Blockchain-Enabled Solutions for the Pharmaceutical Industry E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1073

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

The 25 chapters in this volume serve as a comprehensive guide to understanding and implementing blockchain-enabled solutions in the pharmaceutical industry.

The pharmaceutical industry is undergoing a holistic transformation, where innovation is key to addressing complex challenges and enabling user-centric, customized services. This book explores the potential applications of blockchain technology in revolutionizing pharmaceutical processes. By integrating blockchain fundamentals, the pharmaceutical industry can enhance transparency, security, and efficiency in areas such as supply chain management, patient safety, and more. Blockchain can also improve regulatory compliance, streamline clinical trials, and protect data integrity. Furthermore, it enables secure transactions, reduces the prevalence of counterfeit drugs, and strengthens patient privacy and data management.

Some of the subjects readers will find the volume covers include:

How blockchain technology can revolutionize the healthcare sector by enabling a secure, decentralized, and tamper-proof system for handling patient data, and facilitating seamless information sharing across various healthcare providers • how blockchain transforms the pharmaceutical industry by enhancing drug traceability, ensuring product authenticity, and reducing counterfeit drugs • a comprehensive blockchain-based framework to improve the pharmaceutical supply chain from manufacturers to end consumers • how the Pharma-RBT solution utilizes blockchain technology to protect personally identifiable information (PII) during drug trials • the use of blockchain-based smart contracts to automate and streamline payment processes reducing transaction times and minimizing human errors • surveys how blockchain can ensure the validity of pharmaceutical products by providing an immutable and transparent ledger that tracks each phase of a drug’s lifecycle, from production to the end consumer • how blockchain can enhance the security of smart medicine vending machines • how blockchain can improve the kidney transplantation process by enhancing the security, traceability, and efficiency of donor-recipient matching, organ transportation, and post-operative care • how blockchain can contribute to the development of the metaverse by enabling decentralized ownership of virtual assets • how blockchain can improve clinical trials by enhancing transparency, efficiency, and ethical conduct in drug development • how blockchain technology can revolutionize the drug recall process • how integrating hybrid technologies with blockchain can enhance smart healthcare systems • how the metaverse can transform healthcare by offering immersive virtual environments for medical training, patient education, and remote consultations.

Audience

The book will appeal to researchers, scientists, and professionals in the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries, as well as computer scientists and experts in blockchain technology, cybersecurity, and logistics.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 Exploring Blockchain Solutions in Healthcare Data Management and Patient Data Privacy

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Healthcare Data Challenges

1.3 Fundamentals of Blockchain

1.4 Blockchain in Healthcare

1.5 Ensuring Data Integrity

1.6 Access Control and Permissioned Blockchains

1.7 Privacy-Enhancing Features

1.8 Interoperability and Data Sharing

1.9 Future Trends

1.10 Summary

References

2 Revolutionizing Pharmaceuticals: Harnessing Blockchain for Industry Solutions

2.1 Introduction to Blockchain in Pharmaceuticals

2.2 Foundations of the Pharmaceutical Industry

2.3 Blockchain Basics for Pharma

2.4 Key Features of Blockchain in Pharmaceutical

2.5 Application of Blockchain in Drug Development

2.6 Supply Chain Management with Blockchain

2.7 Smart Contracts in Pharmaceuticals

2.8 Data Sharing and Interoperability

2.9 Challenges and Concerns in Implementing Blockchain

2.10 Case Studies: Successful Implementations of Blockchain in Pharmaceutical

2.11 Security and Privacy Considerations

2.12 Regulatory Compliance in Blockchain for Pharmaceuticals

2.13 Blockchain and Patient Empowerment

2.14 Future Trends and Innovations

2.15 Conclusion: The Future Landscape of Blockchain in Pharmaceuticals

References

3 Blockchain Framework for Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Management

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Contribution of the Chapter

3.3 Literature

3.4 Types of BC

3.5 Pharmaceutical Industry

3.6 BC Framework for Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Management

3.7 Theoretical Foundation of the Study and the Research Framework

3.8 Technology-Organization-Environment Framework

3.9 Technology

3.10 Organization

3.11 Environment

3.12 Implications

3.13 Conclusion

References

4 Healthcare Records Maintenance in Smart Cities for Healthcare 4.0: A Approach with Block Chain

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Literature Review

4.3 Methodology

4.4 Result and Discussion

4.5 Novelties

4.6 Conclusions

References

Additional Readings

Annexure

5 Evaluation of Blockchain and IoT Technology’s Impact on the Pharmaceutical Sector

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Overview of IoT

5.3 Blockchain Overview

5.4 Analyzing the Impact of Blockchain and the Internet of Things on the Pharmaceutical Sector

5.5 A Pharmaceutical Supply Chain for COVID-19 Empowered by Blockchain and the IoT

5.6 Conclusion

References

6 Pharma-RBT: Blockchain-Enabled Solution for PII-Protected Drug Trails in the Pharmaceutical Industry

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Related Work

6.3 Introduction to Blockchain Technology

6.4 Proposed Architecture for Blockchain + Pharma

6.5 Implementation of Pharma-RBT

6.6 Performance Evaluations

6.7 Conclusion

References

7 Transforming the Pharmaceutical Supply Chain with Blockchain

7.1 The Current State of the Pharmaceutical Supply Chain

7.2 Blockchain’s Role in Enhancing Traceability

7.3 Combating Counterfeiting with Blockchain

7.4 Streamlining Compliance through Smart Contracts

7.5 Enhancing Data Security and Privacy

7.6 Improving Supply Chain Efficiency and Collaboration

7.7 Overcoming Challenges and Adoption Barriers

7.8 Case Studies: Successful Implementations of Blockchain in Pharmaceuticals

7.9 The Future of Blockchain in Pharmaceuticals [20]

7.10 Conclusion

References

8 Automating and Streamlining Drug Payments Through Smart Contracts

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Overview of Drug Payments in Healthcare

8.3 Smart Contracts: A Primer

8.4 The Role of Smart Contracts in Drug Payments

8.5 Implementing Smart Contracts in Healthcare Systems

8.6 Case Studies: Successful Implementation of Smart Contracts in Drug Payments

8.7 Challenges and Solutions

8.8 Future Trends and Developments

8.9 Conclusion

References

9 Tracking Drug Authenticity and Expiry with Blockchain: A Comprehensive Overview

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Blockchain Technology Overview

