin films incorporated with chitosan n...

Figure 3.2 Represents the appearance of sliced cherry tomatoes from Day 0 to...

Figure 3.3 Antibacterial activity of polyurethane/chitosan/zinc oxide nanopa...

Figure 3.4 Represents the interaction of chitosan matrix with silver nanopar...

Figure 3.5 Represents the red grapes wrapped in films based on chitosan, gel...

Figure 3.6 (A) Schematic of the protection of food from microbial infection ...

Figure 3.7 Digital images of developed films: chitosan film (Chs), chitosan/...

Figure 3.8 Antioxidant activity analysis of developed films [chitosan films ...

Figure 3.9 Preparation of ginger nanofiber/chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol

-

based ...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Lifecycle of biopolymer polylactic acid.

Figure 4.2 Different routes of production of polylactic acid.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Structure of sericin.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Plant cell wall structure showing pectin along with other compone...

Figure 6.2 Schematic structure of pectin showing four pectic polysaccharides...

Figure 6.3 A schematic illustration of cheese packaging using pectin-based b...

Figure 6.4 Copaiba oil nanoemulsions-incorporated pectin-based active packag...

Figure 6.5 Fabrication of pectin/agar-based functional, active packaging com...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Main brown seaweed-producing alginate from Indonesian waters

Sarg

...

Figure 7.2 Some applications of the alginate for foods and feeds.

Figure 7.3 Some of alginate-enriched functional beverages developed by Resea...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Different types of bio-films used in food industry- in a broader ...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1

Gracilaria

sp.

Figure 9.2 Chemical structure of agar: (a) agarose and (b) agaropectin.

Figure 9.3 Pellets of thermoplastic agar.

Figure 9.4 Film packaging from bioplastic agar.

Figure 9.5 (a) Twin screw, (b) co-rotating twin screw extruder, and (c) belt...

Figure 9.6 Agar-based bioplastic bowls.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Structure of various carrageenans.

Figure 10.2 Gelation mechanism of carrageenan.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Structure of inulin.

Figure 11.2 Relevance of inulin in human health.

Figure 11.3 Functional and metabolic effects of inulin on human health.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of degradable or nondegradable bioplast...

Figure 12.2 Schematic of classification of the biodegradable polymers.

Figure 12.3 Schematic of biopolymers production from diverse bioresources an...

Figure 12.4 Schematic of PHB biosynthetic pathway.

Figure 12.5 Schematic of PHB synthesis in

Ralstonia eutropha

.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Microwave-assisted extraction of biopolymer from plant sources....

Figure 13.2 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction of biopolymer from plant sources....

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Bamboo shoot as ingredient in different types of foods.

Figure 14.2 Panda eating bamboo shoots (a),

Phyllostachys edulis bicolor

(b)...

Figure 14.3 Cookies containing young bamboo culm flour with up to 50% sugar ...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Functional properties of Rosaceae gum exudates.

Figure 15.2 Schematic representation of emulsion stabilization by Rosaceae g...

Figure 15.3 Schematic representation of flow behavior and texture modificati...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Sources of chitosan.

Figure 17.2 Extraction of chitosan.

Figure 17.3 Properties of chitosan.

Figure 17.4 Modifications of chitosan.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Properties of alginate make it suitable for drug delivery applic...

Figure 18.2 Representative structure of ALG (a) chemical blocks (b) block di...

Figure 18.3 Schematic representation of egg box structure.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Therapeutic properties of fucoidan.

Figure 19.2 Classifications of hydrogels.

Figure 19.3 Applications of fucoidan in pharmaceutics.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Origin of biopolymers for vaginal delivery.

Figure 20.2 Advantages of biopolymers.

Figure 20.3 Various dosage forms of vaginal administration.

Figure 20.4 Examples of biopolymers used in vaginal delivery.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Chemical structure of dextran.

Figure 21.2 Diethyl aminoethyl dextran (DEAE) used as a protein stabilizer....

Figure 21.3 Dextran in blood sample analysis.

Figure 21.4 Dextran benzylamide sulfonate/sulfates in plasma treatment.

Figure 21.5 Sodium salt of the carboxymethyl ether of dextran used in cosmet...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Global use of pectin.

Figure 22.2 Structure of pectin.

Figure 22.3 Classification of pectin.

Figure 22.4 Liposome-coated pectin and its stability.

