Coastal and Marine Pollution E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A multi-faceted analysis of how to preserve the long-term health of the world’s largest ecosystem
In Coastal and Marine Pollution: Source to Sink, Mitigation and Management, a team of distinguished researchers delivers a comprehensive overview of the factors and stakeholders impacting — and impacted by — coastal and marine pollution. The book offers broad and up-to-date coverage of the topic, serving as a valuable reference for professionals and researchers working in the field.
The authors integrate and compare the two main sources of marine and coastal pollution: chronic, long-term, low-level pollution as well as occasional, accidental, disaster-related pollution. They bridge the gap between theory and real-world action, offering best practices for monitoring and preventing pollution, as well as efficient governance and disaster management strategies.
Readers will find:
- A thorough overview of the global state of coastal and marine pollution
- Comprehensive explorations of different types of pollution, including their sources, distribution, and impacts on the biophysical environment
- Practical discussions of pollution monitoring methods, including ecotoxicological approaches and proven strategies for managing coastal and marine pollution
- A critical assessment of policy and governance issues, including public awareness and disaster response strategies
Perfect for researchers and professionals in the fields of marine biology, ecology, and environmental protection, Coastal and Marine Pollution will also benefit professionals working in the shipping, fishing, deep-sea mining and drilling industries, as well as those affiliated with governmental and non-governmental organizations.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Notes on Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgment
1 Overview of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Challenges
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments
1.3 Sources of Coastal and Marine Pollution
1.4 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution
1.5 Challenges in Coastal and Marine Pollution
1.6 Summary
References
2 Pollution from Land‐Based Sources: Industrial and Urban Runoff
2.1 Organic Marine and Coastal Pollutants
2.2 Inorganic Marine and Coastal Pollutants
2.3 Newer Forms of Marine and Coastal Pollutants
2.4 Climate Change and Marine and Coastal Pollution
2.5 Pollutant Transport from Land‐Based Sources
2.6 Sources of Marine Pollution
2.7 Effects Related to Marine Pollution
References
3 Marine Pollution Issues Relating to Shipping, Ports, and Use of Marine Coatings
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Marine Pollution from Shipping
3.3 Pollution from Ship Wastes
3.4 Sewage
3.5 Ship Collisions and Pollution
3.6 Ports
3.7 Marine Coatings
3.8 Conclusions
References
4 Offshore Oil and Gas Operations: Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Methods
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Global Status of Offshore Oil and Gas Explorations
4.3 Processes/Methods Involved in Offshore Oil and Gas Operations
4.4 Environmental Impacts
4.5 Mitigation Methods
4.6 Conclusions
References
5 Coastal and Marine Pollution from Agricultural Activities: Fertilizers and Pesticides
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Current Status and Trends in Use of Fertilizer and Pesticides in Agriculture
5.3 Pesticide Distribution in Coastal and Marine Environment
5.4 Pesticide Entering Pathways to Coastal and Marine Environment
5.5 Fertilizer Use and Losses from Agricultural Land to Coastal and Marine Environment
5.6 Impact on the Coastal and Marine Environment of Agrochemicals
5.7 Impacts of Agrarian‐Based Synthetic Fertilizers and Pesticides on Marine and Coastal Life and Human Health
5.8 Impact on the Blue Economy
5.9 Innovative Solutions to Control and Prevent Coastal and Marine Pollution from Agricultural Activities
5.10 Innovative Solutions and Future Challenges
References
6 Ocean Warming, Acidification, Plastic Pollution, and Water Quality Deterioration: A Multifaceted Crisis Unveiled
6.1 Ocean Warming: Impact on Global Ocean System and Cryosphere
6.2 Water Quality Deterioration in Oceans
6.3 Ocean Acidification
6.4 Plastic Pollution
6.5 Cross‐Disciplinary Solutions for Interconnected Nature of Ocean Warming Acidification, Plastic Pollution, and Water Quality Deterioration
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Heavy Metal Pollution and Historical Legacies in Coastal–Marine Environment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Evolution of Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments
7.3 Case Studies on Historical Legacies of Heavy Metal Contamination in Coastal and Marine Environments
7.4 Heavy Metals and Their Essentiality in the Environment
7.5 Prevention and Management of Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments
7.6 Conclusion
7.7 Future Directives
Acknowledgment
References
8 Marine Pollution due to Mariculture and Fishing Operations in Sri Lanka: Impacts and Mitigation Strategies
8.1 Mariculture in Sri Lanka
8.2 Marine Pollution by Aquaculture and Fisheries Practices and Impacts
8.3 Nutrient Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices
8.4 Oil Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices
8.5 Chemical Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices
8.6 Plastic Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices
8.7 Policy Framework Governing the Mariculture Sector in Sri Lanka
8.8 Potential Mitigation Measures, Approaches and Way Forward
References
9 Marine Macro‐litter: Sources, Abundance, Impacts, and Solutions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources, Fate, and Transport of Marine Macro‐litter
9.3 Abundance and Distribution of Marine Macro‐litter
9.4 Impacts of Marine Macro‐litter
9.5 Solution Approaches Toward Sustainable Marine Ecosystem
9.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
10 Nuclear and Radioactive Marine Pollution and Monitoring of Radioactivity in Oceans
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources of Radioactivity in Marine Ecosystems
10.3 Important Radionuclides to the Marine Ecosystems, Their Chemistry, and Behaviors
10.4 Impact of Radioactive and Nuclear Pollution on Marine Ecosystem
10.5 Monitoring of Radioactivity in Oceans and Marine‐Originated Products
10.6 Preventive Measures on Radioactive and Nuclear Marine Pollution
References
11 GIS‐Based Gray Water Footprint (GWF) Assessment of Coastal and Marine Pollution: A Minimization Approach
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Gray Water Footprint of Coastal and Marine Pollution
11.3 Integration of GIS and GWF Methods
11.4 GIS Solutions for Marine and Coastal Pollution Management
11.5 3D Analyst
11.6 Conclusions
References
12 Underestimated Threats: Personal Care Products (PCPs) in Marine and Coastal Environments
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources and Environmental Fate of PCPs in Marine and Coastal Environments