9.3 Real-Time Drug Tracking

9.4 Ensuring Drug Authenticity

9.5 Expiry Date Management

9.6 Integration with the Pharmaceutical Supply Chain

9.7 Practical Examples

9.8 Challenges and Considerations

9.9 Future Trends

9.10 Conclusion

9.11 Recommendations

References

10 Blockchain-Enabled Security for Smart Medicine Vending Machines Handling Expired Medications

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Literature Survey

10.3 Overview of the Proposed System

10.4 Experimental Results

10.5 Conclusion

10.6 Future Enhancement

References

11 Enabling Transparent Supply to Build a Next-Generation Supply Chain

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Technological Foundations

11.3 Implementation Strategies

11.4 Future Trends and Considerations

11.5 Regulatory Compliance and Standards in the Pharmaceutical Industry

11.6 Conclusion

References

12 A Comprehensive Study in the Kidney Transplantation Process with the Role of Blockchain Technology

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Literature Review

12.3 Importance of Blockchain Technology in Health Care

12.4 Data Analytics and AI in KTP

12.5 What are the Possible Failures Occurring in KTP?

12.6 How can Blockchain be Enabled in Kidney Transplantation?

12.7 Result

12.8 Conclusion and Future Work

References

13 Secure Patient Data Management Through Blockchain

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Blockchain Technology in Healthcare

13.3 Blockchain Operations

13.4 Essential Blockchain Characteristics

13.5 Healthcare Blockchain Companies

13.6 Management of Healthcare Using Blockchain

13.7 Blockchain Technology Components

13.8 Types of Blockchain Technology

13.9 Application of Blockchain in the Healthcare Industry

13.10 Challenges

13.11 Discussion and Future Aspects

13.12 Conclusion

References

14 Creative Strategies to Protect Patients’ Health Records and Confidentiality Using Blockchain Technology

14.1 Introduction to Health Records and Confidentiality

14.2 Understanding Blockchain Technology

14.3 Advantages of BC for Health Record Security

14.4 Key Concepts in Applying Blockchain to Healthcare Data

14.5 Blockchain-Based Identity and Access Management (IAM)

14.6 Secure Health Data Sharing Through Blockchain

14.7 Patient Consent and Control in Blockchain-Enabled Systems

14.8 Regulatory and Ethical Considerations

14.9 Case Studies and Best Practices

14.10 Future Directions and Challenges in Blockchain-Based Health Record Protection

14.11 Conclusion and Recommendations for the Healthcare Industry

References

15 Blockchain: A New Frontier in Secure Patient Data Management

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Present Scenario of Blockchain Technology

15.3 Role of WHO in Healthcare Management Through Blockchain

15.4 Blockchain in Healthcare and Its Need

15.5 Compatible Characteristics of Blockchain for Healthcare System

15.6 Blockchain in Healthcare Areas: Conditions and Status

15.7 Securing Storage of Medical Data by Blockchain

15.8 Certain Kinds of Challenges are Faced While Using Blockchain

15.9 An Advanced Solution and Future Directions in Blockchain: Heterogeneous Medicare Data in Cloud Environment

15.10 Combination of Blockchain with IOMT in Data Management

15.11 Patient Flowchart in Using Blockchain Technology

15.12 Future Perspectives

15.13 Implications and Conclusions

References

16 A Block Chain-Enabled Novel Intelligent System Analysis for Medical Image Processing of Kidney Stone Prediction Using Deep Learning Techniques and Augmented Reality

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Literature Review

16.3 Methodology

16.4 Experiments

16.5 Results and Discussion

16.6 Conclusion

16.7 Future Work

References

17 Decentralization and Virtual Reality: The Role of Blockchain Technology in Shaping the Metaverse and Social Media Interactions

Introduction

Literature Review

Research Gap

Problem Statement

Methodology

Research Design

Findings

Discussions

Conclusions

Summary of Findings

Limitations

Scope for Further Research

Implications

References

18 Blockchain’s Impact in Clinical Trials: A Revolution for Transparency, Efficiency, and Ethical Conduct in Drug Development

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Challenges in Clinical Drug Trials

18.3 Blockchain Technology Overview

18.4 Transformative Applications of Blockchain in Clinical Trials

18.5 Regulatory Compliance and Ethical Considerations

18.6 Conclusion

References

19 Drug Recall Management for Pharmaceutical Industry from Blockchain Perspective

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Pharmaceutical Industry Operations

19.3 Drug Recall

19.4 Challenges in Healthcare

19.5 Blockchain in the Pharma Industry

19.6 Conclusion

References

20 Blockchain-Based Drug Recall Management

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Blockchain Technology Overview

20.3 Enhancing Transparency

20.4 Automating Recall Procedures

20.5 Challenges and Opportunities

20.6 Regulatory Considerations

20.7 Future Prospects

20.8 Conclusion

References

21 Counterfeit Drug Prevention Through Blockchain

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Defining Counterfeit Pharmaceuticals

21.3 Counterfeiting—Not Merely a “Developing” Issue

21.4 Statistics on Counterfeit Drug Incidents and Impact on Public Health

21.5 Drug Supply Chain in the Pharmaceutical Sector

21.6 Key Challenges with the Existing Supply Chain System

21.7 Existing Approaches to Prevent Counterfeiting

21.8 Need of Blockchain-Based Approaches

21.9 Application of Blockchain in Pharmaceutical Supply Chain to Prevent Drug Counterfeiting

21.10 Principal Obstacles to Blockchain Technology Implementation in the Healthcare Sector

21.11 Conclusion

References

22 Ensemble Learning and Blockchain-Driven Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Optimization: Enhancing Accessibility and Transparency—A Review

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Problem Statement

22.3 Related Work

22.4 Proposed Approach

22.5 Proposed System Block Diagram

22.6 Process Flow of the Proposed Approach

22.7 Objectives of the Proposed Approach

22.8 Background Study

22.9 Expected Outcome

22.10 Conclusion

References

23 PharmaSecure: A Blockchain Approach to Supply Management

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Challenges

23.3 Blockchain Technology Overview

23.4 Blockchain Framework for Pharmaceutical Supply Chain

23.5 Implementation Challenges

23.6 Case Studies

23.7 Future Trends and Developments

23.8 Recommendations and Best Practices

23.9 Conclusion

References

24 Hybrid Technologies in Blockchain-Based Smart Healthcare System

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Blockchain Technology for Healthcare

24.3 Hybrid Technology as Blockchain Enablers for Healthcare Revival Services

24.4 Security and Privacy Solutions in Blockchain-Based Healthcare

24.5 Conclusion

References

25 Metaverse: Revolutionizing Healthcare in a Virtual Realm

25.1 Introduction to Metaverse

25.2 Origins and Evolution of the Metaverse

25.3 The Current State of the Metaverse

25.4 The Metaverse and Society

25.5 Revolution in Social Networking

25.6 Enhancing Physical and Mental Health with Metaverse: Promoting Wellness in the Digital Age

25.7 The Role of Metaverse in Healthcare in the Future

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Reviewing other studies about privacy-preserving smart contracts.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Security vulnerability statistics.

