Chemical Engineering Essentials, Volume 1 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
In an era of rapid innovation and with a focus on sustainability, Chemical Engineering Essentials provides a definitive guide to mastering the discipline. Divided into two volumes, this series offers a seamless blend of foundational knowledge and advanced applications to address the evolving needs of academia and industry.
This volume lays a strong foundation with topics such as material and energy balances, thermodynamics, phase equilibrium, fluid mechanics, transport phenomena, and essential separation processes such as distillation and membrane technologies.
Volume 2 builds on these principles, delving into reaction engineering, reactor modeling with MATLAB and ASPEN PLUS, material properties, process intensification and nanotechnology. It also addresses critical global challenges, emphasizing green chemistry, waste minimization, resource recovery, and workplace safety.
Together, these volumes provide a holistic understanding of chemical engineering, equipping readers with the tools to innovate and lead in a dynamic and sustainable future.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Part 1. Fundamental Principles
Chapter 1. Overview of Chemical Engineering
1.1. Introduction
1.2. History of chemical engineering
1.3. Chemical engineering profession
1.4. Features and challenges in chemical engineering
1.5. Conclusions
1.6. References
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Material and Energy Balances
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Process term definitions
2.3. Engineering calculations – introduction
2.4. International system of units (SI)
2.5. Analysis of processes and variables affecting density
2.6. Classification of material balances in process fundamentals
2.7. General balance equation
2.8. Flow charts and process balancing
2.9. Degree-of-freedom analysis
2.10. Procedure for calculating material balances in single unit processes
2.11. Recycling and bypassing
2.12. Limiting reactant
2.13. Product separation and recycling
2.14. Combustion
2.15. Single-phase systems
2.16. Clausius–Clapeyron equation
2.17. Mass balance problem
2.18. Energy and the concept of energy balance
2.19. Energy balances on open systems in the steady state
2.20. Estimation of heat capacity
2.21. Estimation and correlation of latent heat
2.22. Heats of solution and mixing
2.23. Heat of reaction measurement
2.24. Energy balance problem
2.25. References
Chapter 3. Laws of Thermodynamics
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Thermodynamical systems
3.3. Types of system
3.4. Macroscopic system and properties
3.5. State of system and state variables
3.6. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
3.7. Heat
3.8. Work
3.9. State functions and path functions
3.10. First law of thermodynamics
3.11. Internal energy is a state function
3.12. Work and heat are path functions
3.13. Second law of thermodynamics
3.14. Thermal energy reservoir
3.15. Heat engines
3.16. The second law: Kelvin–Plank statement
3.17. The second law: Clausius’ statement
3.18. Refrigerator and heat pumps
3.19. References
Chapter 4. Thermodynamic Properties and Equations of States
4.1. Thermodynamic property relations of pure substances
4.2. Equations of states
4.3. References
Chapter 5. Thermodynamics and Phase Equilibrium
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Fundamentals of thermodynamics
5.3. Vapor–liquid equilibrium
5.4. Solid–liquid equilibrium
5.5. Liquid–liquid equilibrium
5.6. References
5.7. Further reading
Part 2. Fluid Mechanics and Transport Phenomena
Chapter 6. Basics of Flow Through Equipment
6.1. Fundamental laws of fluid mechanics
6.2. Pumps, compressors and flowmeters
6.3. Pressure drop in designing equipment
6.4. Computational fluid dynamics
6.5. Conclusions
6.6. References
Chapter 7. Conduction, Convection and Radiation
7.1. Fundamentals of heat transfer mechanisms
7.2. Conduction
7.3. Convection heat transfer
7.4. Radiation heat transfer
7.5. References
Chapter 8. Diffusion and Mass Transfer Coefficients
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Diffusion mass transfer
8.3. Mass transfer coefficients
8.4. Nomenclature
8.5. References
Part 3. Separation Processes
Chapter 9. Extraction
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Conventional extraction methods
9.3. Modern extraction methods
9.4. Conclusion
9.5. References
Chapter 10. Distillation
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Applications of distillation process
10.3. Relative volatility
10.4. Classification of distillation
10.5. References
Chapter 11. Mathematical Modeling of Binary and Multicomponent Distillation
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Ideal simple distillation
11.3. Nonideal multicomponent distillation
11.4. Batch distillation
11.5. Applications and advancements
11.6. Conclusion
11.7. References
Chapter 12. Filtration and Membrane Processes
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Types of membranes
12.3. Membrane fabrication techniques
12.4. Application of membrane processes
12.5. Membrane fouling
12.6. Conclusion
12.7. References
Chapter 13. Pervaporation
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Basics of membrane separation processes
13.3. Pervaporation
13.4. Selection of membrane
13.5. Recent developments
13.6. Future scope and emerging trends
13.7. References
List of Authors
Index
Summary of Volume
Other titles from iSTE in Chemical Engineering
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1.
Fundamental quantities and their units in various systems
Chapter 4
Table 4.1.
Equations of states and their parameters
Chapter 5
Table 5.1.
Thermodynamic properties: symbols and relations among them
Table 5.2.
Excess Gibbs energy-based models for VLE data reduction
4
Chapter 6
Table 6.1.
Fluxes and supply terms (sources)
Table 6.2.
Newton’s and Stokes’ laws (Jou et al. 2010)
Chapter 7
Table 7.1.
Heat Transfer Rate Units
Table 7.2.
Definitions of thermodynamics and heat transfer
Table 7.3.
Best conductors of heat: the higher thermal conductivity value
Table 7.4.
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivities of solids, liqu...
Table 7.5.
Effect of wall thickness on heat transfer rate
Chapter 8
Table 8.1.
Liquid phase diffusivities of some compounds at 25°C (Wi...
Table 8.2.
Mass transfer coefficient correlations for a few simple situati...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1.
Table showing different properties of solvents used in extracti...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1.
Advantages and disadvantages of membrane processes (Saleh and...
Table 13.2.
Summary of various membrane processes (Dutta 2007)
List of Figures
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1.
Flow chart of ethylene oxide production
Figure 2.2.
Energy balance for adiabatic reactor
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1.
Thermodynamical system
Figure 3.2.
Open system
Figure 3.3.
