Cigarette Smoke Toxicity E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 745

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Smoking causes and contributes to a large number of human diseases, yet due to the large number of potentially hazardous compounds in cigarette smoke -- almost 5,000 chemicals have been identified, establishing the link between smoking and disease has often proved difficult. This unbiased and scientifically accurate overview of current knowledge begins with an overview of the chemical constituents in cigarette smoke, their fate in the human body, and their documented toxic effects on various cells and tissues. Recent results detailing the many ways components of cigarette smoke adversely affect human health are also presented, highlighting the role of smoking in cardiovascular, respiratory, infectious and other diseases. A final chapter discusses current strategies for the treatment and prevention of smoking-induced illness. Despite the obvious importance of the topic, this is the first comprehensive reference on tobacco smoke toxicity, making for essential reading for all toxicologists and healthcare professionals dealing with smoking-related diseases.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Related Titles

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

List of Contributors

1 From Discarded Leaf to Global Scourge – The Extraordinary History of the Ascent of Tobacco and its Many Modes of Consumption

1.1 Public Health Policy and Commercial Interest – An Uneasy Equilibrium

1.2 Blessed Offspring of an Uncouth Land

1.3 A Valuable Poison

1.4 Sniffing, Chewing, and Smoking

1.5 The Development of the Cigarette – A Perfect Nicotine Delivery System

1.6 A Century of Growth

1.7 An Epidemic of Disease

1.8 Tobacco Manufactured Products – Multiple Routes to Addiction

1.9 History Revisited or Lesson Learned

Part I: Cigarette Smoking

2 Components of a Cigarette

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Components of a Cigarette

2.3 Generation of Cigarette Smoke

2.4 Regulation and Future Perspectives of Cigarette Smoking

3 The Process of Cigarette Smoking

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Bio-complexity of Pathogenic Components of Smoking

3.3 Multiplicity of Tobacco-Induced Diseases

3.4 Topography of Cigarette Smoking

3.5 How to Define a Human Smoker?

3.6 Will there be Standardized Experimental Models to Study Biological Impact by Smoking?

3.7 Summary

Acknowledgment

4 Smoke Chemistry

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Cigarette Smoke

4.3 Factors Influencing Smoke Chemistry

5 Exposure to Tobacco Smoke

5.1 Active Smoking

5.2 Secondhand Smoke

5.3 Thirdhand Smoke

5.4 Quantifying Tobacco Smoke Exposure

5.5 Policy Measures for Reducing Tobacco-Related Exposure

6 An Epidemiological Appraisal of Smoking-Related Outcomes

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Meta-Analytical Evidence on Active Smoking

6.3 Cancer

6.4 Cardiovascular

6.5 Fractures

6.6 Helicobacter pylori Eradication

6.7 Fertility

6.8 Ocular Damage

6.9 Neurological Effects of Smoking

6.10 Rheumatoid Arthritis

6.11 Prenatal and Postnatal Effects of Smoking in Children

6.12 Review of Meta-Analysis on Secondhand Smoke

6.13 Mortality, Biological Aging, and Smoking

6.14 Conclusion

Part II: Linking Cigarette Smoke Chemicals to Human Diseases and Pathophysiology

7 Smoking and Cardiovascular Diseases

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Cardiovascular Diseases

7.3 Smoking and CVDs

7.4 Summary

Acknowledgment

8 Smoking and Cancer

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Facts on Smoking and Cancer

8.3 Cancer of the Lung

8.4 Tobacco Use and Pancreatic Cancer

8.5 Tobacco Smoke Combustion Products: Heterocyclic Amines

8.6 Smoking, K-ras Mutations and Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma

8.7 Interindividual Variation in the Risk of Pancreatic Cancer

8.8 Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis by Cigarette Smoke

8.9 Summary

9 Smoking and COPD and Other Respiratory Diseases

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Pathogenesis of COPD

9.3 Molecular Determinants of Protease Activity in COPD

9.4 Molecular Determinants of Inflammation in COPD

9.5 Molecular Determinants of Oxidative Stress in COPD

9.6 Activation of Nrf2 by Cigarette Smoke

9.7 Exacerbations of COPD

9.8 Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Innate Immunity and COPD Exacerbations