Table 4.2 Transaction throughput across different blockchain platforms.

Table 4.3 Transaction analysis every two days on the healthcare portal.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Listed benefits of IoT.

Table 5.2 Benefits of integrating IoT and blockchain in PSC.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Performance evaluation of Pharma-RBT.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Various previous methods.

Table 7.2 MH approach is compared with others in various aspects.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Effects of counterfeit and expired medications.

Table 9.2 Benefits of blockchain technology in pharmaceutical supply chain.

Table 9.3 Emerging innovations in blockchain for pharmaceuticals.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Examples of projects utilizing blockchain technology to manage heal...

Table 13.2 Examples of projects utilizing blockchain technology to address pha...

Table 13.3 Companies and initiatives that use/plan to use blockchain-based sol...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Add-on services in blockchain.

Table 14.2 Significant contributions of blockchain for healthcare.

Table 14.3 Global case studies: Innovative strategies in protecting patients’ ...

Table 14.4 Comprehensive best practices to safeguard patients’ health records ...

Table 14.5 Emerging directions in blockchain-based health record protection.

Table 14.6 Challenges and considerations in blockchain implementations.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Factor-based report on kidney stone presence.

Table 16.2 Comparison of existing work.

Table 16.3 Comparison of existing techniques vs. proposed techniques.

Table 16.4 Algorithm and its accuracy.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Age percentage.

Table 17.2 Sex percentage.

Table 17.3 POR percentage.

Table 17.4 BT_1 percentage.

Table 17.5 BT_2 percentage.

Table 17.6 BT_3 percentage.

Table 17.7 MT_1 percentage.

Table 17.8 MT_2 percentage.

Table 17.9 MT_3 percentage.

Table 17.10 MT_4 percentage.

Table 17.11 CC_1 percentage.

Table 17.12 CC_2 percentage.

Table 17.13 CC_3 percentage.

Table 17.14 CC_4 percentage.

Table 17.15 CC_5 percentage.

Table 17.16 WEB3_1 percentage.

Table 17.17 WEB3_2 percentage.

Table 17.18 WEB3_3 percentage.

Table 17.19 WEB3_4 percentage.

Table 17.20 WEB3_5 percentage.

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Regulations of different countries for the prevention of counterfei...

Table 21.2 Statistics on counterfeit drug incidents and impact on public healt...

Table 21.3 Advantages, limitation, and disadvantages of different existing app...

Table 21.4 Comparison of blockchain-based solutions for a pharmaceutical suppl...

Table 21.5 The four main types of blockchain vary by how open or closed they a...

Table 21.6 Examples of blockchain-based pharmaceutical supply chain solution i...

Chapter 22

Table 22.1 Comparison of blockchain technology.

Table 22.2 Comparison of ensemble learning methods.

Chapter 25

Table 25.1 Review of studies on metaverse in healthcare.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Interconnected challenges in healthcare data management.

Figure 1.2 Framework for ensuring data integrity in healthcare using blockchai...

Figure 1.3 Enhancing healthcare privacy with blockchain.

Figure 1.4 Advancements in patient privacy solutions.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Overview of the pharmaceutical supply chain.

Figure 2.2 Core principles of blockchain.

Figure 2.3 Applications of blockchain.

Figure 2.4 Challenges and concerns in implementing blockchain.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Hybrid blockchain architecture.

Figure 3.2 Pharmaceutical supply chain.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Blockchain in healthcare.

Figure 4.2 MetaMask, Truffle, Ganache.

Figure 4.3 Integration of blockchain with healthcare.

Figure 4.4 Use case diagram of presented work.

Figure 4.5 Flowchart of the presented work.

Figure 4.6 Landing page of the healthcare products.

Figure 4.7 Dashboard of the product.

Figure 4.8 Doctor registration page of healthcare products.

Figure 4.9 Patient registration page of healthcare products.

Figure 4.10 Transaction records of healthcare products.

Figure 4.11 Activity tracker section.

Figure 4.12 Vulnerabilities comparison on different operating systems.

Figure 4.13 Separate comparisons-part1.

Figure 4.14 Separate comparisons-part2.

Figure 4.15 Graph showing throughput across different blockchain platforms.

Figure 4.16 Attack susceptibility and security enhancement on different operat...

Figure 4.17 Transaction analysis every two days on the healthcare portal.

Figure 4.18 Transaction and processing time visualizations.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Technologies empowering IoT.

Figure 5.2 A basic structure of PSC.

Figure 5.3 A basic structure of integrating blockchain and IoT in PSC.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Phases of clinical trials.

Figure 6.2 Use cases of blockchain in pharmaceutical industries.

Figure 6.3 Components of blockchain.

Figure 6.4 Proposed architecture and data flow.

Figure 6.5 Flow diagram for Pharma-RBT.

Figure 6.6 Patient registration.

Figure 6.7 Data token for a patient information.

Figure 6.8 Patient login.

Figure 6.9 Patient profile page.

Figure 6.10 Data clustering dashboard for pharmaceutical companies.

Figure 6.11 User notification to approve or revoke data access to pharmaceutic...

Figure 6.12 Dashboard for hospitals to upload reports after clinical trials.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Merkle tree.

Figure 7.2 Comparison of construction time of two methods for a lower number o...

Figure 7.3 Comparison of construction time of two methods.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Smart contract system for healthcare management [3].

Figure 8.2 Challenges for drug payments in healthcare.

Figure 8.3 Smart contract system for sharing lab results [3].

Figure 8.4 Challenges in the integration of smart contacts in healthcare.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Blockchain technology.

Figure 10.2 IoT in the healthcare industry.

Figure 10.3 Arduino mega block diagram.

Figure 10.4 Overview of the system model.

Figure 10.5 Data aggregation steps.

Figure 10.6 Sharing data with different users.

Figure 10.7 Medicine expiry tracker: Mobile app interface.

Figure 10.8 Identification of proposed system accuracy.

Figure 10.9 Performance in identifying medicine expiry status.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Working of supply chain in the pharmaceuticals industry [5].

Figure 11.2 Current challenges in supply chain management.

Figure 11.3 Key applications of advanced data analytics in the pharmaceutical ...

Figure 11.4 Stages of next-generation supply chain.

Figure 11.5 Significant parameters of sustainability in the pharmaceutical ind...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Stages in the kidney transplantation process.

Figure 12.2 Factors can result in fatalities during the kidney transplantation...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Healthcare data management in blockchain.