12.3 Active Ingredients of Concern in PCPs
12.4 Consequences to Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
12.5 Risks to Humans via Seafood Consumption
12.6 Prevention and Mitigation Strategies
12.7 Conclusions and Future Remarks
References
13 Monitoring and Assessment of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Methods and Technologies
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Bibliographic Review
13.3 Remote Sensing in Coastal and Marine Pollution Monitoring
13.4 Marine Pollution Assessment
13.5 Discussion
13.6 Concluding Remarks
References
14 Toxicological Techniques for Coastal and Marine Pollution Monitoring
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Toxicity Testing
14.3 Endpoints and Biomarkers
14.4 Sediment Toxicity Tests
14.5 Impacts of Pollution on Different Marine Species
14.6 Biomonitors and Bioindicators
14.7 Bioassays
14.8 Biomarker Analysis
14.9 Biosensors
14.10 Chemical Analysis
14.11 Histopathology
14.12 Ecotoxicological Surveys
14.13 Toxicogenomics
14.14 Integrated Monitoring Techniques
14.15 Conclusion
References
15 Marine Sediment Remediation Through Tiered Risk Assessment Approach
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sediment Remediation Techniques
15.3 Risk Assessment‐Based Strategy
15.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
16 Biochar Application for Mitigation of Coastal and Marine Pollution: An Experimental Modeling
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methods
16.3 Results and Discussion
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Coastal and Marine Plastic Pollution Monitoring and Control Using Remote Sensing (RS) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) Technologies
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Challenges of In Situ Visual Monitoring of Plastic Litter in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
17.3 Remote Sensing (RS) Approaches for Monitoring Marine and Coastal Environments
17.4 Methods for Mapping Marine Plastic Litter from Remote Sensing Data: Object‐Based Image Analysis (OBIA) Using Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL)
17.5 Challenges Using RS/AI Technologies to Detect Marine Plastics
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Policy and Governance Approaches for Coastal and Marine Pollution Management
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Institutional Arrangement for the Coast and Marine Resources Management in Sri Lanka
18.3 The Necessity of Governance Approaches to Increase the Effectiveness of Coastal and Marine Pollution Control in Sri Lanka
18.4 Conclusion and the Way Forward
References
19 Impact of Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Implications of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems
19.3 Linear Graph Showing Annual Global Sea‐Surface Temperature Anomalies from 1880 to 2015
19.4 Conceptual Framework
19.5 Marine Life and Physical Characteristics of Oceans
19.6 Spatial Variability in Temperature Change
19.7 Resulting Biological Disruptions in Marine Ecosystems
19.8 Pelagic Ecosystems and Climate Dynamics
19.9 Coral Reefs and Ocean Acidification
19.10 Climate Migration and Adaptation in Marine Organisms
19.11 Case Study: Influx of Sargassum across the Caribbean
19.12 Management and Government Policies for Marine Ecosystems: The Way Forward
19.13 Conclusions and Key Recommendations
References
20 X‐Press Pearl Disaster
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The MV X‐Press Pearl Cargo Vessel
20.3 The Environmental Impacts of the X‐Press Pearl Maritime Debacle
20.4 The Socioeconomic Impacts After the X‐Press Pearl Disaster
20.5 Conclusion
References
21 Container Overboard in the Port of New Orleans, LA, USA: The Response and Cleanup of the 2020
Bianca
Pellet Spill
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Materials and Methods
21.3 Results and Discussion
21.4 Understanding the Fate of the Nurdles Following the Spill
References
22 Unleashing Potential: Transcending Marine Pollution Forecasts for a Better Future and Critical Thresholds
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Critical Thresholds in Marine Life 2030 Program
22.3 Major Marine Pollution Sources
22.4 Remote Sensing‐Based Monitoring
22.5 Biomonitoring
22.6 Data‐Driven Assessment Techniques
22.7 Critical Thresholds: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Directions
References
23 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution on the Blue Economy: Integrating Blue Finance Perspectives
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Impacts of the Coastal and Marine Pollution on Main Pillars of the Blue Economy
23.3 The Economic Toll of Marine and Coastal Pollution on the Blue Economy
23.4 Blue Finance for Investing in a Sustainable Maritime Future
23.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
24 Macro Issues of Microplastics: Present Status and Future Challenges
24.1 Microplastics (MPs): The Global Pollutant
24.2 Importance of Standardized MP Assessments and Accuracy in Data Acquisition
24.3 Economics of Waste Management
24.4 Mitigating MP Pollution: Sustainable Approaches, Circular Economy, and Policymaking
24.5 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Numbers of vessels in the global merchant fleet (International Un...
Table 3.2 Examples of marine species invasions
via
ballast water transfers....
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Various sectors of the blue economy, their contributions to the g...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 A concise overview of the major pollutants impacting ocean water ...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Contribution of industrial activities for the accumulation of hea...
Table 7.2 Heavy metal contamination in coastal–marine areas from oil spills...
Table 7.3 Toxic effects of heavy metals and their targeted organs in the hu...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Global macro litter density reported from locations.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Important radionuclides in marine ecosystems and their character...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Occurrence of PCPs in different compartments of the coastal and ...
Table 12.2 Impacts of active ingredients of PCPs on non‐targeted marine spe...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Hyperspectral airborne sensors in water quality assessment.
Table 13.2 Satellite sensors mostly used to retrieve marine water quality p...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Some species commonly employed as bioassays for monitoring speci...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Characteristics of different AC‐derived products employed for in...
Table 15.2 Recommended bioindicator tests for sediment toxicity.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 The studies related to MP removal using biochar.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 The collaborative institutions for the coastal and marine resour...
