Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen E-Book
178,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the properties and applications of one of the world’s most ubiquitous flora
Lichen is a single entity comprising two or more organisms—most typically algae and fungus—in a symbiotic relationship. It is one of the planet’s most abundant categories of flora, with over 25,000 known species across all regions of the globe. Lichens’ status as a rich source of bioactive metabolites and phytochemicals, as well as their potential as bio-indicators, has given them an increasingly prominent role in modern research into medicine, cosmetics, food, and more.
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen provides a comprehensive overview of these bountiful flora and their properties. It provides not only in-depth analysis of lichen physiology and ecology, but also a thorough survey of their modern and growing applications. It provides all the tools readers need to domesticate lichen and bring their properties to bear on some of humanity’s most intractable scientific problems.
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen readers will also find:
- Applications of lichen in fields ranging from food to cosmetics to nanoscience and beyond
- Detailed discussion of topics including lichen as habitats for other organisms, lichens as anticancer drugs, antimicrobial properties of lichen, and many more
- Detailed discussion on key bioactive compounds from lichens
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen is ideal for scientists and researchers in ethnobotany, pharmacology, chemistry, and biology, as well as teachers and students with an interest in biologically important lichens.
It is gratifying to see the enthusiasm of Indian mycologists for lichens grow over the last 25 years, especially in their possible exploitation. That this book has a staggering 63 contributors, of which all but seven are from India or Pakistan, is a testament to that enthusiasm. Following a series of nine chapters on general aspects of lichen biology, conservation and ecology, are ten on different aspects of actual or prospected applications. These cover traditional uses, therapeutic potential of bioactive compounds, antioxidant properties, antimicrobial activities, anticancer drugs, food value, perfumery and cosmetics, bioindication, and nanoparticles. One contribution compiles ethnobotanical and pharmacological properties of four particular genera (Cetraria, Cladonia, Parmelia s.lat., and Usnea). The compilations of pertinent very scattered publications and reports will be of value for anyone wishing to explore particular activities further, especially as starting points for fresh research. However, it has to be recognized that many of the studies commented on, especially in relation to potential medical applications, are based on individual rather small-scale studies (and not always on precisely identified material). Further, in many chapters, published reports are carefully compiled but generally accepted without indications of their limitations. I was concerned to see that in the chapter on taxonomy, lichens were not presented from the standpoint of the phylogenetic placements of the fungal partners (to which the “lichen” name applies). Instead, it is Zahlbruckner’s system that is used, treating them as a separate group divided into Ascolichens, Basidiolichens, and categories such as Gymnocarpeae. In justification they say this “has been widely adopted by all British lichenologists” and give a reference to a 1959 publication! It is sad to see such obsolete treatments being perpetuated, as in addition to misleading readers it may inhibit them from looking into what is known of the activities and properties of related non-lichen fungi and their products. There are also inconsistencies in the scientific names used, and erratic use of author citations (which in any case have no place in nontaxonomic works). It is unfortunate that a work on a subject of such potentially wide interest was evidently not as critically reviewed and edited to the standard I would have expected from such a prestigious and respected publisher.
David L. Hawksworth, 2024 Mycological book news, Fungal Biology Reviews, Volume 50, 2024, 100399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2024.100399
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 724
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Overview of Lichen
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distribution
1.3 Morphology and Anatomy
1.4 Reproduction
1.5 Lichen Phytochemicals
1.6 Economic Importance
1.7 Conservation
1.8 Conclusion
References
2 The Biology of Lichen
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lichen Life Form
2.3 The Internal Structure of Lichen
2.4 Reproduction of Lichen
2.5 Lichen Substrates
References
3 Taxonomy of Lichen
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Identification of Lichen
3.3 Nomenclature of Lichen
3.4 Classification of Lichen
3.5 Phylogeny of Lichen
3.6 Molecular Taxonomy of Lichens
3.7 Therapeutic and Commercial Values of Lichen
3.8 Conclusion
Authors’ Contribution
References
4 Lichen as Habitats for Other Organisms
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Lichens as Habitat
4.3 Benefits of Living in Lichens
4.4 Importance of Lichen for Biodiversity
4.5 Threats to Lichen Habitats
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Ecology of Lichen
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Ecological Habitats
5.3 Ecological Factors for Lichen Development
5.4 Adaptations of Lichen
5.5 Lichens in Extreme Habitat
5.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
6 Physiology of Lichen
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Physiological Interaction
6.3 Metabolism
6.4 Physiological Peculiarities
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Lichen as Pioneer of Natural Ecosystem
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lichens as Pioneer of Ecological Succession
7.3 Impact of Lichen on Natural Ecosystem
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 Conservation of Lichens
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Important Roles of Lichens
8.3 Biogeography (Geographic Distribution of Lichen)
8.4 Conservation of Lichen Diversity
8.5 Conservation Challenges of Lichens
8.6 Recommendation for Conservation of Lichens
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Lichen at the Age of Climate Change
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Adaptation of Lichen to the Harsh Environment
9.3 Impact of Climate Change on Lichen Flora
9.4 Sensitivity of Lichen to Climate Change
9.5 Lichen as an Indicator of Climate Change
9.6 Transplant Experiment on Lichen
9.7 Carbon Sequestration by Lichen
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 Commercial and Traditional Uses of Lichen
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Historical Background
10.3 Lichen as Ethnomedicine
10.4 Cultural Aspects of Lichen
10.5 Commercial Uses of Lichen
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens and Their Therapeutic Potential
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Diversity in Lichens
11.3 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Antioxidant Properties of Lichen
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Botanical History of Lichens
12.3 Classification of Lichen
12.4 Source and Formation of Lichen
12.5 Antioxidant Property
12.6 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Activity in Lichens
12.7 Antioxidant Activity in
Parmelia sulcata
,
Lasallia pustulata
,
Hypogymnia physodes
12.8 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Behavior in Cetraria islandica
12.9 Techniques Used to Determine the Antioxidant Activities in Lichens
12.10 Conclusion
References
13 Antimicrobial Activities of Lichens
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Antimicrobial Compounds of Lichen
13.3 Lichen Species Having Antimicrobial Properties
13.4 Antibacterial Properties
13.5 Antifungal Properties
13.6 Conclusion
References
14 Lichens: A Source of Anticancer Drugs
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Lichen Extracts with Anticancer Activities
14.3 Lichen Compounds with Anticancer Activities
14.4 Anticancer of Lichen in Animal Model
14.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
15 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of
Parmelia
,
Cetraria
,
Cladonia
, and
Usnea
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus
Parmelia
15.3 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus
Cetraria
15.4 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus
Cladonia
15.5 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus
Usnea
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Food Values of Lichen
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Historical Background
16.3 Lichen as Food for Human
16.4 Lichen as Spices and Flavor Enhancer
16.5 Lichens as Beverage
16.6 Lichens as Feed
16.7 Conclusion
References
17 Lichen as a Raw Material in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Historical Background of Lichens Used in Perfume Industry
17.3 Commercially Viable Lichen Species in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries
17.4 Lichen as Perfume and its Chemistry
17.5 Conclusion
References
18 Lichen as Bio Indicators
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Effective Biomonitoring of Lichen Species
18.3 Methods of Lichen Biomonitoring
18.4 Lichen as Indicator to Air Pollution
18.5 Lichen as Heavy Metal Indicator
18.6 Lichen as Indicator to Toxic Material
18.7 Conclusion
References
19 Lichen Based Nanoparticles
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Lichen Based Nanoparticles and Their Application
19.3 Biocompatibility of Lichen Based Nanoparticle
19.4 Biosynthesis of Lichen‐Based Nanoparticles
19.5 Future Prospects and Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 List of some common lichens and their importance.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Metabolic pathways and their related compounds.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Adaptive strategies of lichen to the harsh environment.