Figure 13.2 An overview of the blockchain use cases examined in the pharmaceut...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Basic block diagram of a digital medical care system.

Figure 14.2 Layer stack of a clinical care system using blockchain.

Figure 14.3 Overview of IAM functionalities.

Figure 14.4 BC-based process for medical care uses.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Various applications of blockchain in healthcare.

Figure 15.2 Collaboration between electronic health records, mobile health app...

Figure 15.3 Challenges of blockchain in healthcare.

Figure 15.4 Blockchain and IOMT.

Figure 15.5 Patients’ flowchart.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Formation of the kidney stone.

Figure 16.2 Kidney stone examination using ultrasound scanning.

Figure 16.3 Blockchain architecture for patients’ records.

Figure 16.4 Image processing framework.

Figure 16.5 Dataset sample.

Figure 16.6 Image augmentation.

Figure 16.7 Vuforia engine portal for AR output.

Figure 16.8 K-means architecture.

Figure 16.9 SVM (support vector machine) architecture.

Figure 16.10 Hybrid convolutional neural network with LSTM (CNN-LSTM) architec...

Figure 16.11 User interface model involving the processing stages.

Figure 16.12 Amplitude vs. energy values.

Figure 16.13 AR output on kidney stone prediction.

Figure 16.14 K-means clustering preprocessing the data output results.

Figure 16.15 Comparison of algorithm and its higher accuracy.

Chapter 17

Graph 17.1 Histogram with curve of variable age.

Graph 17.2 Histogram with curve of variable sex.

Graph 17.3 Histogram with curve of variable BT_1.

Graph 17.4 Histogram with curve of variable BT_2.

Graph 17.5 Histogram with curve of variable BT_3.

Graph 17.6 Histogram with curve of variable MT_1.

Graph 17.7 Histogram with curve of variable MT_2.

Graph 17.8 Histogram with curve of variable MT_3.

Graph 17.9 Histogram with curve of variable MT_4.

Graph 17.10 Histogram with curve of variable CC_1.

Graph 17.11 Histogram with curve of variable CC_2.

Graph 17.12 Histogram with curve of variable CC_3.

Graph 17.13 Histogram with curve of variable CC_4.

Graph 17.14 Histogram with curve of variable CC_5.

Graph 17.15 Histogram with curve of variable WEB3_1.

Graph 17.16 Histogram with curve of variable WEB3_2.

Graph 17.17 Histogram with curve of variable WEB3_3.

Graph 17.18 Histogram with curve of variable WEB3_4.

Figure 17.19 Histogram with curve of variable WEB3_5.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Exploration of blockchain-based monitoring of clinical drug trials...

Figure 18.2 A visual model representation depicting the conceptualization of a...

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Manufacturing flow in the pharma industry.

Figure 19.2 Supply chain participants.

Figure 19.3 Drug recalling.

Figure 19.4 Blockchain technology.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Blockchain-based drug recall management.

Figure 20.2 Blockchain technology [31].

Figure 20.3 Automating recall procedures.

Figure 20.4 Regulatory considerations.

Figure 20.5 Future prospects.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Most commonly counterfeited types of pharmaceuticals.

Figure 21.2 Pie graphic showing the proportion of data on counterfeiting incid...

Figure 21.3 Layout of a typical drug supply chain.

Figure 21.4 Pharma chain’s blockchain-based process flow.

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Medicine supply chain in blockchain.

Figure 22.2 Block diagram of the proposed approach.

Figure 22.3 Process flow of the proposed system.

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Supply chain management flow using blockchain [5].

Figure 23.2 Supply chain challenges in pharma.

Figure 23.3 Basic steps of blockchain working [19].

Figure 23.4 Various challenges that occur during the implementation.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 Four axis of metaverse implementation in healthcare.

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Machine Learning in Biomedical Science and Healthcare Informatics

Series Editors: Vishal Jain ([email protected]) and Jyotir Moy Chatterjee ([email protected])

In this series, an attempt has been made to capture the scope of various applications of machine learning in the biomedical engineering and healthcare fields, with a special emphasis on the most representative machine learning techniques, namely deep learning-based approaches. Machine learning tasks are typically classified into two broad categories depending on whether there is a learning ‘label’ or ‘feedback’ available to a learning system: supervised learning and unsupervised learning. This series also introduces various types of machine learning tasks in the biomedical engineering field from classification (supervised learning) to clustering (unsupervised learning). The objective of the series is to compile all aspects of biomedical science and healthcare informatics, from fundamental principles to current advanced concepts.

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Blockchain-Enabled Solutions for the Pharmaceutical Industry

Edited by

Ritika Wason

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management (BVICAM), New Delhi, India

Parul Arora

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management (BVICAM), New Delhi, India

Parma Nand

Sharda University, Greater Noida, U.P., India

Vishal Jain

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sharda School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, U.P., India

and

Vinay Kukreja

Centre for Research Impact & Outcome, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India

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ISBN 978-1-394-28793-2

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Preface

The pharmaceutical industry is undergoing a holistic transformation, where innovation is key to addressing complex challenges and enabling user-centric, customized services. This book explores the potential applications of blockchain technology in revolutionizing pharmaceutical processes. By integrating blockchain fundamentals, the pharmaceutical industry can enhance transparency, security, and efficiency in areas such as supply chain management, data integrity, patient safety, and more. Blockchain can also improve regulatory compliance, streamline clinical trials, and protect data integrity. Furthermore, it enables secure transactions, reduces the prevalence of counterfeit drugs, and strengthens patient privacy and data management.

This book brings together a collection of works by various authors who have examined blockchain applications in the pharmaceutical sector. Each chapter focuses on a specific aspect of blockchain-enabled solutions, offering insights, case studies, and practical examples.

Chapter 1 investigates how blockchain technology can revolutionize the healthcare sector by enabling a secure, decentralized, and tamper-proof system for handling patient data, ensuring data integrity, and facilitating seamless information sharing across various healthcare providers. Chapter 2 explores how blockchain can transform the pharmaceutical industry by enhancing drug traceability, ensuring product authenticity, and reducing counterfeit drugs through a transparent and immutable ledger system.

Chapter 3 presents a comprehensive blockchain-based framework to improve the transparency, security, and efficiency of the pharmaceutical supply chain, from manufacturers to end consumers. Chapter 4 examines how blockchain technology can enhance healthcare records management in smart cities by providing a secure, decentralized platform for storing and sharing patient information.

Chapter 5 scrutinizes how the combination of blockchain and IoT technologies can significantly enhance the pharmaceutical industry’s capabilities by improving the traceability, monitoring, and supervision of products throughout the supply chain. Chapter 6 inspects how the Pharma-RBT solution utilizes blockchain technology to protect personally identifiable information (PII) during drug trials, ensuring data privacy and security through decentralized and immutable records.