Table 18.2 Frequent movement of the CC&CRMD to different ministries.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Climate‐related factors and their implications for marine ecosys...
Table 19.2 Climate‐related threats to major marine ecosystems up to the yea...
Table 19.3 Climate change and environmental shifts on pelagic ecosystems (d...
Table 19.4 Climate change and environmental shifts on pelagic ecosystems (o...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Plastics and polymers, chemicals, and metals aboard the MV X‐Pre...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Timeline of the spill and response.
Table 21.2 Characteristics of polymers mentioned on a recovered sack (Figur...
Table 21.3 Comparison of oil and pellet spill regulations and response scie...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Recent oil spill incidents reported by online news sources.
Table 22.2 Key studies in employing different biomarkers for monitoring and...
Table 22.3 Selected studies on marine pollution monitoring and assessment u...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Summary of recent blue finance practices.
Table 23.2 Summary of recent blue bond data.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Types of MP sampling.
Table 24.2 Different digestion strategies of MPs and their pros and cons....
Table 24.3 Buoyancy of common polymers compared to seawater.
Table 24.4 MP assessments conducted in Sri Lanka to date.
Table 24.5 Empirical studies versus metadata layers
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Summary of point and nonpoint sources of coastal and marine pollu...
Figure 1.2 Different sources and major transportation pathways of coastal an...
Figure 1.3 Pollutant forms originating from maritime transportation.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Factors exerting influence on the transport of pollutants from te...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Much pollution from shipping is a result of vessels running agrou...
Figure 3.2 Interactions of oil with the marine environment after a spill....
Figure 3.3 Poor management structures for ports in developing countries have...
Figure 3.4 Dalian, China. Many ports are surrounded by industrial zones wher...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 World map indicating major offshore fields along with their oil a...
Figure 4.2 Typical anticlinal petroleum trap according to
Figure 4.3 Summary of environmental impacts from offshore oil and gas operat...
Figure 4.4 Flow diagram of the offshore oil and gas production.
Figure 4.5 Relative benthic fauna abundance with the distance from the drill...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Average total pesticide active substances (PAS) concentration in ...
Figure 5.2 Geographic distribution of the total pesticide leaching rate glob...
Figure 5.3 Impacts of agrarian‐based synthetic fertilizers and pesticides on...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic illustration of key components and changes of the ocean...
Figure 6.2 Heat Content in the Top 700 m of the World's Oceans, 1955–2020 ac...
Figure 6.3 Schematic Diagram of Ocean Acidification; Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) an...
Figure 6.4 General trends in key community and ecosystem properties and proc...
Figure 6.5 Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal (in million metr...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Anthropogenic sources of heavy metals in coastal and marine envir...
Figure 7.2 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of heavy metals in the marin...
Figure 7.3 Schematic presentation of different types of mitigation strategie...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Sources, fate, and transport of marine macro‐litter in the ecosys...
Figure 9.2 Examples of macro‐litter items commonly found in marine environme...
Figure 9.3 Impacts of marine macro‐litter.
Figure 9.4 Solution approaches toward sustainable marine ecosystem.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Sources of radioactivity in marine ecosystems.
Figure 10.2 Details of water treatment process of contaminated water at Fuku...
Figure 10.3 Details of the data available in MARIS database up to May 2024....
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Conceptual framework of GIS‐based GWF approach.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The global trend of the personal care products (PCPs) market con...
Figure 12.2 Various pathways through which PCPs are transported into coastal...
Figure 12.3 Effects of PCPs on the functioning and well‐being of the marine ...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Varieties and sources of pollution affecting coastal and marine ...
Figure 13.2 (a) Bibliometric analysis for the period of 2019–2024. (b) Bibli...
Figure 13.3 Geographical distribution of the keywords: (a) China, (b) the Un...
Figure 13.4 Image acquisition using airborne and satellite RS technologies...
Figure 13.5 Machine learning and deep learning frameworks on image processin...
Figure 13.6 Several alarming instances of marine pollution have come to ligh...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Diverse impacts of contaminants on organisms can be discerned th...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Diagram illustrating passive and active capping setups.
Figure 15.2 Outline of sediment risk assessment framework.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic diagram of MP uptake by biochar.
Figure 16.2 Conceptual framework of the MP reduction methodology using bioch...
Figure 16.3 The validation of the recommended model.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Conceptual overview of the different technologies that are suita...
Figure 17.2 (a) Validation of the semiautomatic recognition method for marin...
Figure 17.3 Generic view of AI workflow, as applied to a marine litter datas...
Figure 17.4 Comparison of the three detection techniques in the training are...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 (
X axis representing years; Y axis representing temperature
) sho...
Figure 19.2 Trends in global emissions.
Figure 19.3 Conceptual framework exploring biological responses and changes ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 (a) Simplified map of the areas along the west coast of Sri Lank...
Figure 20.2 (a) Remnants of burned plastics and white‐colored unburned nurdl...
Figure 20.3 Risk analysis system procedure for risk identification and key f...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Map of the spill. The site of the spill at the Port of New Orlea...
Figure 21.2 (a) Photograph of a recovered partial sack following the pellet ...
Figure 21.3 Morphometrics and colorimetrics of nurdles collected from Chalme...
Figure 21.4 IR spectra of the spilled pellets. (a) IR spectrum of pellets fr...
Figure 21.5 Clustering of nurdles based on the type of PE assigned by IR, th...
Figure 21.6 Guiding questions for pellet spill response science adapted from...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Accumulation of published articles and the number of citations i...
Figure 22.2 Textual data distribution in the articles, abstracts, and keywor...
Figure 22.3 Key machine learning and deep learning techniques employed in ma...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Main components of the blue economy.
Figure 23.2 The number of large and medium tanker spills, and quantities of ...
Figure 23.3 The main components of blue finance.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Eco‐toxicological effects of MPs on the marine ecosystem: Adsorb...