Table 9.2 Lichen transplantation experiments for conservation.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Some medically important lichens along with their distribution a...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Bioactive compounds in lichens and their therapeutic potential.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summarizes the diverse secondary metabolites found in lichens, t...
Table 13.2 Antimicrobial activity of lichen species.
Table 13.3 Antibacterial activities of various despidones produced by liche...
Table 13.4 Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of lichen extracts agains...
Table 13.5 Lichen secondary metabolites and their biological activities.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1
In vitro
anticancer activity of crude extract or fractions of li...
Table 14.2 Cytotoxicity activities of lecanoric acids and its orsellinate d...
Table 14.3 Cytotoxic terpenoids of
Cryptothecia faveomaculata
.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Traditionally important lichen genera and their geographic locat...
Table 15.2 Hepatoprotective effects of various species of lichens.
Table 15.3 Active phytoconstituents and pharmacological activities of
Parme
...
Table 15.4 Doctrinal use of parmelioid lichens.
Table 15.5 Active phytoconstituents and pharmacological activity of
Cetrari
...
Table 15.6 Doctrinal use of
Cetraria
lichens.
Table 15.7 Active phytoconstituents of
Cladonia
species.
Table 15.8 Doctrinal useof
Cladonia
lichens.
Table 15.9 Active phytoconstituents of
Usnea
species.
Table 15.10 Doctrinal useof
Usnea
species.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Lichen species used as food with available common names and dist...
Table 16.2 Lichen species used as spice and flavor enhancer.
Table 16.3 Lichen species used as beverage with use, available common names...
Table 16.4 Lichen‐based food supplement as a commercial product.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Various lichen species are used in the perfumery and cosmetic in...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Impact of heavy metals and toxic materials in the growth and dev...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Synthesis of diverse nanoparticles using lichen extracts from di...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Thallus life form in lichens.
Figure 2.2 Thallus structure of crustose lichen.
Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram of lichen apothecia
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Different types of lichen are identified based on the appearance ...
Figure 3.2 Classification of lichen by Alexopoulos and Mims [29] and Zahlbru...
Figure 3.3 Classification of lichens based on growing regions, detailed stru...
Figure 3.4 Classification of lichens based on the presence of Algal members....
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Biatoropsis usnearum
, the lichenicolous fungi, a heterobasidiomyc...
Figure 4.2
Abrothallus parmeliarum
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Biosynthetic pathways of lichen secondary metabolites.
Figure 6.2 Diagrammatic representation of adaptive mechanisms of lichens tow...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Different habitats of lichens.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a)–(d)
Usnea misaminensis
(Vain) and
Parmelia dilatata
Vain. gr...
Figure 14.2 Biosynthesis depside monomer
o
‐orsenillic acid (
1
).
Figure 14.3 Proposed biosynthesis mechanism of oliveric acid
2
[31].
Figure 14.4 Orsenillate derivatives
3–11.
A standard anti‐cancer drug ...
Figure 14.5 Bioactive depsides exerted by lichen.
Figure 14.6 Putative biosynthesis of physodic acid [31].
Figure 14.7 Notable depsidone molecules produced by lichen,
Pseudoevernia fu
...
Figure 14.8 Biologically active halogenated depsidone molecules produced by ...
Figure 14.9 Putative biosynthesis mechanism of usnic acid [54].
Figure 14.10 Cytotoxic dibenzofuran of lichens
Cladonia arbuscula
,
Cladonia
...
Figure 14.11 Biosynthesis pathway of quinone emodin (
53
) and chrysophanol (
5
...
Figure 14.12 Anticancer quinones produced by lichens,
Xanthoria parietina
,
C
...
Figure 14.13 Lichenxantyhone‐type lichen xanthone and thiomielin‐type lichen...
Figure 14.14 Cytotoxic xanthones produced by lichens,
Parmotrema lichexantho
...
Figure 14.15 Cytotoxic active diketopiperazine metabolites from lichens,
Usn
...
Figure 14.16 Cytotoxic active terpenoids derived from lichens,
Cryptothecia
...
Figure 14.17 Lactonic acid derivatives of lichens with cytotoxic activities,...
Figure 14.18 Alkylated decalin‐type polyketides from
Pyrenula sp
. lichen wit...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Important mono aromatic phytochemicals present in
Evernia prunas
...
Figure 17.2 Thermal degradation of evernic acid.
Figure 17.3 Monoaryl (phenolic compounds) obtained from tree moss.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Applications of usnic acid loaded nanoparticles derived from lic...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
iii
iv
v
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen
Edited by
Ashoke Kumar Das
Department of BotanyAbhayapuri College, Guwahati UniversityBongaigaon, India
Ajay Sharma
Department of ChemistryChandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab, India
Deepika Kathuria
Department of ChemistryUniversity Centre for Research and Development (UCRD)Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab, India
Mohammad Javed Ansari
Department of BotanyHindu College MoradabadMoradabad, India
Garima Bhardwaj
Department of ChemistrySant Longowal InstituteSangrur, India
This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Ashoke Kumar Das, Ajay Sharma, Deepika Kathuria, Mohammad Javed Ansari, and Garima Bhardwaj to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Office(s)John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Das, Ashoke Kumar, 1977–editor. | Sharma, Ajay, 1989–editor. | Kathuria, Deepika, 1990–editor. | Ansari, Mohammad Javed, 1978–editor. | Bhardwaj, Garima, 1988–editor.Title: Chemistry, biology and pharmacology of lichen / edited by Ashoke Kumar Das, Ajay Sharma, Deepika Kathuria, Mohammad Javed Ansari, Garima Bhardwaj.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2024016841 (print) | LCCN 2024016842 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394190676 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394190683 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394190690 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Lichens. | Lichens–Ecology. | Lichens–Therapeutic use. | Lichen products.Classification: LCC QK583 .S53 2024 (print) | LCC QK583 (ebook) | DDC 579.7–dc23/eng/20240510LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024016841LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024016842
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © gorwol/Shutterstock
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my beloved family.