Chapter 7 delves into how blockchain can reform the pharmaceutical supply chain by enhancing transparency, traceability, and security, helping to mitigate issues like counterfeit drugs and inefficiencies in distribution. Chapter 8 explores the use of blockchain-based smart contracts to automate and streamline payment processes in the pharmaceutical industry, reducing transaction times and minimizing human errors.

Chapter 9 surveys how blockchain can ensure the validity of pharmaceutical products by providing an immutable and transparent ledger that tracks each phase of a drug’s lifecycle, from production to the end consumer. Chapter 10 discusses how blockchain can enhance the security of smart medicine vending machines by offering a tamper-proof system to track expired medications, ensuring that only safe, valid products are dispensed.

Chapter 11 explores how blockchain can increase supply chain transparency by providing a secure, decentralized ledger that tracks every transaction and movement of goods, allowing stakeholders to verify product authenticity in real time. Chapter 12 examines how blockchain can improve the kidney transplantation process by enhancing the security, traceability, and efficiency of donor-recipient matching, organ transportation, and post-operative care.

Chapter 13 investigates how blockchain can expand the safety and confidentiality of patient data by offering a decentralized and tamper-proof system for storing and sharing sensitive health information. Chapter 14 discusses advanced methods for safeguarding patient health records and ensuring confidentiality through blockchain, which provides a secure, decentralized platform for managing sensitive medical information.

Chapter 15 outlines how blockchain can transform patient data management by offering a decentralized, immutable, and secure platform for storing and sharing sensitive health information. Chapter 16 explores how blockchain can enhance the processing of medical images for predicting kidney stones by providing a secure, decentralized platform for storing and analyzing sensitive imaging data.

Chapter 17 examines how blockchain can contribute to the development of the metaverse by enabling decentralized ownership of virtual assets and fostering secure, transparent, and interoperable social interactions within virtual environments. Chapter 18 discusses how blockchain can improve clinical trials by enhancing transparency, efficiency, and ethical conduct in drug development through secure, immutable, and transparent data management.

Chapter 19 explores how blockchain can streamline the drug recall process by providing a secure, immutable, and transparent platform for tracking and tracing recalled products throughout the supply chain. Chapter 20 demonstrates how blockchain technology can revolutionize the drug recall process by improving efficiency and accountability.

Chapter 21 explores the critical role blockchain plays in preventing counterfeit drugs by tracking the provenance of pharmaceutical products across the supply chain. Chapter 22 reviews how ensemble learning techniques combined with blockchain technology can optimize pharmaceutical supply chains by improving accessibility and transparency.

Chapter 23 summarizes how blockchain can transform pharmaceutical supply chains by enhancing efficiency and reducing the risk of counterfeit medications. Chapter 24 explores how integrating hybrid technologies with blockchain can enhance smart healthcare systems. Chapter 25 discusses how the metaverse can transform healthcare by offering immersive virtual environments for medical training, patient education, and remote consultations, improving the accessibility and effectiveness of healthcare services.

In summary, this edited volume serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding and implementing blockchain-enabled solutions in the pharmaceutical industry. We hope this book will inspire further research and collaboration, leading to continued innovation and advancement in pharmaceutical practices. We are grateful to the contributing authors for their dedication and expertise, and we extend our thanks to the reviewers who have provided invaluable feedback throughout the preparation of this volume. Finally, we thank Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their support and publication.

Editors

Ritika Wason

Parul Arora

Parma Nand

Vishal Jain

Vinay Kukreja

1Exploring Blockchain Solutions in Healthcare Data Management and Patient Data Privacy

Hamed Taherdoost1,2,3,4

1University Canada West, Vancouver, BC, Canada

2Hamta Business Corporation, Vancouver, BC, Canada

3Q Minded | Quark Minded Technology Inc., Vancouver, BC, Canada

4GUS Institute | Global University Systems, London, United Kingdom

Abstract

A revolutionary step forward in healthcare is represented by the growing digitalization of medical records, which promises better patient care regarding accessibility, effectiveness, and quality. Electronic health records, or EHRs, have improved communication between healthcare providers, expedited the decision-making process, and streamlined information retrieval. However, with the digital revolution came a host of previously unheard-of difficulties, especially when protecting the confidentiality and integrity of private health data. Healthcare firms must navigate a complicated terrain of growing cybersecurity risks because they are tasked with maintaining enormous amounts of private and sensitive patient data. The need for strong data security measures in the healthcare industry has increased due to the emergence of cyberattacks, data breaches, and the lucrative black market for medical data. Blockchain technology seems like a ray of hope as companies struggle with these complexities; it is a disruptive force that has the potential to completely alter the way that we think about patient data management. The dramatic effects of blockchain on patient privacy in the healthcare industry are examined in this chapter. In order to put this technical intervention into context, let us review the current state of patient data management difficulties. Through a thorough examination of healthcare information security, the chapter highlights the pressing need for creative solutions to protect data privacy in the face of a constantly changing threat scenario. Explaining blockchain’s architectural foundations is essential to this investigation, providing foundational knowledge to readers unfamiliar with the technology. The foundation of blockchain’s revolutionary potential for healthcare data is its decentralized and irreversible nature. After that, the story smoothly shifts to discussing how blockchain technology may be used to handle the complex problems of managing patient data. As the chapter goes on, a comprehensive strategy covers everything from using permissioned blockchains to create access control mechanisms to guaranteeing the integrity of patient information due to blockchain’s intrinsic immutability. Zero-knowledge proofs and privacy-preserving smart contracts, two privacy-enhancing characteristics, are examined to show how they could improve secrecy. Examining interoperability and safe data transfer across healthcare organizations highlights how blockchain can be the key to resolving issues related to exchanging private medical data.

Keywords: Data privacy, healthcare, blockchain technology, data management

1.1 Introduction

Patient privacy is an essential component of healthcare that guarantees the safeguarding, confidentiality, and intrigue of patients’ healthcare information [1]. For instance, physicians are prohibited from disclosing information disclosed by a patient during their physician-patient relationship due to confidentiality [2]. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) serves as the preeminent legal mechanism in the United States to prevent the unauthorized access, disclosure, and utilization of health information. HIPAA, which restricts data protection to conventional healthcare environments and relationships, has faced criticism for its limited scope and failure to adapt to the rapid advancements in information technology [3].

