Coronaviruses: Volume 1 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Coronaviruses
- Sprache: Englisch
In this difficult period of the SARS-CoV-2 (and its variants) infection responsible for Covid-19 diseases, the importance of scientific works and reviews dealing with these viruses has never been more essential and vital. Reports as of 20th April 2021 indicate over 141 million cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection worldwide (with over 3 million deaths recorded). This volume brings together essential data regarding prevention (vaccination), detection, and various approaches (chemotherapeutic drugs and antibodies) to the potential treatment of coronavirus infections. It presents six chapters concerning the following topics:
(1) the resistance to the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and related Covid-19 diseases within a population based on the pre-existing immunity of a high proportion of individuals as a result infection or previous vaccination
(2) the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region, comprising the Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, and Afghanistan
(3) the effect of candidate drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on QT interval in infected patients with Covid-19 diseases
(4) the antiviral potential of herbal-based immunomodulators
(5) the humoral immune response in humans based on anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies to treat Covid-19 diseases
(6) the various methods and strategies for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 (and its variants) infection in hosts/humans.
This compilation should prove to be a tool of crucial importance for researchers around the world working on research revolving around coronaviruses, as well as for clinicians confronted by a growing number of patients with COVID-19.
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Seitenzahl: 252
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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PREFACE
In this difficult period of the SARS-CoV-2 (and its variants) infection responsible for Covid-19 diseases, the importance of scientific works and reviews dealing with these viruses has never been more essential and vital. This book brings together essential data regarding prevention (vaccination), detection, and various approaches (chemotherapeutic drugs and antibodies) to the potential treatment of coronavirus infections. It consists of six chapters concerning, (1) the effect of candidate drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on QT interval in infected patients with Covid-19 diseases (chapter 1 by Aleem et al.), (2) the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), comprising the Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, and Afghanistan (Chapter 2 by Kanwar et al.), (3) the humoral immune response in humans based on anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies to treat Covid-19 diseases (chapter 3 by Çalık1 et al.), (4) the antiviral potential of herbal-based immunomodulators (chapter 4 by Kumari et al.), (5) the various methods and strategies for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 (and its variants) infection in hosts/humans (Chapter 5 by Narvekar et al.), and (6) the resistance to the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and related Covid-19 diseases within a population based on the pre-existing immunity of a high proportion of individuals as a result infection or previous vaccination (chapter 6 by Tiwari & Sahu). Such a book comprising a compilation of key data on SARS-CoV-2 and Covid-19 should certainly be a tool of crucial importance for researchers around the world working on these research themes, as well as for clinicians confronted to a growing number of patients with Covid-19 (data from 20th April 2021: 141 million cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection worldwide, with over 3 million deaths).
List of Contributors
Effect of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine on the QT Interval in Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review
Abdul Aleem1,*,Guruprasad Mahadevaiah2,Sathish Chikkabyrappa3,Erik Kellison4,Nasir Shariff 4Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been a major global health crisis since the influenza pandemic of 1918. Based on data from in vitro studies, traditional antimalarial agents, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, have been proposed as potential treatment options for patients with COVID-19. Both these medications have also been noted to prolong the QT interval, which increases the risk of drug-induced torsade de pointes (TdP) or sudden cardiac death (SCD) when used in non-COVID-19 patients. We reviewed the published clinical studies evaluating the QT interval in COVID-19 patients treated with chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin. A literature search using Google Scholar, and PubMed was done for studies published from December 2019 to September 2020. Studies with no specific description of the QT interval were excluded from this review. We identified twelve studies that qualified our criteria, which included 2595 patients. This review addresses the pathophysiology of QT prolongation and the incidence of the magnitude of QT prolongation associated with these medications when used in the treatment of patients admitted with COVID-19. Although most incidences of QT prolongation occurred two or more days after the initiation of these medications, early events of QT prolongation on the first day of therapy have also been reported. Notably, the combination of chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine with azithromycin was associated with a higher incidence of QT prolongation. Although QT prolongation is evident in all the described studies, none of these studies were designed to address the risk of QT prolongation associated with these medications in the outpatient setting or when used as prophylaxis against COVID-19. With the currently available literature, caution with close monitoring of the QT interval is advised when using these antimalarial agents in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infection.