Closed system
Figure 3.4.
Isolated system
Figure 3.5.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Figure 3.6.
Sign convention of heat
Figure 3.7.
Internal energy change for direct and reverse paths
Figure 3.8.
Work done for different paths followed
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Figure 5.2.
Isothermal (P
−
x
−
y) VLE plot
Figure 5.3.
Isobaric (T
−
x
−
y) VLE plot
Figure 5.4.
x
−
y
VLE plot
Figure 5.5.
P
−
T VLE plot
Figure 5.6.
Minimum boiling azeotrope
Figure 5.7.
Maximum boiling azeotrope
Figure 5.8.
Methodology of group contribution methods
Figure 5.9.
Graphical representation of the Redlich–Kister test
Figure 5.10.
SLE solution equilibrium diagram: ideal vapor and liquid system
Figure 5.11.
SLE solution equilibrium diagram: ideal liquid system with im...
Figure 5.12.
Liquid–liquid equilibrium: binary T–x plots
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1.
Bernoulli law (adopted after permission from Borremans (2019))
Figure 6.2.
Static and dynamic pressure (adopted after permission from Bor...
Figure 6.3.
Venturi (adopted after permission from Borremans (2019))
Figure 6.4.
Friction loss (adopted after permission from Borremans (2019))
Figure 6.5.
Types of flows (adopted after permission from Borremans (2019))
Figure 6.6.
Laminar versus turbulent flow in a pipe (adopted from The Cons...
Figure 6.7.
Pump curves for different pump types (adopted with permission...
Figure 6.8.
Positive displacement pump and system characteristics (adopted...
Figure 6.9.
Types of compressors for industrial use
Figure 6.10.
Typical application range of compressors
Figure 6.11.
Friction factor, f for rough tubes as a function of the relat...
Figure 6.12.
Types of flow patterns (adopted after permission from VDI Hea...
Figure 6.13.
Computational domain for flow over a surface-mounted obstacle...
Figure 6.14.
Representative computational mesh for flow over a step (adopt...
Figure 6.15.
Separated Stokes flow around a surface-mounted obstacle:...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1.
Heat transfer mechanisms.
Figure 7.2.
The conduction mode of the heat transfer mechanism.
Figure 7.3.
Heat conduction through the plain wall
Figure 7.4.
Heat conduction under steady-state conditions through multiple...
Figure 7.5.
Steady-state heat conduction through cylinder
Figure 7.6.
Steady-state heat conduction through cylinder (composite layer...
Figure 7.7.
Steady-state heat conduction through sphere (single layer)
Figure 7.8.
Steady-state heat conduction through cylinder (composite layer).
Figure 7.9.
Convective heat transfer mechanism.
Figure 7.10.
Heat transfer from inner to the outer side of circular pipe t...
Figure 7.11.
Radiative heat transfer (Bergman et al. 2011).
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1.
Diffusion of gas particles from high concentration to low conc...
Figure 8.2.
Important applications of diffusion in gases
Figure 8.3.
Diffusion of purple dye in water
Figure 8.4.
Important applications of diffusion in liquids
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1.
Liquid–liquid extraction technique (prepared for this...
Figure 9.2.
Solid-phase extraction technique (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.3.
Extraction technique with maceration process (prepared for thi...
Figure 9.4.
Extraction technique using percolation (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.5.
Extraction technique using hydrodistillation process (prepared...
Figure 9.6.
Extraction technique using hydrodiffusion process (prepared fo...
Figure 9.7.
Extraction using distillation technique (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.8.
Extraction using distillation technique (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.9.
Extraction technique using sublimation process (prepared for t...
Figure 9.10.
Chromatography technique (TLC) (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.11.
Soxhlet extraction technique (prepared for this work).
Figure 9.12.
Accelerated solvent extraction technique (prepared for this...
Figure 9.13.
Microwave-assisted extraction technique (prepared for this...
Figure 9.14.
Ultrasound-assisted extraction technique (prepared for this...
Figure 9.15.
Pressurized hot water extraction technique (prepared for this...
Figure 9.16.
Pulsed electric field-assisted extraction technique (prepared...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1.
Simple distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.2.
Equilibrium or flash distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.3.
Steam distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.4.
Azeotropic distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.5.
Extractive distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.6.
Fractional distillation (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.7.
Boiling point diagram of two miscible liquids for fractional...
Figure 10.8.
Distillation column (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.9.
Plot for the determination of the number of theoretical plate...
Figure 10.10.
Vapor or liquid entering and leaving the plates of the disti...
Figure 10.11.
Rectifying section (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.12.
Stripping section (prepared for this work)
Figure 10.13.
Liquid and vapor above and below the feed plate (prepared fo...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1.
Schematic diagram of ideal simple distillation (prepared for...
Figure 11.2.
Schematic diagram of nonideal multicomponent distillation (pr...
Figure 11.3.
Schematic diagram of batch distillation (prepared for this wo...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1.
Graphical representation of several membrane classes: isotrop...
Figure 12.2.
Different membrane processes and retained species
Figure 12.3.
Graphical representation of electrospinning method setup, (a)...
Figure 12.4.
Different classifications of
membrane fouling (Alkhati...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1.
(A) Process diagram of membrane separation. (B) Schematic pre...
Figure 13.2.
Membrane process classification based on pore size.
Figure 13.3.
Schematic presentation of osmosis and reverse osmosis processes.
Figure 13.4.
Different mass transport mechanisms during the PV process.
Figure 13.5.
Schematic of solution–diffusion mechanism: (A) sorptio...
Figure 13.6.
Schematic of pervaporation laboratory set-up. Reproduced with...
Figure 13.7.
Applications of pervaporation
Figure 13.8.