Patient confidentiality is of paramount importance in the healthcare industry. Establishing trust between patients and healthcare providers is of utmost importance, as it directly impacts effective healthcare delivery. Patients are more inclined to divulge sensitive information to healthcare providers when they have confidence in the confidentiality of said information [4]. Patient confidentiality is of the utmost importance in safeguarding individuals from potential harm, including stigmatization and discrimination, which could result from the illicit disclosure of their medical data [5]. Furthermore, safeguarding patients’ autonomy and right to control their health information is contingent upon patient privacy [1].

Preserving patient confidentiality in the healthcare sector is not harmful. A rise in mobile devices and electronic health records (EHRs) in the healthcare industry has prompted concerns regarding the confidentiality and security of patient’s health information. Healthcare providers must adhere to HIPAA regulations when transmitting protected health information via mobile devices and EHRs [1]. Additionally, they must implement adequate security measures to prevent unauthorized access, use, or disclosure of patients’ health information [4]. Additionally, healthcare providers must ensure that patients are apprised of how their health information will be utilized and disclosed and their privacy rights [2].

Blockchain technology can significantly transform the healthcare sector through its ability to enhance patient confidentiality and security. Numerous investigations have been undertaken to examine the application of blockchain technology in the healthcare sector. These studies have underscored the benefits of utilizing this technology, including safeguarding patients’ privacy, enhancing drug supply chain management, preventing tampering and manipulating healthcare data, ensuring the anonymity of all parties involved, and facilitating secure and expeditious access to patient records [6–8]. Nevertheless, certain research studies have identified constraints and difficulties, including the requirement for further investigation to comprehend, delineate, and assess the efficacy of blockchain technology within the healthcare sector more comprehensively [9].

One potential resolution to the privacy concern within the healthcare sector is the implementation of a Healthchain, a healthcare system built on blockchain technology that enables users to retrieve Internet-of-Things data and obtain physician feedback. Then, physicians can access data and provide feedback. Data are utilized in the Healthchain to reduce computational overhead and guarantee privacy [6]. Sharing EHRs is an additional prospective application of blockchain technology within the healthcare sector.

The healthcare industry is an ideal candidate for implementing blockchain technology because it enables patients to control the sharing of their personal information and can establish restrictions on its proprietorship [7]. Blockchain technology presents an innovative resolution for the storage of medical data, execution of medical transactions, and establishment of trust in integrating medical data [10]. Nevertheless, due diligence is required when contemplating integrating blockchain technology into the healthcare sector, given the obstacles and constraints that must be overcome, including scalability, interoperability, and standardization [9].

This chapter explores how blockchain technology revolutionizes patient privacy in the healthcare industry. After exploring the basic ideas behind blockchain technology, the conversation looks more closely at how blockchain technology specifically solves problems related to patient data management. This chapter explores the function of permissioned blockchains and design considerations, emphasizing the value of data integrity, access control, and privacy-enhancing features. It also looks at safe data exchange and interoperability between healthcare organizations. The chapter thoroughly reviews the changing environment at the nexus of blockchain and healthcare privacy, looking ahead to future trends and possible developments in blockchain solutions for protecting patient privacy.

1.2 Healthcare Data Challenges

Patient data management comprises collecting, storing, and analyzing patient information to enhance healthcare outcomes. The application of big data in the healthcare industry has garnered significant attention over the past two decades. Many sources contribute to the volume of big data in the healthcare industry, encompassing hospital records, patient medical records, examination outcomes, and Internet-of-Things devices [11]. The development of EHRs aimed to enhance patient data administration. EHRs offer numerous advantages, such as enhanced data compilation for research and analysis, streamlined workflow, and prevention of medication errors [12]. Nevertheless, the reuse of medical real-world data in medical data science continues to face obstacles such as safeguarding privacy, assuring data quality, and promoting interoperability [13]. Furthermore, significant research areas include the prospects of big data in healthcare and the influence of commercial health datasets on medical research [14].

Healthcare systems encounter many obstacles and apprehensions, most of which originate from the ever-changing realm of cyber threats. Malware, phishing, and ransomware attacks present substantial hazards to the confidentiality of patient data and can potentially disrupt healthcare operations, resulting in monetary detriment to institutions [15, 16]. Furthermore, maintaining the privacy and confidentiality of patient information continues to be of the utmost importance, requiring adherence to regulations such as HIPAA to protect against unauthorized utilization, disclosure, or access. Furthermore, it is critical to give due attention to the safety and security of EHRs, given that vulnerabilities in EHR systems can potentially expose the confidentiality and privacy of patient data [17].

To adequately confront these obstacles, healthcare institutions must implement all-encompassing security strategies. This consists of updating software and systems on a routine basis to patch known vulnerabilities, thus fortifying defenses against cyber threats. Ensuring that personnel are well-informed and trained on optimal cybersecurity procedures is critical for fostering a corporate environment that values data protection and consciousness. Establishing resilient incident response plans to mitigate the consequences of security vulnerabilities and guarantee continuous healthcare services is equally important. In addition, by engaging in partnerships with industry stakeholders and cybersecurity specialists, organizations can remain updated on emergent threats and exchange optimal strategies, thereby fortifying their overall resilience in the face of ever-changing cyber risks [16]. Figure 1.1 depicts the interconnected challenges faced in healthcare data management. It begins with the process of data collection, which feeds into data integration. From there, the data encounter challenges related to quality, security, privacy concerns, regulatory compliance, and interoperability. These challenges are interdependent and require comprehensive strategies for effective healthcare data management.

Figure 1.1 Interconnected challenges in healthcare data management.

1.3 Fundamentals of Blockchain

Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that eliminates the need for intermediaries and enables safe and transparent transactions. A network of nodes, a consensus method, a cryptographic hash function, and a platform for smart contracts make up the architecture of blockchain. The node network is in charge of verifying transactions and preserving the blockchain’s integrity. All nodes must concur on the blockchain’s current state for the consensus process. The cryptographic hash function secures the blockchain’s data, and self-executing contracts may be carried out thanks to the smart contract platform [18, 19].

Financial services, digital identification, and supply chain management are just a few of the applications of blockchain technology. Blockchain technology facilitates the creation of unchangeable transaction logs useful for monitoring the flow of products and services across the supply chain. Secure digital identities that may be used to verify individuals and safeguard their data can also be created using blockchain technology. Blockchain technology may be utilized in financial services to provide transparent, safe payment systems that save costs and boost productivity [20].

The decentralized nature and immutability are two fundamental attributes of blockchain technology that have fundamentally transformed trust, ownership, identity, and financial systems [21]. Blockchain is a decentralized and immutable ledger system that operates on a consensus algorithm among the participating nodes of its chain network. By ensuring that any other medium cannot alter the content of a transaction, the immutable storage component of blockchain enhances incentives and fosters trust among participants in the network [22].