INTRODUCTION
COVID-19 caused by a beta coronavirus is included in the same subgenus as the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV) virus. Since the cases of an acute respiratory illness caused by the COVID-19 were initially reported in China in December 2019, the viral infection has spread worldwide, with about four million confirmed cases and more than three hundred thousand death [1]. There has been an urgency to mitigate this illness with experimental therapies and drug repurposing. Currently, there are over 25 potential drugs that are being investigated, with ten in active clinical trials [2]. Traditional antimalarial agents, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, have been suggested as potential treatment options for patients with COVID-19 infection based on their in vitro activity against the virus [3]. During the early course of the pandemic, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA), allowing the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in adult hospitalized patients with COVID-19 outside of a clinical trial . The issuance of the EUA has enabled the conduct of randomized controlled trials(RCTs) to test for the efficacy and safety of these medications [4]. In this systematic review, we aimed to discuss the latest available data regarding the specific complication of QT prolongation associated with the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in patients with COVID-19 infection.
Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine
Chloroquine is a 9-aminoquinoline that was first synthesized in 1934 from its parent compound quinine, which was derived from the bark of the tropical cinchona tree [5]. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) belongs to the same molecular family as chloroquine and differs from its counterpart by the presence of a hydroxyl group [5, 6]. Historically, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have been used as antimalarial agents for decades. With the noted immunomodulatory properties of these medications, they have been used widely for the treatment of chronic systemic inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus [5]. The pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine is similar to that of chloroquine; however, hydroxychloroquine is reported to be less toxic than chloroquine [5]. Both chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have excellent oral absorption, bioavailability, low blood clearance and, very long half-lives (40 days and 50 days) and are eliminated by hepatic as well as renal excretion [7-9].
The antiviral properties of chloroquine have been explored as early as 1987 [10]. In-vitro studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these medications on different RNA viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [6, 11]. However, in vitro success of these drugs has not been replicated in clinical trials [6, 12]. In vitro studies have shown hydroxychloroquine to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication with a 50% maximal effective concentration (EC50) [13]. They are also known to block virus infection by increasing the endosomal pH and interfering with glycosylation of cellular receptors of SARS-CoV [12]. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine demonstrate their anti-inflammatory properties by blocking the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-gamma, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1 [5]. This anti-inflammatory action of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine has been hypothesized to be beneficial in countering the inappropriate immune activation by SARS-CoV-2, leading to ARDS [14].
Effect of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Against SARS-CoV-2
In vitro Studies
Based on previous preclinical data demonstrating hydroxychloroquine having anti-SARS-CoV activity in the last SARS outbreak [15], Yao et al. studied the activity of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in vitro against SARS-CoV-2. Hydroxychloroquine was noted to be more effective than chloroquine in vitro against SARS-CoV-2 infection [3]. Liu et al. also described the positive effect of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and concluded hydroxychloroquine to be superior to chloroquine in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Chloroquine was associated with a significant reduction in quantitative real-time ET-PCR viral load in Vero E6 cells infected with SARS-CoV [13]. Chloroquine was also noted to inhibit the entry and post-entry stages of the SARS-CoV virus at fluid concentrations, which could be achieved at doses usually used in patients with rheumatoid arthritis [9, 16].
In vivo Studies
Data from several initial nonrandomized control studies showed significant improvement in clinical symptoms and early viral conversion rates with the use of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in patients with COVID-19 [17-20]. These studies, however, did not address the cardiac adverse effects of these medications, precisely their effect on QT interval by these medications. Data from further observational studies examining the clinical efficacy of these drugs could not replicate the positive results demonstrated by the initial trials [21-23]. A double-masked randomized control trial by Borba et al. in Brazil involving 81 severely ill patients who were randomized to receive a high and low dosage of chloroquine, which was given concurrently with azithromycin and oseltamivir, was abruptly halted due to the high mortality rate noted during the study which was 39% in the top dosage group and 15% in the low dosage group, respectively [24]. There was an observed association of the use of these medications with QT prolongation and poor outcomes [23, 24].