Configurations of various integrated distillation–perv...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Authors
Index
Summary of Volume
Other titles from iSTE in Chemical Engineering
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Chemical Engineering Essentials 1
Comprehensive Chemical Engineering
Edited by
Raj Kumar Arya
George D. Verros
J. Paulo Davim
First published 2025 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUKwww.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USAwww.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2025The rights of Raj Kumar Arya, George D. Verros and J. Paulo Davim to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024951138
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-984-6
Preface
The field of chemical engineering has evolved significantly over the decades, expanding its horizons to encompass a range of interdisciplinary applications and cutting-edge advancements. Chemical Engineering Essentials 1 is designed as a comprehensive resource for both students and professionals, providing fundamental insights along with in-depth discussions on advanced topics. With the rapid advancements in technology and growing concerns over sustainability and safety, chemical engineering is at a transformative juncture, poised to offer sustainable and innovative solutions across industries. This handbook seeks to serve as a definitive guide for the current generation of engineers, providing both foundational knowledge and modern approaches required to navigate and excel in this dynamic field.
Volume 1 is organized into three sections, as is Volume 2, each addressing critical aspects of chemical engineering.
Part 1 of this volume: Fundamental Principles lays the groundwork, beginning with an overview of the field and covering essential topics such as material and energy balances, thermodynamics and phase equilibrium. These fundamental principles form the bedrock upon which more specialized knowledge is built, equipping readers with a strong theoretical base.
Part 2 of this volume: Fluid Mechanics and Transport Phenomena delves into the physics and behavior of fluid systems and heat transfer. Chapters on fluid flow, heat conduction, convection, radiation and mass transfer provide essential understanding for designing and analyzing chemical processes.
Part 3 of this volume: Separation Processes covers the vital area of chemical separations, with discussions on extraction, distillation, filtration and emerging membrane processes such as pervaporation. Mathematical modeling techniques for binary and multicomponent distillation are also covered to provide a deeper insight into process design and optimization.
Part 1 of Volume 2: Reaction Engineering introduces readers to various reaction mechanisms and reactor designs, with a special focus on applications within the pharmaceutical industry and the concept of reactive chromatography. The section concludes with the mathematical modeling of batch reactors and nonisothermal continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs), complemented by simulation studies using MATLAB and ASPEN PLUS.
Part 2 of Volume 2: Material Properties and Advanced Applications focuses on the diverse materials used in chemical engineering, alongside advanced applications such as hydrogen production, vinyl chloride production, process intensification and the integration of nanotechnology in the field. These topics underscore the importance of selecting the right materials and processes to achieve efficiency and innovation in chemical engineering applications.
Part 3 of Volume 2: Sustainability and Safety highlights the importance of green chemistry and sustainable practices in chemical engineering. This section also covers waste minimization, resource recovery and safety management, including hazard identification and risk assessment – critical components of responsible engineering practice in today’s world.
This handbook represents the collective effort of numerous contributors, whose expertise and dedication have shaped this comprehensive guide. We extend our deepest gratitude to each author who has contributed invaluable insights and research to make this work possible. Our heartfelt thanks also go to our families, whose unwavering support, love and encouragement made this journey possible.
Special acknowledgment goes to the team at ISTE. Their efforts and guidance were instrumental in bringing this book to completion.
It is our sincere hope that the two volumes of Chemical Engineering Essentials will serve as a valuable resource, offering knowledge, inspiration and practical tools for all of those engaged in the field of chemical engineering.
Raj Kumar ARYA
George D. VERROS
J. Paulo DAVIM
January 2025
PART 1Fundamental Principles
1Overview of Chemical Engineering
1.1. Introduction
Chemical engineers have been enhancing our overall welfare for over a century. Chemical engineers have contributed to several advancements that impact our daily lives, ranging from the creation of more efficient computer chips to improvements in recycling, illness treatment, water purification and energy generation.
Chemical engineering (CE), also referred to as process engineering, is a branch of engineering that uses mathematics, economics, physical sciences and biological sciences to create and modify chemicals, energy and materials. Chemical Engineering was originally developed as a combination of mechanical engineering and applied chemistry, with a specific focus on its application in the petrochemical and heavy chemical industries.
Chemical engineers convert laboratory-developed procedures into practical applications for the commercial manufacturing of products, and then strive to uphold and enhance such processes. They depend on the fundamental principles of engineering, namely mathematics, physics and chemistry. Biology is assuming a progressively significant role.
Chemical engineers primarily conceptualize and develop procedures related to chemical production on a large scale. Chemical engineers primarily focus on designing and resolving issues related to the manufacturing of various substances such as chemicals, fuels, foods, pharmaceuticals and biologicals. They are primarily hired by industrial facilities of significant size to optimize efficiency and enhance the quality of products, while minimizing expenses.
Chemical engineering encompasses the synthesis and fabrication of goods using chemical reactions and procedures. This includes the creation of machinery, systems and procedures for the purification of basic substances and the blending, combining and treatment of chemical compounds.
Chemical engineers enhance food processing processes and develop more efficient methods for fertilizer production, with the aim of augmenting both the amount and quality of food resources. In addition, they fabricate artificial fibers that enhance the comfort and water resistance of our garments; they devise techniques for the large-scale production of pharmaceuticals, thereby reducing their cost; and they invent safer and more efficient processes for refining petroleum products, thereby increasing the productivity and cost-effectiveness of energy and chemical resources.
Additionally, chemical engineers devise strategies to address environmental issues, such as pollution control and remediation. Indeed, they engage in the manipulation of chemicals, which are employed in the production or enhancement of virtually all the objects within your surroundings.
1.2. History of chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is a field that emerged from the practice of “industrial chemistry” in the late 19th century, as stated by Wikipedia (2024a, 2024b). Prior to the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, the production of industrial chemicals and consumer items such as soap primarily relied on batch processing methods. Batch processing involves manual labor, when workers combine predetermined quantities of materials in a container and then subject the mixture to heating, cooling or pressurization for a specific duration. Subsequently, the product can be separated, refined and examined in order to obtain a marketable product.
Currently, batch processes are still used for more valuable products, such as pharmaceutical intermediates, specialty and formulated products such as perfumes and paints, or in food production such as pure maple syrups. Despite being slower and less efficient in terms of labor and equipment usage, batch methods are still profitable in these cases.