Chapter 23

Scheme 23.1 Chemical structure of PLA.

Scheme 23.2 Ring-opening polymerization of lactide.

Figure 23.1 Life cycle of PLA.

Figure 23.2 Different steps of the mechanism of enzymatic degradation.

Figure 23.3 Different biomedical application of PLA and PLA-based composites...

Figure 23.4 Different stages of wound healing.

Figure 23.5 Dental applications of PLGA.

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Chemical structure of xanthan repeating unit.

Figure 24.2 (a) Effect of calcium sulfate on bioadhesion of buccal discs, (b...

Figure 24.3 Percentage drug released from a formulation containing 1/1 Xan/E...

Figure 24.4 Plasma theophylline concentration versus time.

Scheme 24.1 Various types of grafting techniques.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 The structural organization of proteins.

Figure 25.2 Schematic representation of the cross-linked micelles.

Figure 25.3 Schematic representation of the self-assembly process.

Figure 25.4 Experimental design to evaluate the self-assembly of Enterovirus...

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 Chemical structure of kappa-carrageenan.

Figure 26.2 Chemical structure of iota-carrageenan.

Figure 26.3 Chemical structure of Lambda-carrageenan.

Figure 26.4 Cation of salt-mediated gelation of carrageenan.

Figure 26.5 Thermal gelation mechanism of carrageenan hydrogel.

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1 Structure of gellan gum.

Figure 27.2 Models for gelation of gellan proposed by (a) Robinson et al. (1...

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 Extraction process of sericin.

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 Schematic representation for the preparation of PVA/CTS/silk hyb...

Figure 29.2 Schematic representation for the fabrication of citric acid-modi...

Figure 29.3 Confocal microscopic (c, d) and scanning electron microscopic im...

Figure 29.4 Schematic representation of fibrinogen molecule (a) and fibrin (...

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Characteristic features for selection of biopolymers for enzyme ...

Figure 30.2 Methods for enzyme immobilization.

Scheme 30.1 The chemical reaction for the determination of glucose in urine....

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Preparation of cellulose-based hydrogels.

Figure 31.2 An EOP osmotic system is depicted in this diagram.

Chapter 32

Figure 32.1 Representative lignin structure and common linkages in lignin [3...

Figure 32.2 Structure relationship of lignin as antimicrobial agent. Example...

Figure 32.3 Mechanism of adsorption of ibuprofen and acetaminophen on chitin...

Figure 32.4 SEM image of CEL-NP extracted from rice husk.

Figure 32.5 Schematic representation of the extraction of lignin from furfur...

Figure 32.6 Diagrammatic representation of kraft lignin nanoparticles and Ca...

Figure 32.7 Schematic representation of the steps involved in the extraction...

Figure 32.8 Diagrammatic representation of the formation of hollow and solid...

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1 Representative chitosan spray-dried microparticles acetic acid t...

Figure 33.2 Representative HA-based spray-dried microparticles (loaded with ...

Figure 33.3 HA spray-dried microparticle with controllable pore size by poly...

Figure 33.4 Representative CMC-based spray-dried microparticles (loaded with...

Figure 33.5 Representative pullulan-based spray-dried microparticles. 40P 60...

Chapter 34

Figure 34.1 Scheme of the main polymeric membranes used to date for the extr...

Figure 34.2 Scheme of a liquid-phase microextraction configuration in three ...

Figure 34.3 Scheme of an electromembrane extraction in a configuration in th...

Figure 34.4 (a) Agarose membrane implemented in a microfluidic device based ...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications

Volume 1

Edited by Sougata Jana

Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications

Volume 2

Edited by Sougata Jana

The Editor

Dr. Sougata JanaDepartment of Health and FamilyWelfareDirectorate of Health ServicesKolkataIndia

Cover Image: © Pgiam/Getty Images, © Rattiya Thongdumhyu/Shutterstock

All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2025 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-84909-3ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-84812-6ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-84811-9oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-84813-3

The Editor

Dr. Sougata JanaDepartment of Health and FamilyWelfareDirectorate of Health ServicesKolkataIndia

Cover Image: © Pgiam/Getty Images, © Rattiya Thongdumhyu/Shutterstock

All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2025 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-35435-1ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-84812-6ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-84811-9oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-84813-3

Preface

Biopolymers in Pharmaceutical and Food Applications is a new reference book on industrially important, or potentially important, biopolymers, their process technology, and applications. The individual biopolymers focus on major application areas of biopolymers in pharmaceutical, biomedical engineering, and food technology applications.