Ashoke Kumar Das
List of Contributors
Muhammad AfzaalDepartment of Food Science, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Fareed AfzalDepartment of Food Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Mateen AhmadDepartment of Food Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Abdul Baquee AhmedDepartment of Pharmaceutics, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science‐Tezpur, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Sonitpur, Assam, India
Muhammad Zeeshan AhmedDepartment of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Farak AliGirijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Tezpur campus, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam 784501, IndiaDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Sheikh Rezzak AliDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Shahnaz AlomGirijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Tezpur campus, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam 784501, IndiaDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University Dibrugarh, Assam, India
Mohammad Javed AnsariDepartment of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Affiliated to MJP Rohilkhand University), Bareilly, India
Habiba AroojDepartment of Food Science Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muneeba AslamDepartment of Biochemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan
Sourav BhattacharjeeDepartment of Botany, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya Adarsha Mahavidyalaya, Tulungia, Bongaigaon, Assam, India
Munmi BorkatakyDepartment of Life Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Tridip BoruahP.G. Department of Botany, Madhab Choudhury College Barpeta, Assam, India
Sandipan ChoudhuryGirijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Tezpur campus, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam 784501, India
Bhaben ChowardharaDepartment of Botany, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, India
Ashoke Kumar DasDepartment of Botany, Abhayapuri College, Abhayapuri, Assam, India
Puja Namo DasPlant Ecology Laboratory, P.G. Department of Botany, Madhab Choudhury College Barpeta, Assam, India
Barsha DeviDepartment of Botany, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya Adarsha Mahavidyalaya Tulungia, Assam, India
Himasri DeviP.G. Department of Botany, Madhab Choudhury College, Barpeta Assam, India
Lily DeviDepartment of Botany, Bijni College, Bijni Assam, India
Papori DeviDepartment of Botany, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati, Assam, India
Sanjay J. DhobleDepartment of Physics, R.T.M. Nagpur University, Nagpur, India
Krity DulalPlant Ecology Laboratory, P.G. Department of Botany, Madhab Choudhury College Barpeta, Assam, India
Lilla Nur FirliDrug Utilisation and Discovery Research Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Jember, Jember, Indonesia
Swati GajbhiyeDepartment of Physics, R.T.M. Nagpur University, Nagpur, India
Ridip Kumar GogoiBioinformatics Infrastructure Facility Centre Rajiv Gandhi University, Doimukh Arunachal Pradesh, India
Apurba GohainDepartment of Chemistry, Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India
Nilayan GuhaDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Shirin GullDepartment of Nutrition Science Faculty of Life Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Rimsha GulzarDepartment of Food Science, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Chetana HasnuDepartment of Botany, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya Adarsha Mahavidyalaya, Tulungia, Bongaigaon, Assam, India
Maryam IlyasDepartment of Human Nutrition & Dietetics Faculty of Life Sciences, Minhaj University Lahore, Pakistan
Mariam IslamDepartment of Food Science Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Rosni JabinDepartment of Botany, Nowgong College (Autonomous), Nagaon, Assam
Miral JavedCollege of Biosystem Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University Hangzhou P.R. China
Bibhuti Busan KakotiDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Paul A. KellerSchool of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons University of Wollongong Wollongong, Australia
Waseem KhalidUniversity Institute of Food Science and Technology, The University of Lahore Lahore, Pakistan
Nihad Ashraf KhanDepartment of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, India
Bhaskor KolitaDepartment of Botany Jorhat Kendriya Mahavidyalaya Jorhat, Assam, India
Prashant KumarDepartment of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Affiliated to MJP Rohilkhand University), Bareilly, India
Beena KumariDepartment of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Affiliated to MJP Rohilkhand University) Bareilly, India
Shuby KumariDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University Dibrugarh, Assam, India
Thi Hai Yen LamDepartment of Bioorganic Chemistry Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry Halle (Saale), Germany
Ratul NathDepartment of Life Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, India
Ari Satia NugrahaDrug Utilisation and Discovery Research Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Jember, Jember, IndonesiaSchool of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Yunita Sari PaneDepartment of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan Indonesia
Alka RajputDepartment of Botany, School of Applied, Basic and Biosciences, RIMT University Mandi‐Gobindgarh, India
Tazeen RaoDepartment of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Izza Faiz ul RasoolDepartment of Food Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Hadiqa Faiz ul RasulCenter of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology (CABB), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Ahtisham RazaDepartment of Food Science, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Farhan SaeedDepartment of Food Science, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Shilpa SarkarP.G. Department of Botany, Madhab Choudhury College, Barpeta Assam, India
Subrata SarkarDepartment of Botany, Abhayapuri College, Abhayapuri, Assam, India
Girish Kumar SharmaDepartment of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Affiliated to MJP Rohilkhand University), Bareilly, India
Varsha SharmaDepartment of Zoology, School of Basic, Applied and Biosciences, RIMT University Mandi‐Gobindgarh, India
Darshita SinhaDepartment of Life Sciences Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh Assam, India
Ludmilla Fitri UntariDepartment of Tropical Biology The Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Amit VaishDepartment of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Affiliated to MJP Rohilkhand University), Bareilly, India
Hendris WongsoResearch Center for Radioisotope Radiopharmaceutical, and Biodosimetry Technology, Research Organization for Nuclear Energy, National Research and Innovation Agency, Banten IndonesiaResearch Collaboration Center for Theranostic Radiopharmaceuticals National Research and Innovation Agency, Sumedang, Indonesia
Farishta YasminDepartment of Botany, Nowgong College (Autonomous), Nagaon, Assam
Preface
Lichens are symbiotically associated living organisms composed of algae (phycobiont) and fungi (mycobiont). They are ubiquitous in distribution, including some of the most extreme environmental conditions on the earth. Lichens grow on tree trunk, rock surface, old concrete building wall, and even in iron and other metal surfaces. They comprise about 8–10% terrestrial land cover of the earth’s surface. About 20,000 species of lichens have been discovered, where mycobiont predominates with 90% of the thallus volume. Lichens are a source of unique metabolites which possess vast therapeutic applications such as anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial. Lichens are also a good source of human food and food for other animals due to presence of different nutritionally potential compounds. Lichens contain natural pigments and chemical components because of which they are used potentially in dyes and in perfume and cosmetic industries. They have also been recognized as bioindicators of environment pollutants, climate changes, and ecological continuity. Owing to their wide applications, it is important to understand the chemistry and biology of this distinct entity.
This book presents detailed aspects of lichens from their biology, morphology, taxonomy, ecology, physiology, etc. Unique ecological niche of lichens provides a habitat for other organisms to grow, which have been discussed in detail in the book. The impact of climate change on the lichen flora and various adaptive strategies embraced by lichens owing to the harsh environment have also been described. Lichens are sensitive to hazardous chemicals and thus popular as natural bioindicators, and thus details have been summarized. Lichens have an inimitable position in the pharmaceutical industry because of their bioactive class of compounds such as depsides, depsidones, dibenzofurans, terpenes, and xanthones, which have been discussed in detail in this book. This book emphasizes on various therapeutic properties of lichens such as antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, and anticancer with key discussion on important secondary metabolites. Various other applications such as food, beverage, perfumery, and cosmetic of lichens have also been discussed in detail. Important species of lichens (Parmelia, Cetraria, Cladonia, and Usnea) with promising therapeutic properties have been discussed as well in a separate chapter. In recent years, lichen‐based nanoparticles have gained significant interest owing to their distinctive attributes and potential uses across diverse fields, and hence all the related aspects have been discussed. The book serves as a valuable asset for researchers and graduate students of chemistry, botany, ecology, lichenology, biotechnology, microbiology, nanoscience, cosmetologist, and pharmaceutical sciences and for doctors (especially those engaged in Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine).