Chemical engineering approaches have enabled the production of higher volumes of chemicals through continuous “assembly line” chemical processes in industrial process development. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from batch processing to a more continuous processing approach. The Industrial Revolution resulted in an unparalleled increase in demand, in terms of both quantity and quality, for large quantities of chemicals such as soda ash. This entailed two objectives: firstly, expanding the scale of the activity and enhancing operational efficiency, and secondly, exploring viable alternatives to batch processing, such as continuous operation. The practice of industrial chemistry dates back to the 1800s, and its academic study in British universities commenced with the publishing of the influential book “Chemical Technology” in 1848 by Friedrich Ludwig Knapp, Edmund Ronalds and Thomas Richardson.
According to Wikipedia (2024a, 2024b), James F. Donnelly is credited with referencing an 1839 mention of chemical engineering in the context of sulfuric acid manufacturing. However, it was noted in the same piece that George E. Davis, an English consultant, was attributed with originating the word. In addition, Davis made an attempt to establish a Society of Chemical Engineering. However, it ended up being called the Society of Chemical Industry in 1881, with Davis serving as its inaugural secretary.
The term “chemical engineering”, which refers to the application of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, gained widespread usage in England after 1850. The inaugural effort to establish a Society of Chemical Engineers in London took place in 1880. Consequently, the Society of Chemical Industry was established in 1881. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) was established in 1908, while the U.K. Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) was established in 1922. The term “chemical engineer” was widely used in Great Britain and the United States by 1910.
1.3. Chemical engineering profession
Commonly known as process engineering, chemical engineering is a discipline of engineering that uses physical and biological sciences, mathematics and economics to produce and modify chemicals, energy and materials, as stated by AIChE (2024).
Traditionally, it encompasses the fields of heat transfer, mass transfer, momentum transfer, kinetics and reaction engineering, chemical thermodynamics, control systems and dynamic simulation, separation processes and unit operations.
Chemical engineering, traditionally used in the petrochemical and heavy chemical sectors, has experienced significant advancements and expanded its applications to many domains such as climate change, environmental systems, biomedical science, novel materials and complex systems. Chemical engineers have a significant impact on the manufacturing of nearly every item produced on a large scale in industry.
Common tasks include:
ensuring adherence to health, safety and environmental regulations;
engaging in research to enhance manufacturing processes;
creating and strategizing the arrangement of equipment implementing safety protocols for handling hazardous compounds;
supervising and enhancing the efficiency of manufacturing procedures. Calculating the expenses associated with production.
Chemical engineers employed in corporate and managerial settings frequently make visits to research and production sites. Engaging with individuals and fostering teamwork are essential for the achievement of chemical engineering projects.
Chemical engineers commonly operate in manufacturing plants, research laboratories or pilot plant facilities. They operate in the vicinity of expansive manufacturing machinery that is located both indoors and outdoors. Hence, it is frequently necessary for them to don personal protective gear such as hard hats, goggles and steel-toe shoes. Chemical engineering is used in several industries and sectors, and is primarily employed in industrial facilities that focus on large-scale production, aiming to optimize efficiency and the excellence of the final product, while minimizing expenses. Chemical engineering is used by several industries including aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, environmental, medical and military sectors to enhance and advance their technical goods. These products encompass a wide range of applications.
Advanced materials have exceptional strength, durability and bonding properties for use in automobiles. Materials that are compatible with living organisms can be used for implants and prosthesis. Optoelectronic devices are designed to use light for various purposes. One important aspect of these devices is the use of films, which play a crucial role in their functionality. These films are specifically engineered to enhance the performance and efficiency of optoelectronic devices.
1.4. Features and challenges in chemical engineering
According to Garnier (2014) and Hipple (2017), numerous captivating and productive difficulties in the field of chemical engineering arise from the amalgamation of chemical engineering with chemistry, physics and biology, which necessitates a redefining of the control volume. This list does not encompass all of the forthcoming difficulties in the field of chemical engineering and the areas where chemical engineering abilities will be applicable:
Energy resources and use: in this context, it is necessary to disregard any “agendas” that may be primarily driven by political constituents, such as corn-based ethanol. Energy is necessary for the provision of food, shelter and transportation. In order to accommodate the growing global population and the increasing demand for Western standards of living in what are currently referred to as “Third World” countries, it is imperative that we adopt more efficient sources of energy, unless we choose to revert to a completely agrarian society and lower our current standard of living. A recent breakthrough has occurred in the understanding of underground fluid flow and mechanics, commonly known as “fracking”. This breakthrough enables the recovery of hydrocarbons that were previously trapped in underground rock formations. It involves injecting high-pressure fluids to break apart the rock formations. Enhanced oil recovery incorporates advanced surface chemical techniques into the conventional process of drilling wells into liquid reservoirs underground. Energy conservation will hold equal significance. It is impractical to believe that inhabitants in developing countries will not aspire to the same luxuries that are commonly enjoyed by those in more developed nations. If this is to occur, there will be a need for greater energy resources and improved energy efficiency. In recent decades, there has been a significant improvement in energy efficiency in various industries and goods, which can be attributed, at least in part, to the increase in energy prices. While there has been a recent shift in this trend, once these energy saving measures are implemented, it is improbable that they will be reversed. As a component of this endeavor, there will be a gradual advancement in the conversion of solar energy. While solar energy is abundant worldwide, its energy density is far lower than that of petroleum fuels. Efforts to enhance the efficiency of solar power conversion, for both thermal and electrical energies, have made consistent advancements. However, these improvements are still insufficient to sustain a solar-based economy. Chemical engineers will have a crucial role in the progress of this technology, particularly in terms of improving catalysts, enhancing collection material efficiency and advancing energy distribution technologies. Affordable energy is crucial for enhancing the quality of life for the majority of individuals in underdeveloped countries. Given the well-established fact of anthropogenic greenhouse gasses leading to gradual global warming, a major task is to generate energy that has a minimal impact on the environment. Chemical engineers are tasked with the job of verifying and ensuring that energy balances and thermodynamics are optimized in the most economically feasible manner. The utilization of renewable sources and the application of green chemistry in chemical production is an expansion of the task. It is the duty of chemical engineers to identify processes and reactions with favorable thermodynamics and energy balances, and subsequently enhance these processes through collaboration with economists, environmental scientists and society as a whole. The efficient storage of solar energy, which includes energy derived from wind and ocean currents, in order to facilitate its distribution during periods of high human demand, continues to be a significant challenge. Hence, it is crucial to prioritize the advancement of reversible processes that enable efficient energy storage and usage, while also exhibiting prompt initiation and termination properties. Efficiently releasing significant amounts of electrical energy is crucial for meeting societal demands. However, it is equally important to recognize the immense advantages of capturing and storing solar energy in a manner that imitates natural photosynthesis. This involves storing solar energy in chemical bonds, rather than as heat or electronic charge separation. If the artificial photosynthetic reaction, which harnesses solar energy, uses carbon dioxide, then two significant goals would be accomplished with a single technological advancement. It is important to note that although the reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen releases a large amount of heat, the opposite reaction, which is the breaking apart of carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen due to heat, can occur at the temperatures achievable in a solar furnace. The outstanding technological challenges involve the creation of sophisticated refractory materials capable of enduring the necessary temperatures to facilitate the reaction, effective heat exchange and the efficient separation of the resulting products. The process of dissolving carbon monoxide in a solution of alkali metal in water to produce alkali metal forms appears to be a highly favorable method.