Figure 24.2 Graphical representation of plastic biogeochemical cycle present...
Figure 24.3 The importance of standardization of MP research. Standard MP pr...
Figure 24.4 Klimisch and CRED 10 criteria for a quality assessment.
Figure 24.5 Surface sampling using (a) plankton net (b) Van‐Veen Bottom Grab...
Figure 24.6 Floating plastics with international origin found on Sri Lankan ...
Figure 24.7 Conceptual diagram of plastic flow in Sri Lanka.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Notes on Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Coastal and Marine Pollution
Source to Sink, Mitigation and Management
Edited by
Meththika Vithanage
University of Sri Jayewardenepura
Nugegoda
WP, Sri Lanka
Sameera M. Samarasekara
University of Sri Jayewardenepura
Nugegoda
WP, Sri Lanka
Bryan D. James
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole
MA, US
Christopher M. Reddy
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole
MA, US
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Vithanage, Meththika, editor. | Samarasekara, Sameera M, editor. | James, Bryan D., editor. | Reddy, Christopher M., editor.Title: Coastal and marine pollution : source to sink, mitigation and management / edited by Meththika Vithanage, Sameera M. Samarasekara, Bryan D. James, Christopher M. Reddy.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2025. | Includes bibliographical references.Identifiers: LCCN 2024039256 (print) | LCCN 2024039257 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394236992 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394237012 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394237005 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Marine pollution. | Coastal ecosystem health.Classification: LCC GC1085 .C583 2025 (print) | LCC GC1085 (ebook) | DDC 363.739/409146–dc23/eng/20241025LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024039256LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024039257
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Notes on Editors
Meththika Vithanage20/10/1976Meththika Vithanage is a Professor of Natural Resources and the founding director of the Ecosphere Resilience Research Centre at the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. She also serves as an Adjunct Professor at the Institute of Agriculture, University of Western Australia, and the National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka. Recognized as a Highly Cited Researcher in 2021 by Clarivate, she has received numerous prestigious awards. From 2017 to 2023, she has been listed among the top 2% of the most cited scientists globally across various disciplines.
Ratnayakage Sameera Maduranga Samarasekara03/10/1987R.S.M. Samarasekara, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, and a Chartered Engineer at the Institution of Engineers in Sri Lanka. He is also a visiting lecturer at the Ocean University of Sri Lanka. He has received numerous awards and research grants. His interests focus on ocean water quality, coastal erosion management, coastal infrastructure, ocean energy, and coastal engineering.
Bryan Daniel James03/06/1994Bryan D. James, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Scholar at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (USA) in the Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry and the Department of Biology, and an incoming Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Northeastern University (USA). He has received numerous awards and accolades including being named a CAS Future Leader ’23. His interests focus on the intersection of environmental, material, and biomedical sciences to design safe and sustainable chemicals and materials.
Christopher Michael Reddy08/07/1969Christopher M. Reddy, PhD, is a Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (USA). He studies marine pollution and applies that knowledge to develop more sustainable materials. The nature of his work has connected him with the media, responders, officials, and the public. In his recent book, “Science Communication in a Crisis: An Insider’s Guide,” Reddy presents a clear pathway to effective and collaborative communication among various stakeholders.
List of Contributors
Bandara AbeysingheDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Kaushani AmarasenaSchool of ScienceUniversity of Wales Trinity Saint DavidLondon, United Kingdom
Gayan AmarasooriyaDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Nadeera BatapolaDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Bellanthudawage Kushan Aravinda BellanthudawaDepartment of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental TechnologyFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of Ruhuna, MataraSouthern Province, Sri LankaUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Research Center for Eco‐Environmental SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Shermila M. BothejuDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka
Chandrasekara SSKDepartment of Agricultural EngineeringFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka
Titus CoorayDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Dileepa de CroosDepartment of Aquaculture and FisheriesFaculty of Livestock, Fisheries and NutritionWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka
Sandun DassanayakeDepartment of Decision SciencesFaculty of BusinessUniversity of MoratuwaKatubedda, Sri Lanka
S.M. DassanayakeDepartment of Decision SciencesUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Nalika R. DayanandaDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka
Pubudi DilsharaDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Nimila DushyanthaDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Suchima GonapinuwalaDepartment of Aquaculture and FisheriesFaculty of Livestock, Fisheries and NutritionWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka
Jonas GunnarssonDepartment of EcologyEnvironment and Plant Sciences (DEEP)Stockholm UniversityStockholm, Sweden
Mihiri Indunil GunasekaraSchool of Civil and Environmental EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
Christopher W. HaleyECOPOLMount KemblaNew South Wales, Australia
Bryan D. JamesDepartment of Marine Chemistry and GeochemistryWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods Hole, MA, USA
Gohagodage Nirmal Tharanga JayalathDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Harshi JayasinghaPostgraduate Institute of AgricultureUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka
C.L. JayawardenaDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Abdullah İzzeddin KarabulutGraduate School of Natural and Applied SciencesRemote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems100/2000 CoHE, Harran UniversitySanliurfa, Turkey
Karunathilake, N.M.O.ADepartment of Zoology and Aquatic SciencesCentre for Marine Science and TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Gayithri Niluka KuruppuDepartment of Industrial ManagementFaculty of BusinessUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Savinda Arambawatta LekamgeSchool of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesFaculty of ScienceQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
J.A. LiyanageDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka
Dilani MadhubhashiniSchool of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesFaculty of ScienceQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
Siddihalu Lakshitha MadunilDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka
I. MahakalandaDepartment of Decision SciencesUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Ishani MahawaththaDepartment of Biological SciencesCollege of ScienceUniversity of North TexasDenton, Texas, USA