Ashoke Kumar DasAjay SharmaDeepika KathuriaMohammad Javed AnsariGarima Bhardwaj
1Overview of Lichen
Ashoke Kumar Das1, Subrata Sarkar1, and Papori Devi2
1 Department of Botany, Abhayapuri College, Abhayapuri, Assam, India
2 Department of Botany, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati, Assam, India
1.1 Introduction
The term “lichen” was coined by Theophrastus (Father of Botany) more than two thousand years ago. Till the 19th century, lichens were thought to be individually recognized organisms. In 1869, only it was accepted that it was composed of two different organisms [1, 2]. Lichens are composed of different species of fungi (Mycobiont), algae, or cyanobacteria (Photobiont) [3–9], and some microorganisms like bacteria are also associated with them [10–14]. There is a long debate and study regarding the combination of association of different components of lichen symbiosis and their physiology [15–17]. Though lichen is composed of different components, they form morphologically constant forms that are designated as species [18]. They are frequently specified as the best example of mutualistic partnerships. Photobionts have the capacity to photosynthesize; they provide carbohydrates to the fungal partner, and the mycobiont creates a physical scaffold that encloses and supports the growth of photobionts [5]. According to Hawksworth, “a lichen is a stable self‐supporting association of a mycobiont and a photobiont in which mycobiont is the exhabitant” [4]. Through a process called lichenization, a fungus and a photosynthetic partner transformed into a lichen thallus, from a free‐living to a symbiotic state [19].
Lichens are distributed throughout the world and found to grow in almost all climatic conditions (“Lichens,” [20]). They are dominating the earth’s terrestrial ecosystem, particularly in the subarctic and arctic regions, covering about 8–10% of the total area [21]. About 13,500–20,000 species of lichens have been recognized globally so far [22–25]. According to the Botanical Survey of India, 19,500 species have been discovered so far (“Lichens,” [20]). Lucking et al. made a prediction, which is 26,000 lichen taxa [26]. Among approximately 20,000 species of lichen‐forming fungus known to exist worldwide, Ascomycetes make up 98% of all known lichenized fungi, followed by Deuteromycetes (1.6%), and Basidiomycetes (0.4%). On the other hand, there are only roughly 156 species of photobionts across 56 taxa. The majority of photobionts are either cyanobacteria (Cyanoprokaryota‐35 species, 22.3%) or green algae (Chlorophyta‐116 species, 73.9% of total photobiont diversity). The three most common photobiont genera in lichens are Trebouxia, Trentepohlia, and Nostoc[5].
Lichens are separated into two groups based on their size: macrolichens and microlichens. They are classified as corticolous, ramicolous, lignicolous, saxicolous, musicolous, terricolous, and foliicolous based on the substrate on which they develop. They are also separated into three groups based on their physical characteristics: foliose, fruticose, and crustose [27]. Anatomically, the majority of lichen thallus is stratified into the upper cortex, photobiont layer, medulla, and lower cortex. The cortex of many foliose and fruticose lichens is made up of pseudoparenchymatous or prosoplectenchymatous tissues of fungi. The medullary layer consists of loosely interwoven long‐celled hyphae having internal airspace. The photobiont layer is formed by the upper part of the medulla. Crystalline secondary products often encrusted the hyphal cell walls of the algal and medullary layers. The lower cortex is well‐developed in some typical foliose lichen groups like Parmeliaceae. Reproduction of lichen is mainly expressed by its fungal partner with sexual and asexual methods, while it is reduced in case of the algal partner in the lichenized state [28].
The significant role played by lichens includes natural soil formation and nutrient cycling [29]. For monitoring anthropogenic disturbances over time, such as air pollution, acid rain, nitrogen deposition, and several other environmental variables, lichens have been utilized as a crucial biological indicator [7, 30]. Since long time, a wide range of lichen species have been used as traditional medicine and in different folk cultures in countries like North America, Europe, India, Nepal, and China [31–35]. They are also good sources of human food and are also taken by various wild and domesticated animals as feed, containing a range of nutrients and biologically active compounds [36–38]. Some lichens are also used as raw materials in various industries like cosmetics and perfume, minerals, brewing, distilling, and essential oil [32, 38].
The globally declining trends of abundance and diversity of lichens have been documented by various authors across the world. Pollution due to industrialization, large‐scale modern agriculture, urbanization, deforestation, habitat loss, overexploitation, global warming, and climate change are the main causes of their decline [22, 39].
1.2 Distribution
Lichens have some surprising capacity of ecological resilience and adaptability. They can absorb and retain moisture from various sources, due to which they can easily grow in exposed substratum like leaves and barks of trees, rocks, etc., and can survive in extreme conditions like hot deserts, barren rocky cliffs, and frozen environments of the polar regions. They can also grow in the marble of old buildings and monuments [5, 25].
Lichens are an old group of fungi that may be traced back to 400 MA to the Early Devonian in the Rhynie chert deposits in Scotland and to 600 MA in marine phosphorite of the Doushantuo Formation at Weng’an in South China. The earliest ascomycetes may symbiotically associate with the already available algae and cyanobacteria, which formed the hypothetical Protolichen group. Eighteen (18) patterns of lichen distributions are described by Galloway, which are Cosmopolitan, Endemic, Austral, Bipolar, Paleotropical, Neotropical, Pantropical, Australasian, Circum‐pacific, Atlantic, Eastern North America–western European (amphi‐Atlantic), Western North American–western European, Mediterranean, American–Asian, South American–African, Southern xeric and Boreal arctic–alpine taxa [40]. The cosmopolitan taxa are widespread in their occurrence and found in all land masses and various oceanic islands. The family Parmeliaceae has a worldwide distribution having species like Parmelia sulcata, Flavoparmelia caperata, Hypotrachyna sinuosa, Parmotrema perlatum, etc. The endemic lichen taxa are present in some particular geographical areas with limited distribution. Lichen flora of India comprises over 2900 species, among which 18% (540 species) are endemic. (“Lichens,” [20]). In New Zealand, 23% of their lichen flora is endemic. Some of the endemic lichen species of New Zealand are Austrella brunnea, Caloplaca erecta, Lobaria asperula, Umbilicaria murihikuana, etc. A high percentage of endemic lichen flora is found in South Georgia (24%) to continental Antarctica (50%). The Austral taxa are represented by the southern hemisphere land masses, and the lichen flora is divided into Paleoaustral and Neoaustral lichens. The Paleoaustral lichens are represented by the primitive Gondwanan groups, which are poorly adapted for long‐distance dispersal; examples are—Bartlettiella fragilis, Brigantiaea phaeomma, Bryoria austromontana, Caloplaca cribrosa, etc. The Neoaustral lichens are dispersed after Gondwanaland fragmentation, which takes place between the post‐Oligocene and the present. Some examples of Neoaustral lichens are—Caloplaca cirrochrooides, Leifidium tenerum, Parmelia cunninghamii, etc. The lichens which are distributed in high latitudes of both the northern and southern hemispheres are the bipolar