Effect on the QT Interval
Ventricular repolarization duration and the QT interval are determined by the ventricular action potential [25]. In contrast to the QRS duration, the QT interval varies with heart rate and autonomic tone. The outward potassium currents occur due to the two delayed rectifying channels, - IKr (rapid) and IKs (slow) channels. The inhibition or reduction of the IKr channel activity is the primary cause of prolongation of the QT interval. Secondary to the reduced IKr channel activity, some L-type calcium channels (which are inactive during depolarization) may become activated, resulting in early afterdepolarization, which in turn results in triggered arrhythmia facilitating polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. Any change or defect in the function of ion channels and related proteins of the ventricular myocytes leads to abnormal repolarization of the ventricular myocardium, which results in the prolongation of the QT interval on the electrocardiogram (ECG) [26]. These defects can be congenital, drug-induced, or due to electrolyte abnormalities. Several medications that include macrolides, fluoroquinolones, antipsychotics, and antiarrhythmic drugs that block potassium channels are known to prolong the QT interval. Amongst the different classes of antimalarial medications, quinolines, and structurally related antimalarial drugs like chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have clinically substantial cardiovascular effects [27]. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are known to cause prolongation of QT interval by inhibiting the rapidly activating delayed rectifier K+ current (IKr) encoded by a cardiac potassium channel gene called the human-ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG). This blockade causes a decrease in the net repolarizing current leading to an increase in the duration of ventricular action potential manifesting as a prolonged QT interval, which can potentially cause life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias like torsades de pointes or sudden cardiac death (SCD) [26, 28, 29].
Effect on the QT Interval in Patients with COVID-19
Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have been demonstrated to cause prolongation of the QT interval when used to manage patients with malaria and rheumatoid arthritis [30]. There are also several case reports of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in non-COVID-19 patients receiving these medications [31, 32]. The first randomized control trial (Table 1) evaluating the clinical efficacy and safety of chloroquine in patients with severe COVID-19 was published by Borba et al. [24]. In this prospective study evaluating the safety and clinical efficacy chloroquine, 81 patients with severe COVID-19 illness were randomized into two groups to receive either high dosage chloroquine (600mg twice daily for ten days) or low dosage chloroquine (450mg twice a day for the first day followed by once a day for four days). All patients received ceftriaxone and azithromycin as well. There were significantly higher events of QT prolongation in the higher dose group compared to the lower dose group (18.9% vs. 11.1%). Two patients in the high dosage arm developed ventricular tachycardia prior to their death. The study was terminated early due to its high mortality rate in the high dosage group compared to the low dosage group [24].
In a large retrospective multicenter observational cohort study of 1438 patients admitted with COVID-19, the adjusted hazard ratio for in-hospital mortality for treatment with hydroxychloroquine alone was 1.08 and when combined with azithromycin was 1.35 when compared to patients receiving neither of these medications. The combination of azithromycin with hydroxychloroquine was associated with higher events of cardiac arrests as compared to patients receiving neither of these medications (15.5% vs. 6.8%). QTc prolongation was noted in 12.6% receiving azithromycin with hydroxychloroquine, 16.7% in patients receiving hydroxychloroquine, and 8.4% receiving neither of the medications [22].
Mercuro et al. reported a change in QT interval in a cohort of 90 hospitalized patients who had received hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin [33]. The median baseline QTc was 455 (430-474) msec. Patients receiving the combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin had a more considerable increase in QT interval (23 {10-40} msec) compared with those receiving hydroxychloroquine alone (5.5 {−15.5 to 34.25} [1] msec) (p=0.03) Of the 53 receiving combined therapy, 11 (13%) had prolonged QTc over 500 msec, and 7 (13%) had a change in QTc of 60 msec or more. One patient on combination therapy developed QT prolongation (499 msec) and torsades de pointes three days later. In a single-center French study of 40 patients admitted to intensive care unit receiving hydroxychloroquine (200mg twice a day for ten days) of which 45% of patients also received azithromycin reported that 93% of patients showed an increase in QTc with seven patients (18%) having QTc interval over 500msec [34]. The prolongation of the QT interval was noted after 3 to 5 days of being on therapy.
Another prospective observational study examined the effect of chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, and azithromycin on QTc interval in 201 patients hospitalized with COVID-19, in which ten patients received chloroquine while 191 patients received hydroxychloroquine [35]. In patients receiving a combination of hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine with azithromycin, the QT prolongation was significantly longer than patients receiving hydroxychlo- roquine/chloroquine without azithromycin (470±45 msec versus 453 ±37 msec, P=0.004). Seven patients (3.5%) required discontinuation of the medications due to the significant prolongation of the QT intervals. There were no reported instances of TdP