9.9 Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Asthma

9.10 Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Other Respiratory Diseases

9.11 Other Molecular Effects of Cigarette Smoke Exposure

9.12 Effects of Individual Components of Cigarette Smoke in Lungs

9.13 Concluding Remarks

10 Smoking, Infectious Diseases and Innate Immune (Dys)function

10.1 Smoking and Susceptibility to Bacterial Diseases

10.2 The Needle in the Haystack

10.3 Recognition of Infectious Agents by the Innate Immune Response

10.4 The Cholinergic Anti-Inflammatory System

10.5 Tobacco Smoking and Neutrophil Function

10.6 Tobacco Smoking and Bacterial Virulence

10.7 Nicotine and Cells of the Adaptive Immune System

10.8 Conclusions

11 Smoking and Reproduction

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Smoking and Female Fertility

11.3 Reproductive Consequences of Smoking for Men

11.4 Consequences of in utero Tobacco Exposure in Later Life of Offspring

12 Smoking Tobacco and Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology and Diseases

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Esophagus

12.3 Stomach

12.4 Intestine

12.5 Liver and Pancreas

12.6 Summary

13 Smoking and Oral Health

13.1 Periodontal Disease

13.2 Dental Caries

13.3 Oral Cancer

13.4 Other Oral Conditions

13.5 Other Dental Conditions

13.6 Conclusion

14 Smoking and Eye Diseases

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Smoking and Cataract

14.3 Smoking and Glaucoma

14.4 Age-Related Macular Degeneration

14.5 Association Between Smoking and Age-Related Macular Degeneration

14.6 Smoking and Uveitis

14.7 Ocular Ischemia

14.8 Smoking and Diabetic Retinopathy

14.9 Other Ocular Diseases

14.10 Conclusions

14.11 Acknowledgments

Part III: Prevention and Treatment of Smoking–Induced Diseases

15 Smoking: Prevention and Cessation

15.1 Strategies for Smoking Prevention and Cessation

15.2 Cessation and Risk Reversal: Health Benefits from Giving up Smoking

15.3 Smoking Cessation and Gender

15.4 Smoking Cessation and Genetics

16 Interfering with Smoking-Induced Pathophysiology

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Cellular Redox Mechanisms Affected by Cigarette Smoke

16.3 Perspectives for Prevention and Treatment of Cigarette Smoke-Induced Pathophysiology in Different Tissues

16.4 Dietary and Lifestyle Considerations as Related to Pathophysiology in Smokers

16.5 Concluding Remarks

Part IV: Summary

17 Summary

17.1 Cigarette Smoking and Human Diseases – A Critical Concluding Comment

17.2 Concluding Remarks to this Book

Index

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The Editor

PD Dr. David Bernhard

Medical Univ. of Vienna

Dept. of Surgery

Währinger Gürtel 18–20

1090 Vienna

Austria

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

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© 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

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ISBN: 978-3-527-32681-5

ISBN: 978-3-527-63533-7 (ebk)

Preface

Today there are over a billion smokers in the world, making smoking and tobacco abuse one of the biggest health threats the world has ever faced. Smoking, by killing half of its users, is likely to cause up to one billion deaths in the twenty-first century [1]. As the worldwide number of smokers is still rising, it is evident that it is time for action to slow down, stop, and reverse the progression of the tobacco pandemic.

The number one tool in the fight against tobacco-induced diseases is prevention. However, facing the fact that there are a billion smokers in the world of today, and given the highly addictive nature of tobacco and nicotine abuse, it is clear that more options are needed. Two additional tools to reduce the number of smoking-induced diseases are cessation and treatment. Because of the relevance of smoking as a risk factor, not only for the most important diseases of humanity (i.e., cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and lung diseases), surprisingly little is known about disease-relevant chemicals in cigarette smoke and tobacco-specific pathophysiologies. This lack of knowledge, and – with important exceptions – the tragic lack of interest of the scientific community in this risk factor, have hampered the discovery of tobacco-induced disease markers and treatments, which are urgently needed to reduce morbidity and mortality in billions of humans.