R. John MorrisonSchool of EarthAtmospheric and Life SciencesUniversity of WollongongNorthfields Ave WollongongNew South Wales, Australia
Chamila Jinendra NanayakkaraDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Minh‐Ky NguyenFaculty of Environment and Natural ResourcesNong Lam UniversityHo Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
Divya PalDepartment of EcologyEnvironment and Plant Sciences (DEEP)Stockholm UniversityStockholm, Sweden
G.K.M.R. PeterDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Perera, S.P.K.K.ADepartment of Zoology and Aquatic SciencesCentre for Marine Science and TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
W.P.R.T. PereraDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka
Iddamalgoda Jayawardenage Judi Udari Nisansala PereraDepartment of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental TechnologyFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of RuhunaMatara, Southern Province, Sri LankaSouth China Sea Institute of OceanologyChinese Academy of SciencesGuangzhou, ChinaUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Udari PereraDepartment of Chemical and Process EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaKatubedda, Sri Lanka
Uswatta Liyanage Harsha Prabath PereraDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Ranjith PremasiriDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Dulanjalee RajapakshaSchool of Natural SciencesUniversity of TasmaniaHobart, Australia
Ranatunga, R.R.M.K.PDepartment of Zoology and Aquatic SciencesCentre for Marine Science and TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Mahinsasa RathnayakeDepartment of Chemical and Process EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaKatubedda, Sri Lanka
R.M.N. Priyanga RathnayakeRadiation Protection and Technical Services DivisionSri Lanka Atomic Energy BoardWellampitiya, Sri Lanka
Amila Sandaruwan RatnayakeDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
Nalin RatnayakeDepartment of Earth Resources EngineeringUniversity of MoratuwaMoratuwa, Sri Lanka
Christopher M. ReddyDepartment of Marine Chemistry and GeochemistryWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods Hole, MA, USA
Leneka Terika RhodenDepartment of Life SciencesFaculty of Science and TechnologyThe University of the West IndiesMona, Jamaica
Ranepura Dewage Charuka SandaruwanSri Lanka Wildlife Conservation SocietyPussallayaya, HandungamuwaMatale, Central Province, Sri LankaFaculty of Graduate StudiesUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka
Lahiru UdayangaDepartment of Biosystems TechnologyFaculty of Agriculture and Plantation ManagementWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka
Menuka UdugamaDepartment of Agribusiness ManagementFaculty of Agriculture and Plantation ManagementWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka
Meththika VithanageEcosphere Resilience Research CenterFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Panchala WeerakoonDepartment of Applied Earth SciencesFaculty of Applied SciencesUva Wellassa UniversityBadulla, Sri Lanka
S.D.N.A.M.A.M. WeerasingheSchool of Biomedical EngineeringDepartment of Occupational Health and Safety Engineering/Disaster ManagementInje UniversitySouth Korea
Wijetunge, D.S.Department of Zoology and Aquatic SciencesCentre for Marine Science and TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Hasintha WijesekaraDepartment of Natural ResourcesSabaragamuwa UniversityBelihuloya, Sri Lanka
Madhuni Madhushika WijesooriyaDepartment of Biological and Chemical EngineeringAarhus UniversityAarhus C, Denmark
Jithya WijesingheDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka
Pelin Soyertaş YapıcıoğluEnvironmental Engineering DepartmentHarran UniversitySanliurfa, Turkey
Mehmet İrfan YeşilnacarEnvironmental Engineering DepartmentHarran UniversitySanliurfa, Turkey
Preface
The urgency of addressing coastal and marine pollution has never been greater. With escalating anthropogenic pressures and the looming effects of climate change, the challenges faced by marine ecosystems are complex and multifaceted. This book arises from a collective endeavour to provide a comprehensive and enduring resource on the sources, impacts, and innovative solutions for managing pollution in marine and coastal environments.
Recognizing the need to move beyond a fragmented understanding, this volume brings together leading experts from academia, industry, and research institutions worldwide. The contributions span a broad range of topics—from land‐based and marine pollution sources to cutting‐edge monitoring technologies, management strategies, and policy interventions. Together, they form a holistic framework designed to inform and inspire future research, policy‐making, and practical applications.
One distinctive feature of this book is its interdisciplinary nature. Chapters explore pollution from industrial runoff, shipping, and agricultural activities, delve into underappreciated issues such as personal care products and radioactive waste, and analyse the impacts of phenomena like ocean acidification. The volume also highlights innovative approaches, including the use of artificial intelligence, biochar applications, and GIS‐based assessments, showcasing the potential for technological and methodological advancements in tackling pollution.
Equally notable is the geographic diversity of the contributors, representing institutions in Sri Lanka, Australia, Vietnam, Turkey, and beyond. This global perspective ensures that the book addresses both universal and region‐specific challenges, making it a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers.
In addition to providing a thorough exploration of current issues, this book emphasizes the future, presenting case studies of disasters such as the X‐Press Pearl incident and offering forward‐looking discussions on microplastics, blue economy impacts, and transcending pollution thresholds. By fostering a deeper understanding of these pressing issues, we hope to inspire actionable solutions and spark innovations that will safeguard our marine ecosystems for generations to come.
Whether you are a scientist, a policymaker, or a student seeking to contribute to this critical field, we hope this book serves as a catalyst for meaningful change.
Acknowledgment
The ever‐evolving challenges of coastal and marine pollution demand a resource that goes beyond documenting the present to laying a foundation for future advancements. With this goal in mind, we aimed to create a book that not only highlights the current state of knowledge but also provides a comprehensive framework for addressing emerging issues in this critical field. Achieving this required the generous contributions of leading experts, who took time from their demanding schedules to share their insights and expertise. We are deeply grateful to all the contributors for the depth and quality of their chapters, which have enriched this volume immensely.
A notable feature of this book is its multidisciplinary and international collaboration. The authors represent a wide range of expertise, from environmental engineering and marine chemistry to decision sciences and policy development. This diversity reflects the complexity of coastal and marine pollution, which requires integrated approaches involving advanced technologies, innovative management strategies, and effective governance. The volume also benefits from a balance between academic perspectives and industry insights, demonstrating that impactful solutions often arise at the intersection of research and application.