Decentralized finance (DeFi) is a blockchain-based financial system that promotes innovation and expands financial inclusion, among other advantages [23]. DeFi products, such as smart contracts, function as transaction protocols regulating the exchange of ledgers among participating entities, guaranteeing transparency and immutability. Immutability fosters confidence among the involved parties, eliminating the necessity for ongoing surveillance to verify adherence to mutually agreed-upon conditions [24].

The consensus algorithm is implemented to attain agreement among nodes regarding the alteration or modification of the blockchain. Potential candidates for an ideal decentralized system have been identified using three algorithms: proof of stake (PoS), Paxos, and proof of authority (PoA). The algorithms above contribute to the advancement of environmental sustainability through their capacity to decrease storage and processing demands [22].

1.4 Blockchain in Healthcare

Blockchain technology, distinguished by its immutable, decentralized, and distributed ledger, is becoming increasingly prominent in numerous industries, including healthcare. It is a promising instrument because it can securely record transactions without requiring intermediaries [25]. Blockchain technology significantly improves healthcare outcomes and streamlines operational procedures [26]. An instance of notable implementation can be found in EHRs, where blockchain technology guarantees patient information confidentiality and secure exchange [25]. This pertains to issues concerning the security of data in healthcare systems.

The pharmaceutical and biomedical supply chain is an additional sector that blockchain technology has enhanced. It contributes to a more robust healthcare ecosystem by bolstering the authenticity and quality of pharmaceuticals and medical supplies through the improvement of traceability and transparency [27, 28]. Additionally, blockchain is useful for enhancing the security and efficiency of insurance processes. The efficacy discussed here has a positive impact on the insurance industry, healthcare finances, and patient outcomes [25].

Healthcare research and development is additionally being enhanced by blockchain technology. Through the facilitation of collaboration and the sharing of data, blockchain technology expedites the research process, resulting in more precise and timely outcomes. This advancement can substantially enhance healthcare results and elevate patient care quality [29, 30]. To fully exploit the potential of blockchain technology in the healthcare sector, it is imperative to conduct additional research that thoroughly examines its functionalities and constraints. Current patient data management challenges include data structure, security, data standardization, and privacy and security. Managing patient data is challenging due to the exponential growth of medical data from various sources, which can be unstructured and heterogeneous:

Data Structure: Ensuring that data are structured to allow for efficient processing and analysis is crucial for effective patient data management.

Data Security: Protecting patient data from unauthorized access and ensuring privacy are significant challenges in the healthcare industry.

Data Standardization: Establishing standardized formats for data collection and storage is essential for the seamless integration and analysis of patient data.

Data Privacy and Security: A major concern in the healthcare sector is ensuring that patient data are protected from breaches and unauthorized access.

Real-Time Processing: In some cases, medical data have potent timeliness, and having appropriate moments of medical care is crucial. Data processing speed is in great demand, particularly when patients’ situations deteriorate quickly.

Unstructured Data: A huge amount of unstructured data, such as handwritten data, is included in big clinical data, making analysis, integration, and storage challenging.

Data Sharing: Effectively mining an enormous amount of unstructured data and sharing it among organizations are significant challenges in the healthcare industry.

Blockchain technology possesses the capacity to mitigate privacy apprehensions across diverse domains. Blockchain technology has the potential to offer privacy protection benefits such as security, traceability, transparency, and immutability [31]. Nevertheless, the research also revealed several privacy complexities in blockchain, such as the requirement for techniques that ensure privacy and anonymity. Bansod and Ragha [32] emphasized the significance of safeguarding privacy in blockchain-based transactions, particularly in light of the pandemic, which has compelled the majority of personal transactions to be conducted online. According to the article, blockchain technology has the potential to transform online interactions by enabling the decentralized transmission of digital assets while protecting data privacy.

Ensuring privacy compliance in blockchain technology is hindered by unauthorized entry, anonymous users, and forged identities [33]. These concerns can be resolved through blockchain-based identity verification, a decentralized and secure method for confirming user identity. A blockchain-based privacy and security paradigm employing differential privacy queries to safeguard sensitive data was proposed in the study.

It is also critical to evaluate and address privacy concerns in blockchain systems [34]. The research by Stach et al. [34] examined the characteristics of blockchain that inherently give rise to privacy risks when handling confidential or sensitive information. Additionally, the research evaluates which technical measures and concepts may be implemented to tackle these concerns in adherence to data protection regulations, including the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

1.5 Ensuring Data Integrity

Data integrity must be strictly adhered to maintain patient confidentiality in the healthcare industry. In light of this matter, Whyte et al. [35] have investigated the application of blockchain technology to the assurance of data integrity. An examination was conducted on the security analysis of blockchain technology, applications of blockchain technology, and data assurance measures. A survey of blockchain-based data integrity verification systems for cloud computing was undertaken by Gangadevi and Devi [36] with the intention of augmenting comprehension of security concerns and deliberating on the potential of blockchain technology to mitigate said concerns.

Blockchain technology’s distinct mechanisms and techniques fortify cloud security and data integrity. Tamper-proof storage is an example of a mechanism that safeguards data against tampering [37]. The immutability property of blockchain technology guarantees that any modification to data appended to the ledger will be detected [38].

Even with the potential of blockchain technology to guarantee data integrity, there is a dearth of comprehensive literature examining blockchain-based integrity auditing specifically for cloud data [39]. Additional research is required to investigate the complete potential of blockchain technology in resolving data integrity concerns in the healthcare sector. Figure 1.2 illustrates a blockchain-driven structure that guarantees the confidentiality and reliability of healthcare patient information via immutability, consensus, decentralization, timestamping, and secure data storage.

Almost any modification or deletion of data recorded on a blockchain necessitates the agreement of the entire network [40]. This ensures the accuracy and utility of patient records, payments, and insurance agreements; protects providers and patients; and enables insurers to prevent fraud. Due to the decentralized nature of the blockchain, the healthcare network is impervious to a single point of failure, and any modifications or tampering with the data appended to the ledger are implausible. By enabling the creation of agreements and transactions via smart contracts, a solution ensures data security, system interoperability, and the precision of stored data queries [41].

Figure 1.2 Framework for ensuring data integrity in healthcare using blockchain.

Blockchain technology was proposed as an innovative solution for securely storing massive spatiotemporal data. Alhazmi et al. [42] proposed a framework for bolstering large data security by combining fragmentation and blockchain technology. This method establishes a secure storage mechanism for massive spatiotemporal datasets by combining fragmentation and blockchain technology. Ren et al. [43] underscored the significance of secure storage technology in big data by introducing a blockchain-based secure storage mechanism for large spatiotemporal datasets.