The reference book is composed of Volume 1 and Volume 2.

This reference book explores the various aspects of biopolymers in pharmaceutical and food applications. This book focuses on current research trends on important biopolymers and biopolymer-based formulations in drug delivery and biomedical applications. This book comprehensively summarizes fabrication technology, characterization, drug delivery, cosmetics, and food technology applications.

The book is an important resource for academics, pharmaceutical, material science, chemical science, life science, and biotechnology scientists, as well as food technologists, who are working in the field of polymers/materials for drug delivery and food science, in addition to medical and other health care professionals in these fields.

We acknowledge that this book would not have been possible without the support and contributions of all the authors and their respective teams.

Finally, the editor would also like to acknowledge the very efficient and friendly staff at Wiley, Dr. Sakeena Quraishi, who provided support from the start to the end of the entire production process.

Dr. Sougata Jana

Department of Health and Family WelfareDirectorate of Health ServicesKolkata, West BengalIndia

Part IFood Applications

1Starch in Food Applications

Amit Paul1, Victor Roychowdhury1, and Santanu Ghosh2

1JIS University, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, 81, Nilganj Road, Agarpara, Kolkata 700109, West Bengal, India

2Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India

1.1 Introduction

Starch is a branched homopolysaccharide consisting of D-glucose units as its building blocks. Moreover, starch consists of two polyglucans: amylose and amylopectin. In amylose, D-glucose units are connected to each other by α-1, 4 glycosidic linkages, while amylopectin is a highly branched polymer of D-glucose comprising α-1, 4 glycosidic linkages at the linear chains and α-1, 6 glycosidic linkages at the branching points [1, p. 7011]. Generally, starches constitute 20–30% amylose and 70–80% amylopectin in their structure. The branched chain length varies depending on the type of starch. The structural components of starch, i.e. amylose and amylopectin, are deposited in distinct granules in amyloplasts of plants’ storage organs. These granules could be of various sizes and forms, like it could be disk or spherical, as in case of Triticeae family’s starch granules [2, pp. 1003–1017]. According to their size, starch granules are categorized as A, B, and C type.

Starch-based foods are an abundant source of energy and are frequently used as the main diet by people all over the communities due to their widespread availability and low cost [3, pp. 513–523]. Starch is widely used in food industries not only due to its nutritional values [4, p. e0228624] but also to manage the homogeneity, stability, and texture of foods. Moreover, it is used to prevent gel disintegration during processing and to enhance the shelf life of foods [5, pp. 1–26]. Despite of its wide use in food-manufacturing sectors, it showed its promise in diverse fields like health and medicine, textiles, paper, fine chemicals, petroleum engineering, agriculture, and construction engineering [6, p. 13]. Pure starch is a white, tasteless, and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. Starch can be obtained from various sources like roots, tubers, and seeds of plant. Most readily available starches are now derived from tapioca, potatoes, maize, rice, wheat, and other sources [7]. It is estimated that by 2026, the global starch market will reach 160.3 million metric tons. It is due to the rapid development of the food processing industries, along with the increasing demand for starch-based adhesives in commercial settings.

Native form of starch is rarely used in food industries due to its poor cold-water solubility, susceptibility to freeze-thawing, shear pressure, pH change, and proneness to retrogradation, demanding structural modification to overcome these limitations. Modification techniques can significantly improve the properties of native starch by improving its physicochemical attributes and structural aspects, as well as increasing its technical value [8]. Such modifications are generally done by enzymatic, physical, or chemical means. Physical modifications (ultra-high-pressure treatment, heat-moisture treatment [HMT], and freezing) are comparably simple and cost-effective than chemical modifications (esterification, acid treatment, etherification, and cross-linking) used to introduce desired functional groups into the native structure of starch molecules [9, pp. 299–312]. Nowadays, considering more greener approach, enzymatic modification techniques have been employed as an alternative to physical and chemical approaches as they are more eco-friendly and healthier than other techniques [10, pp. 278–321]. In the baking sector of food industries, enzymatic modification has a significant impact, as enzymes could react with carbohydrates to render more desirable derivatives [9, pp. 299–312]. Oxidoreductases, like lipoxygenase and glucose oxidase, and hydrolases like, amylases and proteases, are the most common enzymes employed in bakeries. Therefore, in the present chapter, we discussed about the native starch, different modifications of starches, and their applications in the food industries.