This book is intended to give an up-to-date overview of the field of cigarette smoke toxicity, to facilitate a dispersion of knowledge across disciplines and to accelerate our understandin of the chemical and pathophysiological risk factors of smoking, which will facilitate the discovery of specific disease markers and treatment options for tobacco-induced diseases.

David Bernhard

Reference

1 World Health Organization (2010) Tobacco. Factsheet no. 339. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/index.html (accessed October 2010).

List of Contributors

Eman Allam

Indiana University School of Dentistry

Department of Oral Biology

1121 W. Michigan Street

Room 271

Indianapolis, IN 46202

USA

Juhi Bagaitkar

University of Louisville School of Dentistry

Oral Health and Systemic Disease Research Group

501 South Preston Street

Louisville, KY 40292

USA

David Bernhard

Medical University of Vienna

Department of Surgery, Cardiac Surgery, Research Laboratories

Währinger Gürtel 18-20; Ebene 8 G09/07

A-1090 Vienna

Austria

Shyam Biswal

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

Department of Environmental Health Sciences

Division of Toxicological Sciences

Room E7624

615 North Wolfe St.

Baltimore, MD 21205

USA

Parimal Chowdhury

College of Medicine

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Winthrop

Department of Physiology and Biophysics

Slot # 505 4301 W Markham Street

Little Rock, AR 72205

USA

André Conrad

Federal Environment Agency

(Umweltbundes amt)

Department of Environmental Hygiene Corrensplat21

14195 Berlin

Germany

Adam Csordas

Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main

Medizinische Klinik III, Kardiologie

Theodor-Stern-Kai 7

60596 Frankfurt am Main

Germany

Barry A. Finegan

University of Alberta

Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine

Edmonton, AB

Canada T66 2B7

Garrett J. Finegan

Carleton University

School of Public Policy and Administration

1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON

Canada IC15 5B6

Richard L. Gregory

Indiana University School of Dentistry

Department of Oral Biology

1121 W. Michigan Street

Room 271

Indianapolis, IN 46202

USA

Stewart MacLeod

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Winthrop Rockefeller Cancer Institute

Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute

Little Rock, AR 72205

USA

Maria E. Marin-Castaño

University of Miami

Bascom Palmer Eye Institute

Department of Ophthalmology

Miami, FL 33136

USA

Elke Munters

Hasselt University

Centre for Environmental Sciences

Agoralaan Gebouw D

Diepenbeek 3590

Belgium

Tim S. Nawrot

Hasselt University

Centre for Environmental Sciences

Agoralaan Gebouw D

Diepenbeek 3590

Belgium

Marianne Pons

University of Miami

Bascom Palmer Eye Institute

Department of Ophthalmology

Miami, FL 33136

USA

Martina Prelog

Medical University Innsbruck

Department of Pediatrics

Anichstr. 35

A-6020 Innsbruck

Austria

Hitoshi Asakura

Niigata University

Koukann Clinics

1-2-3 Koukanndori

Kawasaki-ku

Kawasaki 210-0852

Japan

David A. Scott

University of Louisville School of Dentistry

Oral Health and Systemic Disease Research Group

501 South Preston Street

Louisville, KY 40292

USA

Thomas E. Sussan

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Division of Toxicological Sciences

Room E7624

615 North Wolfe St.

Baltimore, MD 21205

USA

Jian Wang

VA NJ Healthcare System

151 Knollcroft Road

Lyons, NJ 07019

USA

Xing Li Wang

Qilu Hospital of Shandong University

Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Shandong University Research Center for Cell Therapy

Jinan, Shandong 250012

China

Baylor College of Medicine

Texas Heart Institute at St. Luke’s Episcopal Hospital

Section of Cardiothoracic Surgery

One Baylor Plaza

Houston, TX 77030

USA

L. Jack Windsor

Indiana University School of Dentistry

Department of Oral Biology

1121 W. Michigan Street

Room 271

Indianapolis, IN 46202

USA

Andreas Zemann

Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck

Institute of Analytical Chemistry

Innrain 52a, A-6020 Innsbruck

Austria

Weiping Zhang

Indiana University School of Dentistry

Department of Oral Biology

1121 W. Michigan Street

Room 271

Indianapolis, IN 46202

USA

Cunge Zheng

Indiana University School of Dentistry

Department of Oral Biology

1121 W. Michigan Street

Room 271

Indianapolis, IN 46202

USA

Part I: Cigarette Smoking

2

Components of a Cigarette

Andreas Zemann

2.1 Introduction

Cigarette smoking is a human habit of immense global scale. Annually, appro­ximately 5.4 × 1012 cigarettes are produced, sold, and smoked. While smoking numbers in the Western Hemisphere (North America and Europe) are declining, smokers in Eastern Europe and the Asia–Pacific region are responsible for an annual growth number of approximately 1–2%. The largest single market in the world is China, where approximately 40% of all cigarettes are produced and smoked [1].