taxa. Some examples of bipolar lichen taxa are Cladonia ecmocyna, Caloplaca tornoensis, Bellemera alpine, etc. The lichen flora found in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian peninsula, the Malesian Archipelago, and some islands of the Pacific Ocean are called Paleotropical taxa. Bactrospora metabola, Cladia aggregate, Parmelinopsis swinscowii, etc., are examples of Paleotropical taxa. The lichen species represented in some regions of South America and the Caribbean islands are known as Neotropical taxa. Some of the Neotropical lichen taxa are species of Erioderma, Leptogium, and Peltigera. Pantropical taxa are found in most of the tropical regions and show affinities with warm temperate characteristics, for example—species of Parmotrema, Glyphis, Graphis, etc. Australasian lichen taxa have similar characteristics to the lichen flora represented in Australia and New Zealand. Species of the genus Nothofagus, Placopsis, are included in the Australasian taxa. The Western Pacific lichen taxa are found in the extent northwards to Japan, westwards to India, and in some parts of Africa of Australia. Calopadia subcoerulescens, Parmelia erumpens, and Rinodina reagens are some examples of Western Pacific lichen taxa. The lichens found to grow around the Pacific Ocean are called Circum‐Pacific taxa, for example—Hypogymnia pulverata, Placopsis cribellans, Mastodia tessellate, etc. The Atlantic lichen taxa are found in the islands of the Atlantic Ocean. Some Atlantic taxa are—Byssoloma croceum, Pyrenula hibernicum, Porina atlantica, etc. Lichen flora of present‐day North Atlantic regions are known as Eastern North America–western European or amphi‐Atlantic taxa. Comparatively, fewer lichen species are distributed in this region, some of them are Cladonia strepsilis, Rhizocarpon timdalii, Lasallia pustulata, etc. Various lichen taxa are restricted to the areas of western North America and Western Europe, for example—Cliostomum leprosum, Lecidella laureri, Rinodina disjuncta, etc. The Mediterranean lichen taxa are comprised of characteristics of different elements—northern, temperate, humid sub‐tropical element, and arid. Some of the lichen species found in this region are Diploschistes diacapsis, Placidium fringens, Toninia tristis, etc. The lichens are represented in the regions of eastern North American–eastern Asian pattern called American–Asian taxa, which are—species under the genus Cetrelia, Collema, Allocetraria, etc. The South American–African taxa of lichen are isolated between South America and southern Africa. Some of the lichen flora of this type are—Peltula clavata, Umbilicaria haplocarpus, Caloplaca isidiosa, etc. The Southern xeric taxa are distributed in the regions of southern Africa, Western Australia, South Australia, and southern New Zealand with characteristic climatic conditions like winter rainfall and summer drought. Diploschistes hensseniae, Xanthoparmelia subimitatrix, Digitothyrea rotundata, etc. are some of the species recorded under this region. The boreal arctic‐alpine taxa are confined to the areas of the northern hemisphere, such as North America, Europe, and some parts of Asia. The lichen species found in this region are mostly growing in woodlands, heathlands, and tundra. Some of the lichen species found in this region are under the genus—Cladonia, Cetraria, Vulpicida, Brodoa, etc. [40].
Although the distribution range sizes and patterns of many lichen species resemble those of vascular plants, lichens have far more continental disjunctions. Species of “enigmatic disjunctions” are primarily characterized by having rather large distributional areas in each of the continents where they occur. An even more enigmatic portion of this group of disjunct species exhibits a normal‐sized distributional area in one or more continents but an extremely restricted, point‐like distribution in another. For example, Alectoria imshaugii grows in large areas of the west coast of North America from south Alberta to northeast California but is only known from Gomera to Hierro in the Canary Islands in Africa. Cetraria odontella, commonly found in Finland and Sweden has a holarctic distribution that can also be found on Australia’s Mount Kosciusko. A most extreme type of enigmatic disjunct distribution is shown by Coleopogon abraxus, which was only known from a mountain on the east coast of Cape Town, South Africa, but has recently been observed in a forest of central Chile. Another species, Acroscyphus sphaerophoroides, is found to grow in 13 different areas of Bhutan, China, Canada, Japan, Patagonia, Peru, South Africa, and the United States [23].
1.3 Morphology and Anatomy
In most of the lichen, the fungal partner mainly determines the morphological appearance. In only a few lichen thallus, it is determined by the algal partner. There are three morphological groups of lichens based on their habit‐crustose, foliose, and fruticose [28, 41, 42]. The simple and undifferentiated thallus, with irregularly distributed algae, are known as homoiomerous, and more complex thallus, where algae are restricted to a particular layer in the thallus and medullas without algae are called heteromerous.
In crustose lichens, the thallus is tightly attached to the substratum and is difficult to detach from the surface. In most cases, the thallus contains a well‐defined upper cortex, an algal layer, and a medulla. There are various subtypes of crustose lichens—powdery, endolithic, endophloeodic, squamulose, peltate, pulvinate, lobate, effigurate and suffruticose crusts. The powdery crusts or leprose type thallus are simple in structure, where fungal hyphae cover algal cells, and they have no definite algal or fungal layer, e.g. Lepraria genus. The endolithic lichen (e.g. Acrocordia conoidea and Verrucaria baldensis) grows inside rock, while endophloeodic lichens grow underneath the cuticle of leaves and stems of higher plants. They are more organized in structure and form an upper cortex consisting of a densely conglutinated hyphal layer named “lithocortex.” In the squamulose type of crustose lichen, the areolae are enlarged in the upper portion and become partly free from the substrate, often form overlapping scale‐like squamules (e.g. genera like Catapyrenium and Peltula). In general like Mobergia, squamules are extremely inflated; they are called bullate type. The peltate type has more or less central attachment area on the lower surface of flat scales of squamulose thalli (e.g. Peltula euploca and Anema nummularium). In effigurate type of thallus, the marginal lobes are prolonged and are radially arranged, e.g. genera like Caloplaca and Acarospora. When the thallus becomes radially striate with marginal lobes, they are called lobate type of thallus [28].
The foliose lichens are flat and leaf‐like, partially attached to the substratum. They have well‐defined upper and lower surfaces with dorsiventral organization. The branching thallus bears several lobes. The foliose lichens may be of two types—laciniate and umbilicate. Laciniate lichens are lobate with various sizes. In Parmelia species, the lobes are radially arranged, and in Peltigera, lobes overlap, similar to tiles on a roof. In Menegazzia, thallus lobes are inflated with a hollow medullary center. Umbilicate lichen thallus is circular in look and consists of either one single unbranched lobe or a multilobate with a limited branching pattern. Umbilicate type of thallus has a central umbilicus, which arises from the lower surface and is attached to the substratum.
In Fruticose lichens, the thallus lobes are hair‐like, strap‐shaped, or shrubby; lobes are either flat or cylindrical. In some of the fruticose lichens, thallus is dorsiventrally arranged, e.g. Evernia prunastri. Some of them have radially symmetrical thalli, e.g. Usnea and Ramalina species [28].