1.2 Natural Starch

Being a calorie-rich food component, starch is used around the globe. Moreover, it offers organoleptic properties by aiding the crispness when used as an ingredient in food products. Broadly starch could be used in its two forms i.e. native and modified form. Native starch could be obtained from abundant natural resources, while modified form is achieved through different modification techniques to meet industrial requirements, which are discussed later in this chapter. The characteristics of the native starch largely depend on the source from where it is extracted. The demand for native starch obtained from natural sources is high due to its easy availability and low production cost. Here, we discussed about some commonly used natural starches, i.e. corn, potato, wheat, and tapioca starch [11, pp. 103–165].

1.2.1 Corn Starch

Corn starch is also commonly known as maize starch. It is observed that around 80% of the world’s commercial production of starch is corn or maize starch. This is the most abundantly used starch. Corn or maize starch is isolated from corn kernels. The kernel itself contains about 64% to 80% starch. The isolation of starch from the kernels is done by the wet-milling process. Corn starches are used in various products and have a wide range of applications not only in food industries but also in several other sectors. In corn starch, the protein content is about 0.35%, lipid content is about 0.8%, very less little of ash is present, and two polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin are present in large amounts (about >98%). All natural starches are found in the form of granules that are insoluble in water at room temperature. It is also observed that natural starch granules obtained vary in size and shape. The size of the starch granules varies from 2 to 30 μm [12, pp. 537–549]. Corn starch is commonly found as a white, tasteless, and odorless powder. Corn starch finds its application in papermaking, food processing, manufacturing of industrial adhesives, and as a lubricant in surgical gloves. It is also used as a component in many cosmetics and oral pharmaceutical products [13, pp. 11–14].

The granular nature of corn starch and the partially crystalline nature of their granules are important. These nature of the corn starch helps in many ways. This nature of the starch granules makes them useful for physical and chemical modifications. It is seen that when corn starch granules are added to aqueous systems, they readily absorb water and become hydrated. If the temperature of the aqueous system, in which the hydrated granules are immersed is increased, significant changes could be observed. The water of hydration first disrupts the hydrogen bonds in the amorphous regions of the granules. This results in swelling of the granules, which ultimately changes their shape and makes them more of a spherical one. If the temperature is continuously increased, it will lead to increased hydration and swelling in the amorphous regions [12, pp. 537–549]. The irreversible disruption of amorphous and crystalline structures in the starch granules is called gelatinization. Some dissolved starch polysaccharide molecules, primarily amylase, leaches from the swollen granules during gelatinization.

A process called pasting is achieved by heating starch granules with some shear in excess water. This process leads to further granule swelling, leaching of polymer molecules (mainly amylose), and granule disruption (since swollen granules are fragile). This results in a hot starch paste. Again, cooling the hot paste results in the formation of a gel [12, pp. 537–549]. It should be noted that inhalation of corn starch can cause lung damage [14, pp. 767–769]. A substitute for talcum powder that contains corn starch powder was found to result in severe pneumonitis among infants [15, pp. 108–110].

1.2.2 Potato Starch

Potato starch comprises 70–85% of the dry matter, providing food and energy for a considerable portion of the world’s population. However, potato starch also has a number of useful applications outside of food and nutrition [16, pp. 2588–2612]. Essentially, potato starch is made up of two α-(1,4)-D-glucose monomers: amylose, a polymer with an extremely shallow branching, and amylopectin, a polymer with a very steep branching. Along with polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and minerals are the other components of potato starch [17, pp. 979–988].

Potato starch and its derivatives have properties, such as low temperature of gelatinization and a high sticky consistency. Potato starch is commonly used in the food industries because of its excellent clarity and neutral flavor. Potato starch also finds its importance in the paper and textile industries. The large granule size of potato starch is preferred as a precoat on filters [18, pp. 511–539]. Potato starch is effectively used in puddings. When cold milk is added to the starch, it quickly dissolves and forms a gel. Potato starch is also used as a thickening agent for pie fillings in food industries. It is also finding its application in jelly type candies. It is also used in the body of caramels and marshmallows. In chewing gum and candy gum, potato starch is used as a dusting agent. Starch is mixed with powdered sugar to exert its effect.