The importance of this book lies not just in its content but in its potential to influence the future. Coastal and marine pollution is a global issue, and its management requires collaborative efforts across sectors and disciplines. By presenting case studies, innovative tools, and future perspectives, we hope to inspire new research directions and practical solutions that will help mitigate the devastating impacts of pollution on marine ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.
This book is a collective effort, and its success is a testament to the dedication and collaboration of the contributing authors. If it sparks new ideas, improves existing methods, or simply broadens the understanding of the challenges and solutions associated with coastal and marine pollution, it will have achieved its purpose.
1Overview of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Challenges
Gohagodage Nirmal Tharanga Jayalath and Amila Sandaruwan Ratnayake
Department of Applied Earth Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka
1.1 Introduction
Marine environments are generally understood as aquatic ecosystems with high contents of dissolved salts, including the open ocean and coastal ecosystems such as estuaries. According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the “marine environment” is defined as “the physical, chemical, geological and biological components, conditions and factors which interact and determine the productivity, state, condition, and quality of the marine ecosystem, the waters of the seas and the oceans and the airspace immediately above those waters, as well as the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof” (Valencia and Akimoto 2006). Coastal environments are described as transition zones where the terrestrial watersheds make close interactions with the open ocean and the atmosphere (Lavalle et al. 2011; Werner and Blanton 2019). Accordingly, coastal environments include some of the most complex and dynamic ecosystems on earth such as estuaries, bays, coral and other biogenic reefs, shallow near‐shore waters, tidal wetlands, mudflats, mangrove swamps, and saltmarshes (Cowie and Woulds 2011; Cabral et al. 2019; Nunes and Leston 2020).
Throughout history, the coastal and marine environments have been an integral part of human civilization. Occupying over 70% of the earth's surface, coastal and marine environments play a crucial role in regulating global environmental conditions and processes. These include various physical, chemical, and biological processes such as the hydrological cycle, solar energy balance, global nutrient cycle, biological food chain, and global and regional climate patterns (Früh‐Green et al. 2018; Ratnayake 2021a,b). In addition, many human activities rely on coastal and marine environments, such as shipping, fishing and food supply, recreational activities, tourism, and exploring for minerals and oil (Amalan et al. 2018; Ratnayake et al. 2018; Reichelt‐Brushett 2023). Until recently, the oceans were thought to be an inexhaustible resource that was so vast and almost limitless in its capacity, and it could not possibly be impacted by human activities, and they were able to withstand any amount of waste directed toward them (Potters 2013; Weis 2015). Even when the limited nature of the terrestrial resources and their pollution levels were being acknowledged, many believed that the oceans have an unlimited capacity as the world's ultimate repositories. For instance, Rachel Carson in 1951, in her book The Sea Around Us, expressed that humans could not possibly alter the oceans in the same manner they had exploited the continents, but she changed her viewpoint later. The introductory chapter of this book will thus provide an overview of sources, impacts, and challenges in coastal and marine pollution.
1.2 Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments
Pollution is defined, in a broader context, as the undesired presence of various toxic substances or any form of contamination, due to human activities with harmful effects on living beings and the environment (UNEP 1982; Willis et al. 2021). It is important to distinguish between the terms “contaminant” and “pollutant” since both words are used somewhat interchangeably by both scientific and mainstream media. A contaminant is a substance (biological, chemical, or physical) or energy that is typically not found or is uncommon in the environment. However, it can harm living organisms in high enough concentrations (Jones and Gomes 2013; Weis 2015). Simply, contaminant refers to the presence of a substance in a sample without any indication of harm, but with the potential to be harmful. A pollutant is defined as any form of a contaminant within an ecosystem that negatively affects or can affect individual organisms or communities by altering their growth rates and reproduction, or by disruptions to human well‐being, health, comfort, or property values (Potters 2013). Therefore, all pollutants are contaminants, but not all contaminants are defined as pollutants.
Coastal and marine pollution has been defined in numerous contexts based on its use in different conventions and international treaties or on its relevance to oceanic areas of international significance (Tomczak 1984). In marine science, arguably, the most successful and commonly used definition for marine pollution is introduced by the Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP), a United Nations advisory board set up in 1969. As part of the fundamental framework of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), GESAMP defined marine pollution as, “the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities including fishing, impairment of quality for use of sea water, and reduction of amenities” (UNEP 1982; Tomczak 1984; Islam and Tanaka 2004). Since then, this definition has found its way to the protocols and constitutions of many international agreements and conventions. While the initially proposed definition focused only on the introduction of various substances into the marine environment, the later revisions incorporated the concept of energy, indicating that heat, radioactivity, and noise can also be considered pollutants (Wilhelmsson et al. 2013; Beiras 2018).
Coastal and marine environments are continuously being polluted (Riechers et al. 2021; Pilapitiya and Ratnayake 2024). Coastal and marine pollution alters the physical, chemical, and biological features of oceans and coastal ecosystems, posing potential threats to marine organisms, ecosystems, and biodiversity. Consequently, it impacts the quality and productivity of marine ecosystems (Wilhelmsson et al. 2013). For instance, oceans face significant threats from various impacts such as climate change, environmental pollution, over‐exploitation of resources, increased maritime transportation, reduced river discharges, and alterations in river sediment dynamics (Halpern et al. 2008; Hossain 2019). This will result in numerous negative effects on human health, livelihood, food security, marine navigation, and biodiversity (Riechers et al. 2021; Willis et al. 2021). Additionally, it is also important to remember that oceans have more resources to offer than we are currently aware of, which requires sustenance of the ocean ecosystems, to explore them in the future. Hence, the conservation and sustenance of the oceans and the resources are crucial in achieving the ambitious aim of transforming the global economy into a blue economy based on the water and the oceans (Hossain 2019). These underscore the concerns and the necessity for immediate actions to minimize and rectify coastal and marine pollution problems.