Water: the issue of providing drinking water to a growing worldwide population is compounded by the fact that only a tiny percentage of water resources are readily available for consumption. Therefore, it is necessary to explore alternative sources of non-fresh water for drinking purposes, as well as implement effective water recycling and reuse strategies. The provision of safe drinking water, together with food and energy, is sometimes referred to as the “great nexus” of engineering challenges in the 21st century.
Green chemicals: it is important to fully use renewable feedstock and make the most of all its components. Due to the relatively low energy density of biomass compared to fossil carbon sources, it is necessary to carefully reassess the energy efficiency of biomass processing. This includes the creation of smaller mobile processing units that can be transported to regions where biomass is accessible during specific seasons. It is important to consider potential social and community advantages when doing a re-evaluation. An essential element in optimizing the utilization of biomass will involve the advancement of novel chemical routes that enable more efficient exploitation of the compositions of polysaccharides and lignins. The manipulation of cell differentiation and tissue formation in higher plants by certain insects in the families
Hemiptera
and
Hymenoptera
, resulting in the formation of galls and related protective structures, is a topic that deserves thorough multidisciplinary investigation. Although numerous beneficial enzymes are already manufactured, extracted and used in large-scale commercial applications, their catalytic rates are often constrained by heat instability, denaturation caused by surfactants and deviations in pH from the neutral range. Chemical engineers have conventionally employed heat, pressure and pH to expedite chemical reactions. However, the investigation of extremophile organisms and their enzymes, which have evidently developed to endure extreme temperatures, pressures and pH levels found in deep ocean vents and volcanic pools, seems to be at an early stage.
Materials: chemical engineering will play a significant role in two long-term elements of this topic. Plastics recycling is the first and most frequently discussed method. The process of segregating polymers into readily recyclable components is highly expensive and inefficient, yielding materials that are seldom as functional as the initial raw ingredients. The economic justification for the separation process of materials such as polyethylene, polystyrene, ABS, nylon, etc., is seldom found, and instead, is supported by taxpayer financing. During this process, the characteristics of the polymer usually deteriorate, mostly due to a decrease in molecular weight, rendering them unsuitable for their original intended use. There are numerous instances of products in the store that bear a label indicating that they include a maximum of 10% recycled materials. Adding more would render the properties that the user is paying for unattainable. Several long-term events will occur, all of which will necessitate substantial involvement from chemical engineering. One possible solution is the implementation of separation technologies that can effectively and cost-efficiently separate different types of discarded plastics. This would enable a greater utilization of these plastics in their original products. The second objective is minimizing plastic consumption by implementing packaging and system modification. For instance, there are situations where a sizable plastic container can be transformed into a “shrink wrap” style packaging, resulting in a significant reduction in the amount of plastic used. It might also be feasible to completely eliminate conventional packaging by using different kinds of coatings. Furthermore, cost-effective pyrolysis methods (heating materials to high temperatures without oxygen, in contrast to combustion) could potentially turn polymers back into their original monomers, such as polystyrene to styrene, polyethylene to ethylene, polypropylene to propylene, etc. By generating conventional hydrocarbon monomers, it becomes simpler to separate them using typical chemical engineering techniques such as distillation. Additionally, these monomers can be used in various applications, not limited to the plastic they were derived from. Efforts are now being made in all of these areas, although the second option is likely to be the most resilient and sustainable in the long run. In addition, we must include “nanomaterials” in this category, as they are increasingly being incorporated into consumer items to offer distinctive features. The possible influence of 10–9 particle size materials and their distribution within the environment is currently being debated and analyzed. Nevertheless, these materials of significant size have a profound and beneficial effect on numerous material characteristics. Chemists and chemical engineers will encounter significant hurdles in the surface chemistry, contact with other materials and affordable manufacture of such materials. The performance of any separation process will vary dramatically when the particles to be separated fall within this particular size range. Within the previously discussed periodic table, there exists a category of substances referred to as “rare earth” metals. Illustrative instances encompass metallic elements such as dysprosium and neodymium. These elements are often used in modest amounts to enhance the characteristics of primary metals. They are infrequent in their incidence and costly to produce. A significant chemical engineering obstacle is the reduction of costs associated with the recovery and manufacturing of rare materials, as well as the exploration of alternative materials and product designs that do not rely on such scarce resources.