1.2.3 Wheat Starch

Wheat is one of the major cereal crops grown all over the world throughout the year. In wheat grain, starch content is 65–70%. Wheat starch is found as a semi-crystalline granule. These starch granules vary in size and shape [19, pp. 954–967]. Two types of polymers, amylase (a linear molecule of α-1,4-linked glucans) and amylopectin (branching with additional α-1,6-linkages) constitute these starch granules. Amylase constitutes 25–30% of the starch, while amylopectin constitutes 70–75% [20, pp. 989–998]. Wheat starch shares some common rheological properties with corn starch. While, the gel strength and viscosity of wheat starch are not as high as those of corn starch. The application of wheat starch in food industries lies in baking. Wheat starch is often found to replace wheat flour. It increases the volume and makes the cake tender.

1.2.4 Tapioca Starch

The native starch of tapioca forms a clear and cohesive paste when cooked. The above mentioned properties of this starch limit its use in food-manufacturing industries. The texture of the tapioca starch is also found to be undesirable. Although the bland flavor of this starch attracts several food manufacturers, it is used in pastry fillings, baby food products, and flavored puddings. This starch finds its value when some modifications are made to remove the problems associated with its texture. The modified version of tapioca starch attracts some food manufacturers and is used in pie fillings [21].

1.3 Modified Starch

Starch in its native form has been extensively used by food industries for a long time. However, due to its physicochemical properties like low thermal stability, its susceptibility to retrogradation limits its application in certain types of food processing. To overcome these limitations, starch used to be modified by physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods (Figure 1.1). This section discusses about these individual processes of modification.

Figure 1.1 Modification of native starches.

1.3.1 Physical Modification

Physical alterations of starches are those that result in changes in their properties that are influenced only by physical treatments. These modifications are considered as they are simple, cost effective, and environmentally friendly. Moreover, devoid of using any chemical substances for the modification purpose renders its wide acceptability to produce modified starch indicated for food industries application than the chemical modification techniques. Natural starches are subjected to a variety of conditions like combinations of temperature and moisture, shear pressure, irradiation, and mechanical attrition, to improve their physicochemical behavior and keep/change their molecular integrity. Physical modifications are of several types, i.e. pre-gelatinization, hydrothermal processing (e.g. annealing [ANN] and HMT), and nonthermal alterations (e.g. pulse electric field [PEF], micronization, high-pressure processing (HPP), and ultrasonication) [22, pp. 2691–2705].

1.3.1.1 Pregelatinized Starch

Pregelatinization is one of the most commonly used techniques for the physical modification of starch. This process results in pregelatinized starch or instant starch, through precooking and drying using a drum, which enables the stable suspension to disperse in cold water. These pregelatinized starches are used as a thickening agent in food industries. The drum drying process is extensively used at the industrial level. The products with different textures and porosities can be generated through the process of drum drying. This type of starch is generated from arrowroot, corn, wheat flour, and potatoes and is highly digestible. Pregelatinized starch is a precooked, dried powder, and it has applications in a variety of fields. It comes in flake and powder forms, allowing for the development of viscosity in goods. Products containing this kind of starch include infant meals, soups, and baked items. Starch, on the other hand, is used as an excipient in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Water is easily absorbed by pregelatinized starch, which facilitates digestion. Pregelatinized starch is employed in a variety of sectors, including beverages, dairy, and bread, which increases its market demand. Pregelatinized starches are cold-water soluble and can create a cold-water paste that can be used in a variety of compounds for thickening or water retention that do not need heating, such as puddings, instant milk mixes, and breakfast dishes, as well as an extender in the meat sector and fruit pie fillings since they can boost scent retention [23, pp. 223–269].