1.3 Sources of Coastal and Marine Pollution
1.3.1 Sources and Distribution Pathways of Pollutants
Pollutants can originate from an array of pollution sources. Understanding these diverse origins is essential for effective management and mitigation efforts. All pollutants, whether they are physical, chemical, or biological, can originate from the ocean itself or land sources, reaching marine ecosystems through different pathways (Figure 1.1). However, the majority of the marine debris (about 80%) originates from land‐based sources which include pollutants such as nutrients, sediments, pathogenic organisms, harmful chemicals like heavy metals, pesticides, industrial effluents, and pharmaceutical chemicals (Jambeck et al. 2015; Weis 2015; Gough 2017; Macko 2018). Since most contaminants originate from terrestrial sources through human activities, their origin and transportation into the sea are broadly described via three major pathways of sources: runoff via riverine inputs, atmospheric deposition, and anthropogenic pathways of direct inputs (Figure 1.2). The extent to which each of these pathways contributes to marine pollution varies significantly depending on the substance and specific circumstances. Accurate quantification of these processes is quite challenging due to the lack of data and the intricate nature of natural processes, particularly at the interfaces between land and sea and between sea and atmosphere (Wowk 2013; Cabral et al. 2019).
Sources of coastal and marine pollutants can also be broadly classified as point sources and nonpoint sources based on their degree of dispersion (Figure 1.1). Point sources are more localized sources where the origin can be traced back. These could be a waste discharge pipe from an industry or an oil spill. Nonpoint source pollution originates from a rather dissipated source which can be quite difficult to identify or trace back in time and space, for example, agricultural or urban runoffs (Jones and Gomes 2013; Perera et al. 2022). Unlike nonpoint sources, point sources thus can be easily monitored and legislated and can be controlled using novel technological applications and wastewater treatment methods (Weis 2015; Beiras 2018; Reichelt‐Brushett 2023). This section further examines various sources of coastal and marine pollution, ranging from industrial activities to natural events, highlighting their impacts and implications for marine ecosystems.
1.3.2 Industrial Activities
Industrial processes are one of the major contributing sources of coastal and marine pollution (Kennish 2019). Industrialization is quantitatively related to pollution in less regulated parts of the world (Wilhelmsson et al. 2013; Beiras 2018). The more industrialized regions can be major sources of chemical pollution such as chemical industry, sewage treatments, and landfills compared to rural areas except for regions with heavy regulations and the industrial emissions being well controlled and monitored. For instance, the drastic increment in metal concentrations, especially in the coastal regions, is mostly caused by industrial and mining activities (Cabral et al. 2019). Numerous industrial products are potential marine waste if they are subjected to incorrect disposal on land or lost during transportation or loading/unloading at harbors (Pawar et al. 2016). Plastic pellets used in the manufacture of plastic products, products from offshore industrial platforms, dyes, flame‐retardants, waste from the tourism and recreational industry, and wastes from the pharmaceutical industry and fisheries industry are some examples of pollutants in industrial products (Riechers et al. 2021). Furthermore, almost all industrial processes generate wastewater including an array of pollutants such as hazardous chemicals, heavy metals, soluble organic substances, suspended solid particles, nitrogen and phosphorous, refractory substances, volatile substances, oil and floating material, and other aquatic toxins (Akankali and Elenwo 2015). The industrial effluents containing most of these pollutants are usually discharged from factories and manufacturing plants into rivers or coastal areas either without treatments or with improper treatments (Pawar et al. 2016). While pollution is largely concerned with the discharge of industrial wastewater as a pollution source due to its profound effects on the marine environment, thermal heat, radiations and energy forms like noise can also have adverse impacts on the marine environment (Akankali and Elenwo 2015).
Figure 1.1 Summary of point and nonpoint sources of coastal and marine pollution based on their origin.
Figure 1.2 Different sources and major transportation pathways of coastal and marine pollutants.
1.3.3 Agricultural Runoff
Agricultural pollutants are another major contributor to coastal and marine pollution originating from land‐based sources (Duraisamy and Latha 2011). Agricultural practices such as the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides contribute to pollution via land runoff into rivers that eventually reach the oceans (Akankali and Elenwo 2015; Nunes and Leston 2020). Since agricultural runoff arises from diffused sources, it poses greater risks to oceans than most point sources due to the difficulty of monitoring and regulating. Over the past 50–60 years, changes in agricultural practices have caused nutrients, pesticides, and soil washout into water bodies (Jones and Gomes 2013). Agricultural pollutants occur from two main categories, (i) agrochemicals (i.e., chemical fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and hormones), and (ii) agro‐organic pollutants (i.e., organohalogen pesticides, organic fertilizers, or green manure derived from organic domestic wastes and composting methods) (Windom 1992; Akankali and Elenwo 2015). Agrochemicals can also discharge chemical pollutants like heavy metals into the soil and eventually into the marine environment (Nunes and Leston 2020). Nitrogen and phosphorous lead to eutrophication and hypoxia by blooming harmful algae in marine ecosystems (Lillebø et al. 2005; Cabral et al. 2019). While there can be several processes leading to enhanced nitrogen influx into coastal and marine ecosystems, riverine input carrying agricultural runoff is often considered to be the primary contributor. Accordingly, it is important to improve regulations in controlling the use of chemicals in agricultural practices (Weis 2015; Cabral et al. 2019; Micella et al. 2024).