The cortex is the outermost protective layer of stratified lichen thallus. In some foliose lichen, the cortex may also be present in the lower side of the thallus but is absent in the squamulose type. The photobiont layer of stratified lichen is formed just beneath the cortex. The medulla occupies most part of the thallus in stratified lichen composed of fungal hyphae.
1.4 Reproduction
In a lichenized state, the fungal partner usually expresses full sexual and to a certain extent, asexual mode of reproduction, whereas in the case of an algal partner, it is a reduced type [28]. Since lichen cannot exist without the symbiotic relationship between a mycobiont and a photobiont, either both partners must be dispersed at the same time, or specific adaptations must guarantee contact and relichenization following the independent dispersal of mycobionts and photobionts. The lichen's symbiotic relationship allows it to thrive on a broad range of substrates under a range of climatic circumstances, but its primary means of dispersal—sexual or non‐sexual—is determined by its mode of reproduction. After being released, the fungal spores germinate on an appropriate substrate, take up algae that are compatible with them, and grow new vegetative thalli. Mycobionts and photobionts coexist and reproduce to produce vegetative propagules such hormocysts, isidia, and soredia. Even the typical means of propagation that photobionts experience in their free‐living stage may be absent or extremely limited in lichenized conditions.
In lichens, one of the most common forms of vegetative reproduction is fragmentation. There is the potentiality to act as a source of regeneration of any portion of lichen thallus containing both the symbionts. The soredia are formed in specialized organ sorelia; they are the most common diaspore of foliose and fruticose lichen. Another diaspore is formed by isidia, which are finger‐like projections with well‐developed fungal tissue enclosed by algal cells. They are very commonly found in crustose, foliose, and fruticose lichen species. When the photobiont is a cyanobacteria, hormocytes are formed, which consist of trichomes or individual cells with a gelatinous sheath [43]. The sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes fungi as a lichen partner is analogous to that in free‐leaving Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes [44].
1.5 Lichen Phytochemicals
The secondary metabolites produced by lichen are known as lichen phytochemicals [45]. All these phytochemicals are of fungal origin [46]. Other than primary metabolites (proteins, amino acids, polyols, carotenoids, polysaccharides, and vitamins), lichen also produces over 700–1050 (including under culture) different secondary metabolites. The main categories of lichen phytochemicals are depsides, depsidones, dibenzofurans, anthraquinones, xanthones, chromones, pulvinic acid derivatives, terphenylquinones, terpenes and steroids. The medulla portion of lichen thallus mostly produces colorless depsides and depsidones. Usnic acid is also formed in the medulla portion [25, 47].
Lichen phytochemicals play some important ecological and medicinal roles, which determine the relative ecological success of individual lichen species. In lichen thallus, these phytochemicals are responsible for light‐screening, chemical withering, biological defense, anti‐herbivore defense, and allergenic. The yellow‐colored cortical pigment, usnic acid is produced by thousands of lichen that are exposed to the sun, while the lichen containing a low concentration of depsides is grey‐green in color and shade loving [48]. Many lichen substances exhibit multiple biological activities, such as the dibenzofuran usnic acid, which has characteristic antimicrobial, larvicidal, and anticancer properties, and is also known for its ultraviolet absorption. The phytochemicals are genetically regulated and, in certain cases are related to an individual's morphology and location within a species or genus. Since secondary metabolite distribution patterns are typically species‐specific, they are frequently employed in lichen systematics and taxonomy. Secondary metabolites from lichens can act as allelopathic agents, which means they can have an impact on the growth and development of nearby lichens, mosses, and vascular plants as well as microbes. Some lichens can significantly inhibit the growth of higher plants. It has been demonstrated that two common species found in boreal forests, Cladonia stellaris and Cladonia rangiferina, exhibit allelopathic effects on white spruce and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) [25].
The most studied lichen substance is usnic acid, which was isolated in 1884 from Usnea and later from other lichen genera‐ Cladonia, Hypotrachyna, Lecanora, Ramalina, Evernia, Parmelia and Alectoria. Usnic acid is famous for its anti‐proliferative activity and has anticancer potential. Cellular apoptosis (programmed cell death) of carcinogenic cell lines observed after treatment of usnic acid. It has the ability to affect cell lines of ovarian, hepatic, gastric, and breast cancer. Another compound atranorin extracted from some lichen species like Everniastrum vexans was tested for its anticancer properties. Regarding toxicity studies in the human body, there are some records in case of usnic acid [49].
1.6 Economic Importance
Lichens are good sources of food for humans and feed for other animals. Cetraria islandica, Lecanora esculenta, Umbilicaria esculenta, Peltigera canina, Parmelia sp., and Ramalina sinensis are consumed as food in different counties. Cladonia rangiferind, C. rangiferina, Cetraria islandica, species of Parmelia, Evernia, etc., are used as fodder in many countries. Some of the lichen species are used as flavoring agents, e.g. Heterodermia tremulans, species of Pyxine, Physcia, etc. Some lichen species are commercially used in the Litmus dye industry. Litmus mixture is obtained from Roccella tinctoria. Moreover, they are also used in the textile dye industry. Red‐colored natural dye is obtained from Rubia tinctorum and Rubia cordifolia. Evernia prunastri has been used for making perfume and the cosmetic industry.
There are several lichen species that have medicinal properties, such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anti‐inflammatory, anticancer, insecticidal, antipyretic, etc. Usnea sp. (anti‐cancer), U. esculenta (anti‐HIV), Parmelia sp. (wound healing), etc., are some medicinal lichens [37]. Scientific investigations have identified a large number of lichen species, indicating their biological activity and application in traditional medicine. About 60 lichen genera that have been traditionally employed by various cultures worldwide, primarily in North America, Europe, and Asia. Traditionally, the most commonly used lichen genera is Usnea, which is used around the world. The lichen genera Cladonia, Ramalina, Lobaria, Pertigera, Evernia, Pseudevernia, Umbilicaria, Xanthoparmelia, Letharia, Cetraria, Parmotrema, Thamnolia are used for various medical conditions like external injuries, skin infections, respiratory ailments, etc. C. islandica has been used in European pharmacopoeias to treat lung disease, cold symptoms, and gastroenteritis since 1500. Pseudevernia furfuracea was used by the Egyptians in the process of embalming mummies for aromatic purposes and is now effectively used in the perfume industry. In India, Usnea longissima has been used in traditional medicine for its analgesic, cardiotonic, digestive, and wound‐healing properties [49].
Due to their sensitivity to various pollutants (nitrogen, sulfur, etc.) and heavy metals, lichens are widely recognized as bioindicators of environmental pollution. The health condition of lichen can indicate the accumulation of heavy metals showing its negative effect [25, 29].