1.3.1.2 Hydrothermal Techniques

1.3.1.2.1 Heat-Moisture Treatment (HMT)

HMT is one of the most widely used hydrothermal techniques employed to modify the native starch. In this method 80–140 °C temperature is used in combination with 10–35% moisture for a predetermined period, ranging from 15 min to 16 h. The temperature used for this purpose is below the gelatinization temperature but above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the starch. Depending on the process variables and the source of native starch, this technique of physical modifications offers varying results [23, pp. 223–269]. Like, Gunaratne and Hoover [24, pp. 425–437] observed that changing of the surface of starch granules was higher when a low-moisture environment was used. Moreover, da Rosa Zavareze and Dias [25, pp. 317–328] stated in a comparative study that root and tuber starches are more susceptible to modification than cereal starch. Overall, HMT process induces several changes in the properties of native starches i.e. enhancement of pasting temperature while decrease in swelling property, solubility, and leaching of amylose. The modification due to the HMT process happens in both the amorphous and crystalline regions of the starch to different extents. However, it could be found that for legumes, cereals, and tuber starches, modification occurred predominantly in the amorphous region. [22, pp. 2691–2705]. Prior to carrying out the HMT process, a sealed jar is used to keep the sample to ensure the maintenance of a constant moisture level. Moreover, due to this sealed environment, the generation of pressure happens, which helps in the enhancement of thermal energy, leading to the development of kinetic energy, and as a result segmental movement happens on a large-scale. By this process, the amorphous domain of the starch transits from a glassy state to a flexible state [26, p. 106690]. Therefore, due to the presence of several variables, like the temperature and moisture employed, source of the native starch, source of heat, cooling technique, and the extent of the treatment, it is difficult to state any particular alteration which happens by this process of physical modification [27, pp. 175–184]. Although, it could be observed that the extent of heating and the moisture content greatly affect the physicochemical behavior of maize starch [28, pp. 1125–1132]. Starch is digested by our system through enzymatic hydrolysis. Breakdown of starch results in glucose monomers, leading to formation of energy [29, pp. 1–14]. HMT process has a direct impact on the as-modified starch’s digestibility. The modified starch prepared by the process of HMT, reported to elevate the nutritional value by enhancing the resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) content. Therefore, intake of starch modified through HMT process can be beneficial for patients suffering from diabetes [30, p. 118665]. There are several factors that could affect the digestibility of starch modified by the HMT process, such as the source of the native starch, granule size, crystallinity, starch botanical, amylopectin, and amylose content [31, p. 1700028]. Khatun et al. found that the HMT process reduces the rapidly digestible starch (RDS) content while elevating the RS and SDS content in lentils, rice, pea, and corn starches. Despite properties like retrogradation, gelatinization, crystallinity, and the content of amylose and amylopectin, the RS content of starch depends on processing and storage conditions, such as temperature [29, pp. 1–14]. HMT process has been widely used by food industries, especially to prepare infant foods. To improve the freeze-thaw stability and baking quality, potato starches are modified through HMT technique. Moreover, flours consist of heat-moisture-modified cereal starches (HMCS) are used to prepare noodles. It could be observed that noodles made up of HMCS flour possess greater yellowness values than the flours without HMCS. Furthermore, while the dough is made with HMCS flour, it renders more elasticity, robustness, and a solid-like texture [32, p. 128700]. A few examples of HMT-modified starches are tabulated with their application in food industries (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Modified starches by the process of HMT and their uses in food applications.

Component

Type of physical modification

Applications

Outcomes

References

Sweet potato starch

HMT

Edible films

Improved tensile strength, elongation, and thickness

Lower solubility

Indrianti et al.

[33

, pp. 679–687]

Wheat and whole barley flours

HMT

Bread

Similarity in bread properties

Maintained bio-accessibility and antioxidant activity

Collar and Armero

[34

, pp. 966–978]

Paddy rice grain

HMT

Parboiled rice

Increased volumetric and gravimetric yield

Increased cooking time

Arns et al.

[35

, pp. 1939–1945]

Sand rice starch

HMT

Food application

Increase in moisture content results in increased starch order with unaltered granular morphology

Provide enhanced thermal stability and higher pasting temperature, lower pasting viscosity

Enhanced SDS and RS content

Wu et al.

[36

, pp. 6720–6727]

Amaranth

HMT

Noodles

Firm texture

Enhanced taste and flavor

Chandla et al.