1.3.4 Sewage and Wastewater
Among various types of waste discharged into the coastal and marine ecosystems, sewage is by far the most significant organic waste type in terms of quantity (Islam and Tanaka 2004; Kennish 2019). Sewage effluents comprise a variety of waste materials, including water and waste from household baths, washing machines, kitchenware, culinary wastes, animal remains, and slaughterhouse wastes. Generally, sewage effluents and wastewater, whether treated or untreated, are ultimately discharged into the oceans (Critchell et al. 2019). The enrichment of nutrients facilitated by the release of sewage and wastewater into the marine ecosystems regularly leads to oxygen level reduction, retarded plant life and decay, and heavy decline in the seawater quality resulting in complications such as eutrophication and algal blooms (Vikas and Dwarakish 2015). In addition, sewage and wastewater pose numerous threats to human health due to the release of harmful pathogens (Islam and Tanaka 2004; Kennish 2019). Sewage‐derived pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and helminths found in sewage are known to cause different infectious diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid (Sheavly and Register 2007; Potters 2013; Weis 2015; Kennish 2019). Urban stormwater runoff and treated municipal wastewater have been found to contain about 100 human gastrointestinal pathogens, bacteria, viruses, and parasites such as Salmonella and Shigella which are responsible for typhoid and dysentery, respectively (Sindermann 1995). The amount of anthropogenic carbon added to contaminated water through raw sewage and sewage sludge is also known to raise the biological oxygen demand (BOD) considerably. For example, the highest quantities of dissolved and particulate organic carbon are seen in estuaries and nearshore areas. Dissolved organic carbon levels can even reach up to 100 mg/L in sewage waste‐contaminated estuaries and nearshore areas, whereas the values are around 1–5 mg/L in uncontaminated areas (Kennish 2019).
1.3.5 Oil Spills
Liquid petroleum hydrocarbons that are released into the ocean or coastal regions because of human activity are commonly referred to as marine oil spills. These include crude oil spillage from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs, and oil wells, including spills of refined petroleum products (such as diesel and petrol) and their byproducts; heavier fuels used by large ships (such as bunker fuel); and spills of any oily white waste (Zhang et al. 2019). In marine environments, oil spills occur frequently, but many minor spills go unreported, mostly in areas lacking environmental regulations and jurisdiction (Yoshioka et al. 1985). Small oil spills from ships, which involve less than 700 tons, typically happen due to mistakes made by people during routine tasks, such as loading and unloading. Larger spills (more than 700 tons) are most frequently caused by accidents like collisions and groundings (Wilhelmsson et al. 2013). Throughout the petroleum exploration, extraction, and shipping processes, spills can happen for several reasons, including over‐pressurization, mechanical failure, pipeline corrosion, and ship collisions (Zhang et al. 2019). The Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska in 1989, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, and MT New Diamond in the Indian Ocean in 2020 are some examples that captured global attention (Riechers et al. 2021; Ratnayake and Perera 2022). However, despite the publicity and attention, events of such magnitude are quite uncommon and are almost indiscernible to the public in a short time of two to five years (Windom 1992). This is because most spills to date have been in tropical or temperate waters, which show greater rates of biological and physical weathering (Preston 2013). According to Preston (2013), the only major exception to this generalization is the Exxon Valdez spill which took place in the Alaskan region having low temperatures and therefore had low degradation rates. However, the oil spills at the sea are not the primary source through which oil enters the sea. More than half of the oil entering the sea is found to originate from land‐based sources, while only a quarter results from maritime transports, and the rest are through atmospheric sources (Beiras 2018; Macko 2018; Kennish 2019).
1.3.6 Maritime Transport
Maritime transport is undoubtedly one of the major cornerstones of global trade and economy connecting nations across the world. It is also, however, a strong anthropogenic contributor to coastal and marine pollution forms which has significantly influenced marine ecosystems. Tankers, cargos, container ships, bulk carriers, ferries, cruise ships, recreational boats, and fishing vessels are some of the main categories of ships involved in maritime transport (Figure 1.3) (Andersson et al. 2016; Perera et al. 2022). While oil spillages are one of the primary concerns associated with the use of these ships, they also generate many other pollutant forms in the ocean such as solid waste, cargo hold cleaning waters, ballast water, bilge water, sewage, noise, biocidal antifouling paints, exhaust emissions from engine, and refrigerants (Figure 1.3). Ballast water discharged into the seas often may contain many exotic species of invasive and pathogenic microbes (Drake et al. 2007; Lindgren et al. 2016). Conversely, bilge water may include solid waste, oil, petrol, chemicals, and other pollutants that could end up in the ocean. Gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons emitted from diesel engines of most ships can lead to pollutants via atmospheric depositions (Aakko‐Saksa et al. 2023). Apart from the above pollutant forms and their adverse impacts shipping activities can also result in wildlife and habitat destruction from pollutant forms such as biocidal antifouling paints and noise (Dotinga and Elferink 2000; Weis 2015; Kennish 2019).
Figure 1.3 Pollutant forms originating from maritime transportation.
1.3.7 Plastic Pollution
Plastics are perhaps by far the most significant and dangerous pollutant form of marine debris that harms coastal and marine ecosystems (Islam and Tanaka 2004; Lithner et al. 2011; Pilapitiya and Ratnayake 2024). They pose serious harm to marine wildlife such as seabirds, mammals, turtles, and other aquatic organisms when entangled in plastic pollutants like fishing nets and lines, packaging, and wrapping materials. Plastics also lead to habitat fouling through accumulation, and their slow degradation rates further intensify their interferences with ecosystem functions (Derraik 2002; Vegter et al. 2014). Additionally, plastics often contain harmful chemicals or toxic chemicals attached to their surfaces, and when consumed by marine organisms can block their air and digestive tracts causing complications such as suffocation, starvation, and ultimately death (Crain et al. 2009). Of all the marine litter, plastics account for approximately 70% of litter found on shorelines, 68–99% of litter found in the water column, and 23–89% of marine litter found on the seafloor of the continental shelf (Kennish 2019; Galgani et al. 2022). Recently, microplastics have become the target of scientific research as an emerging contaminant due to their widespread nature in the estuarine and marine environment in quantities and pathways which have not yet been fully understood (Da Costa et al. 2023