1.7 Conservation
The rate of species extinction in the Anthropocene has been 100–1000 times higher than the background rate, or 0.1–1 million species per year. They have coincided with reductions in the useful biodiversity [50]. Experts in biodiversity calculated that since 1500, over 30% (uncertainty range: 16–50%) of species have faced worldwide threats or have been driven extinct. Habitat loss and climate change are predicted to worsen the extent of biodiversity loss. According to expert estimates, either 41% (range: 30–60%) or 80% (range: 63–95%) of species are threatened or driven to extinction when 50% or 90% of their habitat is lost. Additionally, the experts calculated that a 2 °C or 5 °C increase in global warming would drive approximately 25% (range: 15–40%) or 50% (range: 32–70%) of species to extinction [51]. Lichens are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems across the globe and are ecologically significant symbioses that are well‐known to non‐scientists. They play an immense role in a variety of crucial ecological processes and ecosystem performance including as soil formation, nutrient cycling, rock weathering, and humidity regime regulation. The abundance and diversity of lichen across the globe have been declining. The main threats that apply to biodiversity in general are also true for lichens [39]. Lichens suffer from a loss of diversity and abundance on a variety of levels, ranging from entire communities to individual species and populations. The variety and abundance of lichens are adversely affected by numerous well‐established human‐mediated activities. Climate change and habitat loss are two of these challenges that affect almost all forms of biodiversity. Lichens are disproportionately affected by other hazards, such as air pollution, in comparison to other types of organisms. It has long been known that overbrowsing of the Cladonia by growing populations of reindeer in Scandinavia and Alaska is a major contributing element to the drastic loss in lichen cover, which could pose a significant threat to the husbandry of reindeer. The species richness and composition of lichen communities are significantly impacted by both deforestation and the deterioration of lichen habitats caused by the planting of plantation forests in place of natural forests [39].
Lichens are protected under the Endangered Species Act at the federal level in the USA. Currently, only two endemic species from the Southeast of the United States are listed as endangered species: Cladonia perforata and Cetradonia linearis. Since these species were added to the list more than 20 years ago, researchers have paid considerable attention to them, focusing mostly on mapping their ranges and learning about the genetics and demographics of the populations [22]. Effective lichen conservation plans typically integrate attempts to preserve or enhance the size, demographics, and genetic makeup of populations with the goal of protecting environments. The preservation of habitat size, connectivity, and quality should be the key goals of lichen conservation. In contrast to dynamic habitats like woods, grasslands, and gravel fields, permanent ecosystems like mountain ridges can best be preserved by static protection, which is also very simple to accomplish [39].
1.8 Conclusion
Lichens are the predominant flora on Earth exhibiting extensive biological, physiological, and chemical peculiarities. The fungal partner is the main component of the lichen thallus with regard to its morphology, but the algal partner is necessary from a nutritional standpoint. With the successful partnership of symbiosis, they are dominating a large terrestrial ecosystem on Earth. A wide range of secondary products has made them an essential natural treasure house for human food, medicine, and various industrial products. They are useful organisms for ecosystem health monitoring. Various anthropogenic factors have made them threatened in natural habitats, especially some commercially used lichen species.
References
1
Armaleo, D., Müller, O., Lutzoni, F. et al. (2019). The lichen symbiosis re‐viewed through the genomes of Cladonia grayi and its algal partner
Asterochloris glomerata
.
BMC Genomics
20 (1): 605.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864‐019‐5629‐x
.
2
Aprile, G.G., Catalano, I., Migliozzi, A., and Mingo, A. (2011). Monitoring epiphytic lichen biodiversity to detect environmental quality and air pollution: the case study of Roccamonfina park (Campania Region ‐ Italy). In:
Air Pollution—New Developments
(ed. A. Moldoveanu). InTech.
https://doi.org/10.5772/17907
.
3
Asplund, J. and Wardle, D.A. (2017). How lichens impact on terrestrial community and ecosystem properties.
Biological Reviews
92 (3): 1720–1738.
https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12305
.
4
Hawksworth, D.L. (1988). The variety of fungal‐algal symbioses, their evolutionary significance, and the nature of lichens.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
96 (1): 3–20.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095‐8339.1988.tb00623.x
.
5
Saini, K.C., Nayaka, S., and Bast, F. (2019). Diversity of lichen photobionts: their coevolution and bioprospecting potential. In:
Microbial Diversity in Ecosystem Sustainability and Biotechnological Applications
(ed. T. Satyanarayana, S.K. Das, and B.N. Johri), 307–323. Singapore: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐981‐13‐8487‐5_13
.
6
Sanders, W.B. and Masumoto, H. (2021). Lichen algae: the photosynthetic partners in lichen symbioses.
The Lichenologist
53 (5): 347–393.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0024282921000335
.
7
Bhagarathi, L.K., DaSilva, P.N.B., Subramanian, G. et al. (2023). An integrative review of the biology and chemistry of lichens and their ecological, ethnopharmacological, pharmaceutical and therapeutic potential.
GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences
23 (3): 092–119.
https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2023.23.3.0223
.
8
Lutzoni, F. and Miadlikowska, J. (2009). Lichens.
Current Biology
19 (13): R502–R503.
9
Zhao, Y., Wang, M., and Xu, B. (2021). A comprehensive review on secondary metabolites and health‐promoting effects of edible lichen.
Journal of Functional Foods
80: 104283.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2020.104283
.
10
Aschenbrenner, I.A., Cernava, T., Berg, G., and Grube, M. (2016). Understanding microbial multi‐species symbioses.
Frontiers in Microbiology
7: 180.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00180
.
11
Duran‐Nebreda, S. and Valverde, S. (2023). Composition, structure and robustness of lichen guilds.
Scientific Reports
13 (1): 3295.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598‐023‐30357‐w
.
12
Grube, M. (2018). The lichen thallus as a microbial habitat.
Biosystems Ecological Series
34: 528–545.
13
Morillas, L., Roales, J., Cruz, C., and Munzi, S. (2022). Lichen as multipartner symbiotic relationships.
Encyclopedia
2 (3): 1421–1431.
https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia2030096
.
14
Leavitt, S.D. and Lumbsch, H.T. (2016). Ecological biogeography of lichen‐forming fungi. In:
Environmental and Microbial Relationships
(ed. I.S. Druzhinina and C.P. Kubicek), 15–37. Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐319‐29532‐9_2
.
15
Grimm, M., Grube, M., Schiefelbein, U. et al. (2021). The lichens’ microbiota, still a mystery?
Frontiers in Microbiology
12: 623839.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.623839
.
16
Mitchell, M.E. (2007). Signposts to symbiosis: a review of early attempts to establish the constitution of lichen.
Huntia
13 (2): 101–120.
17
Stanton, D.E., Ormond, A., Koch, N.M., and Colesie, C. (2023). Lichen ecophysiology in a changing climate.
American Journal of Botany
110 (2): e16131.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.16131
.
18
Alexopoulos, C.J., Mims, C.W., and Blackwell, M. (2007).
Introductory Mycology
, 4e. Wiley.
19
Pichler, G., Muggia, L., Carniel, F.C. et al. (2023). How to build a lichen: from metabolite release to symbiotic interplay.
New Phytologist
238 (4): 1362–1378.
https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.18780
.
20
Lichens (n.d.). Lichens of India. National Information Centre, Govt. of India.
https://bsi.gov.in/page/en/lichens
.
21
Payette, S. and Delwaide, A. (2018). Tamm review: the North‐American lichen woodland.
Forest Ecology and Management
417: 167–183.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.02.043
.