[37

, pp. 306–313]

1.3.1.2.2 Annealing

Through this technique, reorganization and reorientations of molecular chains happen in the native starch. This process reduces the structural relaxation while increasing crystallinity. Therefore, ANN renders lower swelling behavior and enhanced mechanical as well as thermal stability [38, pp. 297–303]. Like HMT, the process of annealing happens at a temperature above the Tg and below the gelatinization temperature of starch. Moreover, in both cases, the temperature employed, the ratio between starch and moisture, and the overall extent of the treatment play a critical role. So, are they similar? The answer is obviously no. Jacobs et al. stated that the difference between the two processes lies in the employed moisture. Like, in the process of ANN, intermediate (40–55% w/w) to high (>60% w/w) moisture content is used, while HMT uses low water content (<35% w/w) [39, pp. 2895–2905]. The ANN provides a homogenous crystal structure and stability to the as-modified starch. It is worth noting that the gelatinization temperature of the annealed starch is elevated and intensified compared to native starch [40, pp. 1–12]. To obtain better processing properties, native starches are annealed intentionally, which have shown important commercial applications. However, in few instances, ANN occurs unintentionally, i.e. during the extraction of maize starch through the wet-milling process.

The ANN process has a direct effect on the pasting property of starch and depends on several factors, i.e. swelling of granules, crystallinity, amylose leaching, and distribution of branch chain length in amylopectin. The ANN offers resistance to the deformation of the starch granules by increasing the binding forces among the granules [41, pp. 23–31]. Recently, a group of researchers analyzed the effect of different time periods (one, three, and five days) to anneal sweet potato starch at 50 °C. They observed that the pasting temperature elevated with increased ANN time, while the setback and viscosity decreased [42, pp. 573–580]. Therefore, ANN offers a declination of retrogradation and enhancing the pasting behavior. It is noteworthy that, unlike the HMT process, ANN does not result in the alteration of the diffraction pattern of starch. Although a recent study revealed that an increment of heat in the second step of ANN results in a shifted diffraction pattern induced by the imparted crystallinity [43]. The digestive enzymes like hydrolases, initial attack the amorphous part, then to the crystalline region when they are exposed. Unlike the HMT method, ANN results in the elevation of SDS and RDS contents with decreased RS contents in annealed sweet potato starch. Increased RDS content results in the rapid digestion of the amorphous segments in the modified starch [41, pp. 23–31].

Like HMT, annealing method found its application in food manufacturing industries, and moreover, significantly explored for its wide application in future evident by the recent reports. For example, recently, Wang et al. [44, pp. 125–131] evaluated the effect of the ANN process on the physicochemical properties of rice starch and quality of rice noodles. They noted that the granule morphology and the crystallinity pattern did not alter, although the relative crystallinity increased by 24%. Furthermore, they also observed that the swelling power and the solubility of the annealed rice starch increased by 14% and 10.09 g/g, respectively, compared to the native starch. With these properties, the overall quality of the rice starch noodles made up of annealed rice starch increased. They also claimed that with the increment of the annealed rice starch content, the sensory evaluation score, texture of noodles, and cooking quality of the rice starch noodles enhanced. On a different note, Ji et al. recently evaluated the effect of ANN on the structural properties and the digestibility of a corn starch/corn oil/lysine mixture and noted that the process of ANN results in improvement in pasting properties as well as increase in SDS content [45, pp. 553–559]. A few examples of annealed starch are tabulated with their application in food industries (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2 Modified starches by the process of annealing and their uses in food applications.

Component

Type of physical modification

Applications

Outcomes

References

Maize starch

HMT/annealing

Fried maize starch

Treated more organized and more compact than fried normal maize starch

Inhibition of oil absorption upon frying

Chen et al.

[46

, p. 129468]

Corn starch

Annealing

Corn starch/corn oil/lysine blend

Improvement in pasting properties

Enhancement in slowly digestible starch content

Ji

[47

, pp. 553–559]

Wheat starch

Annealing

Food application

Repeated annealing is more effective to modify normal wheat starch

Continuous annealing is more effective to modify waxy wheat starch

Su et al.

[48

, p. 116675]

Rice starch

Annealing/water soluble fraction removal

Noodles

Reduced the cooking losses

Improved the texture of cooked rice noodles

Increase firmness while eating

Choi and Koh

[49

, p. 889]

Corn starch

Annealing

Polylactic acid/corn starch blends

Improved thermal and mechanical properties

Lv et al.

[38

, pp. 297–303]

1.3.1.3 Nonthermal Modifications

In general, high temperature for a shorter time period is used to preserve food materials, which could lead to the loss of their nutritional value, flavors, and other essential components like vitamins. To overcome these bottlenecks and retain the nutritional value of food, various nonthermal methods such as PEF technique, hydrostatic pressure, and ultrasonication are used, which have diverse effects on the starch’s physicochemical properties [22, pp. 2691–2705].