Medical, biomedical and biochemical applications: artificial organs, which are now commonly used, are familiar to all of us. Artificial hearts and kidney dialysis machines can be understood as pumps and filters that serve as chemical engineering substitutes for the original organs in the human body. The principles we have covered, such as fluid dynamics, fluid characteristics, polymers and filtration, form the foundation for the development of these synthetic organs. As our comprehension of human body functionality advances, it is probable that we will witness the development of more artificial and replacement organs and body parts, with chemical engineering fundamentals playing a crucial role in their design. Examples may encompass artificial lungs, prosthetic joints and bodily fluid filtration. Chemical engineering principles, such as fluid flow, friction, filtration fundamentals, porosity, pressure drop and others, are essential components of these products. Currently, numerous educational institutions have integrated the chemical engineering department with this particular field of study, resulting in its rebranding as either biochemical engineering or biomedical engineering. An artificial heart is a man-made reproduction of the natural human heart. However, from a chemical engineering perspective, it can be described as a pump. All the factors involved in pump design, such as friction, energy requirements, flow rates, valve restriction and control, are equally applicable to these devices as they are to traditional pumps. However, it is important to note that the limitations on available energy, friction and pressure drop are significantly more restrictive in these devices. The materials used in the production of these devices must possess compatibility with human tissue to prevent rejection. This issue of incompatibility is significantly more complex than the previously described concerns of corrosion. It involves not only the degradation of materials, but also the potential risk of human fatalities. There are numerous prescription medications that are preferable to be taken in modest, continuous doses, rather than large doses once or twice a day. The practice of enclosing and gradually releasing various categories of medications using a dermal patch is increasingly prevalent. The process of encapsulating a drug and gradually releasing it is achieved by comprehending the rates at which molecules pass through the skin and aligning this absorption rate with an encapsulation method that releases the drug at an equivalent rate. Creation of a systematic methodology involves modeling and governing the behavior and functionality of the human body and brain processes using engineering principles. Use of simulation and control techniques to address several levels of biological systems, including DNA, RNA, cells, tissues, organs and the human body, in order to enhance the quality of life for those with genetic and related illnesses. Use of minimally intrusive sensors for the purpose of monitoring and regulating blood pressure, blood lipid content and heart rate. Nanotechnology enables precise targeting in the field of oncology and medicine delivery. Advancements in biotechnologies and enhanced biomaterials have the purpose of regenerating organs.
Biochemical engineering is the integration of chemical engineering and biology to efficiently manufacture valuable medical products and systems on a larger scale. From a chemical engineering perspective, there are several distinct obstacles involved in this endeavor. Upon revisiting our analysis of membrane materials, it becomes evident that biological molecules, including viruses and proteins, possess particle sizes ranging from 0.01 to 10 μm. These sizes are considerably lower than the typical particle sizes generated in traditional inorganic and organic chemical reactions. This complicates the separation and retrieval of active, desirable molecules, making it necessary to employ more costly and advanced recovery methods. Typically, the processing of biological entities begins with solutions that are very diluted. The confluence of this component and the particle size presents a significant obstacle in achieving liquid–solid separation in this field, particularly in meeting the stringent pharmaceutical and FDA purity standards. The majority of biological materials are able to exist and carry out their functions under normal body and environmental settings. Therefore, it is impractical to carry out the majority of reactions at elevated temperatures, which could potentially enhance reaction speeds. This fact may also impose constraints on other unit operation notions for consideration. The efficacy of numerous biopharmaceuticals and medications is such that the quantity of substance required for a substantial market share may be comparable to that of a small-scale pilot plant in the conventional chemical or petrochemical sector. While certain scale-up guidelines may not be applicable, the importance of efficient production and high yields of highly valued minerals remains significant. The challenges involved in developing the medicine into an acceptable form for human consumption, such as its dissolving rate in the stomach and gastric tract, as well as the necessary inert components, are significant. The concept of stereo specificity is typically not taken into account in traditional chemical engineering and processing. Nevertheless, it holds great significance in the process of designing and producing physiologically active compounds. The carbon atom possesses a distinctive geometric structure, resembling a pyramid, due to its four bond connections, with the “C” molecule positioned at the middle. If the four molecules connected to this carbon are distinct, there is a chance that the carbon will exhibit chirality, indicating that it lacks symmetry in terms of its geometry. One of the peripheral groups will seem to be receding into the paper when drawn, while the other will protrude outward. The differentiation between these molecules is referred to as “left-hand” and “right-hand” rotations (or d-, l-; denoting dextro or levo rotation, respectively). Biologically relevant or active compounds, such as medicines, are crucial because our human body specifically recognizes and interacts with l- (levo) rotated molecules. These two molecules, which have undergone a chiral rotation, are referred to as enantiomers. This means that they cannot be overlapped with each other, regardless of the physical rotation of the molecule. The human body can only identify and metabolize molecules that are in the “levo” or “l-” configuration. Therefore, whenever there is an optical isomer present, it indicates the existence of an identical molecule that needs to be separated before the material can be used. The lack of absorption of the opposing isomer forms the foundation for many artificial sweeteners available in the market that possess a “right-handed” structure. We have the sensation of the molecule’s taste (sweetness), but our bodies do not assimilate it and it is excreted as part of regular bodily fluids. The distinction between molecules with left-handed and right-handed orientations is referred to as various “enantiomers”. Separating enantiomers may not always be essential, depending on the potential adverse effects of the other optical isomer. However, when separation is required, it significantly influences decisions in chemical engineering processes. The main point is that while having distinct “optical” characteristics, these molecules share the same physical properties, such as boiling or melting points. Conventional and less expensive methods such as distillation cannot be used to separate these enantiomers. Minor variations in solubility properties can be used in crystallization methods, chromatography and specialized ion-exchange resins. Furthermore, apart from the aforementioned fundamental obstacles, we are also confronted with the obstacle of sluggish response rates. Biological processes generally exhibit slower kinetic speeds in comparison to conventional chemical reactions. Consequently, the capacity to increase temperatures during processes such as tissue culture growth is severely restricted due to temperature sensitivity restrictions. Turbulence is typically necessary in biological reactions, just as it is in other chemical reactions. However, the heightened susceptibility to mechanical forces may need the use of specialized configurations. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that chemical engineers, due to their extensive knowledge of safety, can make valuable contributions to safety assessments of biochemical processes and products. The potential dissemination of hazardous, biochemically strong substances with minute particle dimensions, such as viruses, is a constant source of worry, and the specialized knowledge of chemical engineering in gas management and filtration can be employed to address this issue.