In the early days, cigarettes were manufactured by hand-rolling the tobacco in single sheets of rice paper, but in the second half of the nineteenth century mechanical cigarette production became technically feasible, allowing production of cigarettes initially from individual sheets of cigarette paper and defined portions of tobacco.

Since the 1950s machine-made cigarettes have been produced by feeding the blended cut tobacco pneumatically to the maker and placing it evenly on a moving continuous strip of cigarette paper from a paper bobbin. The paper and the tobacco are conveyed through a continuous forming section containing a hollow chamber (garniture) and brought into the final cylindrical shape of the cigarette after gluing the seam of the paper, usually using polyvinyl alcohol. This endless tobacco rod is then cut to equal lengths and checked for the correct weight.

From the 1950s on, filter cigarettes became increasingly popular. The filter usually consists of cellulose acetate and is wrapped by the plugwrap paper in order to make it easier to handle the otherwise fluffy filter material. A piece of filter rod twice the required length is placed between two cut pieces of tobacco rod. Filter rod and tobacco rod are joined by the tipping paper, which is wrapped around this double cigarette, completely covering the filter piece and overlapping the cigarette paper of the tobacco rod by a few millimeters. Finally, the double length filter is cut in half and one piece of the oppositely directed double cigarette turned through 180°. The cigarettes are then collected and wrapped in bundles of 10–50 to be packed; there are usually 10 packs to a carton and they are shipped in big cases.

The production capacity of the cigarette-making machines increased from 200 sticks per minute at the beginning of the twentieth century to 2000 in the 1950s, 4000–6000 in the 1970s, over 10 000 in the 1980s, up to currently 20 000 sticks per minute in high-speed cigarette makers using two parallel lines in one machine.

In Europe, the tobacco market nowadays is dominated by cigarettes with a share of approximately 80–90%, depending on country and region. Fine-cut tobacco, cigars, cigarillos, and pipe tobacco have only minor shares, however, with increasing figures of roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes. This increase in the popularity of RYO cigarettes has come about both because they give the smoker the ability to decide how much tobacco to use per cigarette and because RYO products are cheaper to buy as a result of high taxation of machine-made cigarettes.

2.2 Components of a Cigarette

A contemporary cigarette appears to be a very simple product, basically comprising of just five components (Figure 2.1): the tobacco rod (1) which is covered by the cigarette paper (2) and the filter plug (3) which is shrouded by the plugwrap paper (4). Both components are joined together by the tipping paper (5).

Figure 2.1 Components of a cigarette: tobacco (1), cigarette paper (2), filter (3), plugwrap paper (4), tipping paper (5).

Despite its superficially simple appearance, a cigarette must accomplish a series of requirements, both from regulatory and legal requirements as well from the various demands of the customer. In Germany, the German Tobacco Ordinance (Deutsche Tabakverordnung, TVO) restricts the permitted ingredients of smoking articles, such as cigars and cigarettes. All components that are not listed in the TVO are a priori not allowed to be used in smoking articles. This applies to the tobacco and its additives, as well as to cigarette paper, tipping paper, plugwrap paper, and filtration materials. Although only a part of the German legislation, the TVO has been cited in other national regulations as well as in certain company quality handbooks.

The shapes and dimensions of cigarettes vary among different cultures, fashions, and producers and a wide variety of format exist in the market. King-size cigarettes typically have to a total cigarette length of 74–85 mm and a diameter of approximately 8 mm, containing typically 700-800 mg of fine-cut tobacco. Filter lengths are in the range of 25–30 mm, depending on the brand and strength of the cigarette. In addition, slim and super slim formats are also available.