22
Allen, J.L., McMullin, R.T., Tripp, E.A., and Lendemer, J.C. (2019). Lichen conservation in North America: a review of current practices and research in Canada and the United States.
Biodiversity and Conservation
28 (12): 3103–3138.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531‐019‐01827‐3
.
23
Feuerer, T. and Hawksworth, D.L. (2007). Biodiversity of lichens, including a world‐wide analysis of checklist data based on Takhtajan’s floristic regions.
Biodiversity and Conservation
16 (1): 85–98.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531‐006‐9142‐6
.
24
Lakatos, M. (2011). Lichens and bryophytes: habitats and species. In:
Plant Desiccation Tolerance
, vol. 215 (ed. U. Lüttge, E. Beck, and D. Bartels), 65–87. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐642‐19106‐0_5
.
25
Molnár, K. and Farkas, E. (2010). Current results on biological activities of lichen secondary metabolites: a review.
Zeitschrift Für Naturforschung C
65 (3–4): 157–173.
https://doi.org/10.1515/znc‐2010‐3‐401
.
26
Lucking, R., Plata, E.R., Chavej, J.L. et al. (2009). How many tropical lichens are there… Really?
Bibliotheca Lichenologica
100(Diversity of Lichenology –Jubilee Volume.): 399–418.
27
Singh, S., Arya, M., and Vishwakarma, S.K. (2019). Advancements in methods used for identification of lichens.
International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences
8 (08): 1450–1460.
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.808.169
.
28
Büdel, B. and Scheidegger, C. (2008). Thallus morphology and anatomy. In:
Lichen Biology
, 2e (ed. T.H. Nash), 40–68. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790478.005
.
29
Yang, J., Oh, S.‐O., and Hur, J.‐S. (2023). Lichen as bioindicators: assessing their response to heavy metal pollution in their native ecosystem.
Mycobiology
51 (5): 343–353.
https://doi.org/10.1080/12298093.2023.2265144
.
30
Oksanen, I. (2006). Ecological and biotechnological aspects of lichens.
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
73 (4): 723–734.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253‐006‐0611‐3
.
31
Crawford, S.D. (2015). Lichens used in traditional medicine. In:
Lichen Secondary Metabolites
(ed. B. Ranković), 27–80. Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐319‐13374‐4_2
.
32
Upreti, D.K., Divakar, P.K., and Nayaka, S. (2005). Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India.
Economic Botany
59 (3): 269–273.
https://doi.org/10.1663/0013‐0001(2005)059[0269:CAEUOL]2.0.CO;2
.
33
Devkota, S., Chaudhary, R.P., Werth, S., and Scheidegger, C. (2017). Indigenous knowledge and use of lichens by the lichenophilic communities of the Nepal Himalaya.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
13 (1): 15.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002‐017‐0142‐2
.
34
Pyakurel, D., Smith‐Hall, C., Bhattarai‐Sharma, I., and Ghimire, S.K. (2019). Trade and conservation of Nepalese medicinal plants, fungi, and lichen.
Economic Botany
73 (4): 505–521.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231‐019‐09473‐0
.
35
Yang, M.‐X., Devkota, S., Wang, L.‐S., and Scheidegger, C. (2021). Ethnolichenology—the use of lichens in the Himalayas and Southwestern Parts of China.
Diversity
13 (7): 330.
https://doi.org/10.3390/d13070330
.
36
Llano, G.A. (1948). Economic uses of lichens.
Economic Botany
2 (1): 15–45.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02907917
.
37
Sharma, M. and Mohammad, A. (2020). Lichens and lichenology: historical and economic prospects. In:
Lichen‐Derived Products
, 1e (ed. M. Yusuf), 101–118. Wiley.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119593249.ch4
.
38
Wa, E., De, E.‐G., and Gm, D. (2022). Lichens uses surprising uses of lichens that improve human life.
Journal of Biomedical Research & Environmental Sciences
3 (2): 189–194.
https://doi.org/10.37871/jbres1420
.
39
Scheidegger, C. and Werth, S. (2009). Conservation strategies for lichens: insights from population biology.
Fungal Biology Reviews
23 (3): 55–66.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2009.10.003
.
40
Galloway, D.J. (2008). Lichen biogeography. In:
Lichen Biology
, 2e (ed. T.H. Nash), 315–335. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790478.017
.
41
Jahns, H.M. (1973). Anatomy, morphology, and development.
The Lichens
3–58.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978‐0‐12‐044950‐7.50006‐4
.
42
Sanders, W.B. (2006). A feeling for the superorganism: expression of plant form in the lichen thallus.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
150 (1): 89–99.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095‐8339.2006.00497.x
.
43
Krishnamurthy, K.V. and Upreti, D.K. (2001). Reproductive biology of lichens. In:
Reproductive Biology of Plants
(ed. B.M. Johri and P.S. Srivastava), 127–147. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐642‐50133‐3_7
.
44
Bowler, P.A. and Rundel, P.W. (1975). Reproductive strategies in lichens.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
70 (4): 325–340.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095‐8339.1975.tb01653.x
.
45
Yamamoto, Y., Hara, K., Kawakami, H., and Komine, M. (2015). Lichen substances and their biological activities. In:
Recent Advances in Lichenology
(ed. D.K. Upreti, P.K. Divakar, V. Shukla, and R. Bajpai), 181–199. India: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐81‐322‐2235‐4_10
.
46
Culberson, C.F. and Elix, J.A. (1989). Lichen substances. In:
Methods in Plant Biochemistry
, vol. 1, 509–535. Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978‐0‐12‐461011‐8.50021‐4
.
47
Podterob, A.P. (2008). Chemical composition of lichens and their medical applications.
Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal
42 (10): 582–588.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11094‐009‐0183‐5
.
48
Karunaratne, V. (1999). Lichen substances: biochemistry, ecological role and economic uses.
Ceylon Journal of Science: Physical Sciences
6 (1): 13–28.
49
Poulsen‐Silva, E., Gordillo‐Fuenzalida, F., Atala, C. et al. (2023). Bioactive lichen secondary metabolites and their presence in species from Chile.
Metabolites
13 (7): 805.
https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13070805
.
50
Dasgupta, P. and Levin, S. (2023). Economic factors underlying biodiversity loss.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
378 (1881): 20220197.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0197
.
51
Isbell, F., Balvanera, P., Mori, A.S. et al. (2023). Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people.
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
21 (2): 94–103.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2536
.
2The Biology of Lichen
Ludmilla Fitri Untari
Department of Tropical Biology, The Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2.1 Introduction
Lichens are mutualistic associations or symbioses between algae (photobiont) and fungi (mycobiont) that produce new and specific entities both morphologically and physiologically. However, if the two are separated and grown in a laboratory, they will not form lichens because lichens only live in natural environments. The algae function as a producer through the process of photosynthesis. On the other hand, fungi act as suppliers of minerals and water from the environment, providing mass, structure, water, and mineral availability; determining the morphological form of the lichens resulting from the symbiosis; and performing reproductive and protective functions. Fungi also provide a refuge for algae to live. This symbiosis tends to increase the ability of both to adapt to different environments due to the thallus structure, physiology, and specific chemical compounds [1, 2].