Reaction engineering: the utilization of a blend of organic, inorganic and biochemical catalysis techniques aims to lower the energy required for chemical reactions, enhance the specificity of the reactions, decrease energy consumption, facilitate the separation of by-products and substitute toxic organic solvents and reagents containing scarce elements with reactions conducted in water-based or bio-based solvents, following environmentally friendly chemical principles. Using photosynthesis to transform solar energy and carbon dioxide into glucose, ligno-cellulosic polymers and their intermediates by the use of enzyme catalysts and/or aqueous systems. Comprehend and enhance the movement of substances, the transfer of energy, the degree of reaction and the ability to choose specific reactions in the field of medicine. Applications encompass the targeted eradication of cancer cells, bacteria, fungi and viruses (infection), as well as the control of immunological responses. Predictive reaction engineering involves manipulating the rate of reactant and product removal in accordance with the kinetics of the reaction in order to reduce the occurrence of side reactions. This approach aims to facilitate separation processes by making them easier and more efficient.
Unit operations and transport phenomena: enhanced separation techniques with more selectivity, specificity and reduced energy consumption for gas–gas and liquid–liquid systems. Efficient and resistant reverse osmosis and membrane separations with a high flow rate and the ability to prevent fouling. Enhanced isolation of heat-sensitive compounds with comparable boiling points by fractional distillation or alternative methods. Improved techniques for the pumping and transportation of mixtures of solid particles in liquids, particularly when the solid concentration is high.
Multiscale engineering: establishing connections between the nano-, micro- and mesoscales and the macroscale in both materials and processes will be essential for addressing the bulk of difficulties mentioned. Improved molecular dynamic simulations are crucial for the advancement of nanotechnology through molecular engineering. Materials should be used that are capable of being recycled into similar products, or if not feasible, into a series of products with decreasing value, ultimately resulting in entirely biodegradable end-products. Enhance the production of materials and composites by the comprehensive comprehension of component structures, ranging from atomic scale to macroscopic qualities, using low-energy techniques. Efforts should be focused on replacing energy-intensive concrete and metals used in commodity applications.
Advancements in chemical engineering have typically been gradual and step-by-step. Chemical engineering originated from the fusion of mechanical engineering and applied chemistry, and has evolved into a comprehensive and expansive field that consistently pursues novel challenges. One area that is now focusing on addressing these difficulties is the development of advanced technologies to efficiently use matter and energy in order to create innovative goods, such as organs, energy storage systems and molecularly designed composites.
A closely associated field is process optimization, which aims to ensure that both current and future products are produced in the most efficient and sustainable manner, with regard to energy consumption and waste generation. Another area of difficulty involves constructing new facilities and adapting existing ones in a manner that ensures they are authorized by society to function and use the technologies that are essential for maintaining satisfactory living conditions.
1.5. Conclusions
In recent decades, the field of chemical engineering has made rapid progress and found applications in several industries such as biomedicine, environmental systems and innovative materials. Currently, research in chemical engineering is thriving in various areas such as nanomaterials, microfluidics, nanoreactors, biomedicine and bioinformatics, artificial intelligence (AI), etc. Currently, ongoing research is mostly centered on materials science and the creation of new processes. However, there is also a strong emphasis on reducing waste and emissions by recycling and reusing, as well as using environmentally friendly methods to generate useful chemicals. These environmentally friendly procedures prioritize not only the efficient utilization of raw materials and energy, but also adhere to society’s environmental regulations, such as the circular economy concept.
The primary objective in creating an industrial process is to effectively meet consumer expectations while simultaneously minimizing the negative impact on the environment. Nevertheless, the primary responsibility of the chemical engineer remained unchanged: to achieve the most efficient design of industrial processes by extrapolating data obtained from laboratory tests.
Chemical engineers worldwide employ conventional techniques such as applied mathematics and numerical analysis, transport phenomena, physical chemistry principles such as reaction kinetics and surface phenomena, engineering thermodynamics and control theory to achieve their objectives.
The recent progress in various interconnected disciplines, such as AI and nanotechnology, has prompted a reassessment of the established concepts of chemical engineering. This reassessment focuses specifically on the design of complicated processes at the nanoscale.
Challenges in the field of chemical engineering applications encompass various contemporary aspects of reaction engineering, including photocatalysis and nanoscale reactions. Additionally, there are biomedical challenges related to extending human life and improving the quality of living through the production of artificial organs on a large scale.
Energy problems, such as the storage of solar energy and the reduction of CO2 emissions, are also significant. Furthermore, there is a focus on developing more efficient and sustainable chemical industries, such as the better utilization of biomass. Lastly, there is a need for the advancement of novel intelligent materials, such as functional coatings.
The aforementioned issues in both research and applications necessitate a reassessment of the theory and practice of chemical engineering that has been created in recent decades. This book aims to connect theoretical concepts with practical applications, as well as integrate current research with industrial use, in response to the latest advancements in the field.
1.6. References
Garnier, G. (2014). Grand challenges in chemical engineering.
Frontiers in Chemistry
, 2, 17. doi:
10.3389/fchem.2014.00017
.
Hipple, J. (2017).
Chemical Engineering for Non-Chemical Engineers
, 1st edition. Wiley-AIChE, New York.
List of websites
ACS (2024). Chemical engineering [Online]. Available at:
https://www.acs.org/careers/chemical-sciences/areas/chemical-engineering.html
[Accessed on 4 April 2024].
AIChE (2024). What do chemical engineers do? [Online]. Available at:
https://www.aiche.org/k-12/what-do-chemical-engineers-do
[Accessed 4 April 2024].
Wikipedia (2024a). Chemical engineering [Online].
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering
[Accessed 4 April 2024].
Wikipedia (2024b). History of chemical engineering [Online]. Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering
[Accessed 4 April 2024].
Note
Chapter written by Devyani THAPLIYAL, Kshitij TEWARI, Chitresh Kumar BHARGAVA, Avinash CHANDRA, Pramita SEN, Rahul KUMAR, Amit K. THAKUR, George D. VERROS and Raj Kumar ARYA.
2Fundamentals of Material and Energy Balances
This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts and terminologies essential to chemical engineering, and lays the groundwork for understanding material and energy balances. It begins with clear definitions and an overview of unit systems and conversions across different measurement frameworks to ensure precision in engineering calculations. A systematic methodology for performing material and energy balances in diverse chemical processes is presented, with an emphasis on a logical and structured approach. To enhance comprehension, this chapter includes illustrative examples that demonstrate the practical application of these principles in real-world scenarios. This comprehensive guide serves as a critical resource for mastering the fundamentals of chemical engineering processes. In this chapter, concise views of major chemical process calculations books (Himmelblau and Riggs 2012; Felder et al. 2020) are presented for a quick recap. For detailed analysis, readers are advised to go through these primary books.