A technique centered on time-oriented latency-based secure data encryption that is efficient has been proposed in the field of secure data encryption. A comparison was made between the proposed technique and pre-existing methods regarding encryption and decryption duration as the data size varied [44]. Privacy and security concerns regarding big data have prompted the technological advancement of numerous privacy-preserving techniques. During the data storage phase, encryption-based methods, including identity-based encryption (IBE) and attribute-based encryption (ABE), are frequently employed to safeguard sensitive information [45].

Securing data storage is critical in clinical research to safeguard sensitive patient information. Data management processes prioritize the secure storage of electronic data on authorized institutional servers, ensuring patient privacy is protected through data deidentification techniques and role-based access authorization [46]. In addition, the implementation of blockchain technology to timestamp peer review feedback and manuscript submission has been introduced securely [47].

1.6 Access Control and Permissioned Blockchains

Permissioned blockchains and access control have been investigated in the context of patient privacy in healthcare. Blockchains have been instrumental in addressing challenges related to access control [48]. Ethereum was the most frequently used blockchain for developing blockchain-based access control solutions, showing the use of blockchain-enabled access control to prevent cyber intrusions in the Internet of Things [49]. Blockchain can ensure access control, privacy preservation, confidentiality, integrity, and authentication, among other fundamental security requirements [50].

Applying blockchain-based access control in the healthcare sector involves a policy that controls access to secured cloud data storage using verifiable user data. This policy was established by integrating smart contracts and access control mechanisms [51]. In conclusion, an article by Joannou et al. [52] examined the prospective benefits of integrating permissioned blockchains into the systems engineering processes. The study concluded that permissioned blockchains can offer a transparent and secure mechanism for overseeing transactions and data.

Permissioned blockchains have surfaced as a viable resolution for tackling pressing healthcare industry concerns, specifically patient confidentiality. Blockchains provide a decentralized and secure infrastructure for storing and exchanging confidential patient information, ensuring the preservation of privacy and anonymity. A form of blockchain implementation that is well suited for the healthcare industry on account of its capability to manage confidential patient information is permissioned blockchains. Potential healthcare applications of blockchain technology include the management of patient medical records, accelerating medical research through the use of shared anonymous patient data, and enhancing insurance claim procedures [53].

Access control mechanisms for patient data are essential for protecting the privacy and security of patients. As cloud-based electronic healthcare services use increases, dynamic access control strategies for patient e-healthcare records must be secure and dependable. One prospective system restricts read-and-write access to patient information to authorized personnel, such as physicians, while allowing others to view the data without editing it [54]. For medical professionals’ access to cloud-based patient-sensitive data to be more secure and adaptable, it is also critical that intelligent hospital healthcare systems implement cost-effective security measures [55].

In addition, privacy-based data access control and mechanisms for sharing medical documents have been suggested to guarantee access control for electronic medical records [56]. Situation-based access control is an additional modeling-based approach to privacy management [57]. Furthermore, an IOTA tangle-based access management system for entirely decentralized personal health records has been developed to safeguard patient medical records and Internet-of-Things medical devices [58].

1.7 Privacy-Enhancing Features

Regarding patient privacy, however, implementing blockchain technology in healthcare raises concerns. Key privacy-enhancing characteristics of blockchain technology for the preservation and confidentiality of healthcare data are depicted in Figure 1.3. PETchain, an innovative privacy-enhancing technology that stores data securely using blockchain and smart contracts, is one proposed solution [59]. Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), secure multi-party computation (SMPC), ring signatures, mixing, homomorphic encryption, and differential privacy are additional proposed privacy-enhancing features [32]. The attributes above are designed to ensure privacy protection without compromising the auditability and transparency of the blockchain.

Nevertheless, integrating these privacy-enhancing functionalities encounters obstacles in ensuring blockchain privacy adheres to regulations safeguarding personal privacy. Although blockchain technology offers distinct benefits, it has drawbacks, including the potential for smart contract forgeries and privacy breaches in transactions. Hence, implementing efficient crypto-privacy algorithms is imperative to enhance the security and privacy of blockchain technology.

One proposed solution is a blockchain-based privacy-preserving scheme that employs smart contracts to ensure the secure exchange of medical data [60]. Nevertheless, implementing such a scheme involves several obstacles, including contract correctness, control flow, execution efficiency, and contract redeployment. Numerous mechanisms for protecting privacy have been suggested in response to these obstacles, including mixing and ZKP [61]. In exploring privacy-preserving mechanisms for smart contracts in blockchain applications, various frameworks and models have been reviewed. Table 1.1 summarizes key findings from recent studies in this domain. The Privacy-Preserving in Smart Contracts utilizing Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence (PPSC-BCAI) framework is one such system by Deebak and Fadi [62] that employs blockchain and AI to formalize the business logic of smart contracts. The Healthchain framework, which employs blockchain technology to safeguard the confidentiality of EHRs, is an additional proposed solution [63].

Figure 1.3 Enhancing healthcare privacy with blockchain.

Table 1.1 Reviewing other studies about privacy-preserving smart contracts.

Study

System

Key findings

[62]

Blockchain and artificial intelligence

The PPSC-BCAI framework provides privacy-preserving smart contracts by using blockchain and artificial intelligence

[64]

Zero-knowledge proofs, Kachina model

The Kachina model and zero-knowledge proofs are used to develop privacy-preserving smart contracts. The privacy guarantees depend on the actual smart contract and how it is implemented

[65]

Hybrid meta-heuristic algorithm, Ethereum blockchain technology

A tamper-proof digital framework is created for sharing and storing data, where the linked block structure is utilized to verify and store the data. A trusted hybrid meta-heuristic algorithm is used to ensure data privacy

[66]

Smart contract–based privacy-preserving data

The study proposes a smart contract–based privacy-preserving data framework. The framework enables data privacy by using smart contracts

[67]

Smart contracts

The study explores security issues associated with the development of crowdsensing and proposes a privacy-preserving smart contract–based solution

[68]

Ziraffe framework

The Ziraffe framework enables automated smart contract execution on-chain and provides privacy-preserving oracle systems on blockchain

1.8 Interoperability and Data Sharing

In healthcare, interoperability and data sharing are indispensable for the efficient and streamlined transmission of medical information [69]. More interoperability among health information systems dissipates resources and diminishes patient care quality [70]. EHRs have emerged as a fundamental digital solution in high-income healthcare. However, their complete potential remains elusive due to the obstacle of interoperability. For the safety of patients, interoperability between EHR systems and other medical devices, such as infusion pumps, has not been overlooked [71].

Semantic interoperability models have been suggested to enable varying degrees of interoperability among or between organizations [72]. The exchange of healthcare data