2.1. Introduction
Material and energy balances are fundamental concepts in chemical engineering and related fields, providing the basis for the analysis and design of chemical processes. These balances ensure the efficient use of raw materials and energy resources, while minimizing waste and environmental impact. By applying the principles of conservation of mass and energy, engineers can predict the process behavior, optimize operations and troubleshoot inefficiencies.
Material balance focuses on tracking the flow and distribution of substances in a process, ensuring that input, output, accumulation, and losses are accounted for. This approach is essential in industries such as pharmaceuticals, food processing and petrochemicals, where precise control of compositions and quantities is critical.
The energy balance complements the material balance by evaluating the energy transformations that occur within a system. It considers the energy input through heat, work and chemical reactions and compares it with the energy output and accumulation. Understanding energy balances is crucial for improving energy efficiency and sustainability in process industries.
This chapter explores the basic principles of material and energy balances, covering steady-state and unsteady-state processes, reactive and non-reactive systems, and open and closed systems. Real-world examples and problem-solving techniques will demonstrate their application in designing, optimizing and scaling up industrial processes. Mastering these concepts is indispensable for engineers who aim to develop innovative, efficient and environmentally friendly solutions.
2.2. Process term definitions
Understanding essential process terms is crucial for analyzing, designing and optimizing chemical and industrial systems. These terms describe the physical phenomena, equipment and operations that form the basis of process engineering. Below is a detailed discussion of these terms and their significance in material and energy balances (Himmelblau and Riggs 2012; Felder et al. 2020).
Gas–liquid contact and absorption
Gas–liquid contact involves the interaction of a gas mixture with a liquid solvent, enabling the transfer of one or more gas components into the liquid phase. This process commonly occurs in absorption columns, where a countercurrent flow arrangement maximizes contact. The liquid solvent, introduced at the top of the column, flows downward, while the gas enters from the bottom and rises. This setup ensures efficient mass transfer, with the gas exiting the column depleted of the absorbed components. Absorption is widely used in industries for gas purification, scrubbing and chemical synthesis.
Adiabatic processes
Adiabatic processes are characterized by the absence of heat exchange between the system and its surroundings, meaning that all energy changes are confined to internal transformations. Such processes are critical in thermodynamic studies, particularly in systems such as compressors, turbines and insulated reactors, where simplifications based on this assumption enable easier energy calculations and system design.
Adsorption and its applications
Adsorption refers to the adhesion of molecules (adsorbates) from a fluid phase – gas or liquid – onto the surface of a solid material (adsorbent). This surface phenomenon is central to applications such as gas purification, separation processes and catalysis. Unlike absorption, which involves bulk phase transfer, adsorption is surface specific, making it effective for targeting specific contaminants or reactants in chemical processes.
Barometer
A barometer is a fundamental instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. Its accurate readings are essential for weather forecasting, altitude measurement and various engineering applications where pressure influences material behavior or process efficiency.
Boilers and the boiling point
Boilers are critical components in energy-intensive industries. These devices convert feedwater into steam by transferring heat from combustion gases through tubes, enabling the steam to power turbines, heaters or industrial equipment. Closely related to this is the concept of the boiling point, the temperature at which a liquid simultaneously exists as a vapor under equilibrium conditions. This property is pressure dependent and vital for understanding phase transitions in processes such as distillation and evaporation.
Distillation and key product streams
Distillation is a complex separation technique that leverages differences in the volatility of components to purify mixtures. In a distillation column, vapor rises while liquid descends, allowing mass transfer between the phases. The lighter, more volatile components concentrate in the vapor phase and exit at the top as the overhead product, while heavier components accumulate at the bottom as the bottom product. This interplay is of fundamental importance to industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and beverages.
Thermodynamic properties: bubble point, dew point and vapor pressure
The bubble point and dew point represent critical temperatures for phase changes in mixtures. The bubble point is the temperature at which vapor first forms in a liquid mixture under constant pressure, while the dew point is the temperature at which vapor begins to condense into a liquid. Vapor pressure, the equilibrium pressure exerted by the vapor of a liquid, is pivotal in predicting phase behavior and is determined using models such as the Antoine equation.
Calibration and catalysis
Calibration ensures that instruments provide accurate readings by comparing them with known standards. This process is integral to maintaining precision in industrial operations. Catalysis, on the other hand, dramatically speeds up chemical reactions without consuming the catalyst itself. Catalysts play a central role in refining, polymerization and emission control, making processes more efficient and sustainable.
Compressors, compressibility factor and condensation
Compressors are mechanical devices that increase gas pressure to enable its transportation or storage in various industrial applications. The compressibility factor (Z), which quantifies deviations of real gases from ideal behavior, is calculated using Z = PV/nRT. Condensation involves converting a gas into a liquid by cooling or compressing it, producing separate streams of liquid condensate and uncondensed gases. These processes are fundamental to refrigeration, natural gas processing and chemical synthesis.
Crystallization and decanters
Crystallization separates solutes from a liquid solution by forming solid crystals through cooling or solvent evaporation. Decanters, on the other hand, use gravity to separate immiscible liquids or liquid–solid mixtures. Both are essential in industries such as pharmaceuticals, food processing and chemical manufacturing.
Enthalpy, internal energy and work
Enthalpy (H=U+PV) represents the total energy in a system, combining the internal energy (U) with pressure–volume work (PV). The internal energy, which depends on the molecular motion and phase, changes with temperature and state transitions. In thermodynamics, work involves the transfer of energy due to action of force, excluding heat transfer. These concepts form the basis for analyzing energy flows in industrial processes.
Heat, heat exchangers and drying
Heat transfer is fundamental to process engineering, representing energy flow due to temperature differences. Heat exchangers facilitate this transfer between two fluid streams, enhancing thermal efficiency. Drying is another critical process that removes liquid from solids by heating or exposing them to hot gases, which is extensively used in the food, chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
Advanced separation techniques: filtration, extraction and flash vaporization
