Coronaviruses: Volume 3 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Coronaviruses
- Sprache: Englisch
In this third year of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic responsible for COVD-19 and related diseases worldwide, the scientific studies and reviews focused on this virus and its variants are still crucial. The third volume of the Coronaviruses series brings together some essential data regarding the origin, pathology and chemotherapeutic drugs to treat coronavirus infections. Contributions are written by experienced researchers with the goal of updating medical researchers and clinicians dealing with COVID-19 patients. It presents seven chapters covering a range of topics: (1) bat coronaviruses in the world, (2) hospital challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, (3) the pro-inflammatory and thrombotic manifestations and the therapeutic options of Covid-19, (4) the common and rare dermatologic manifestations registered in COVID-19 patients, (5) the circulating biomarkers of cardiopulmonary disturbances in COVID-19, and (6) the aspects of pathology and pathogenesis of coronavirus infection.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2008
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PREFACE
In this third year of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic responsible for Covid-19 diseases worldwide, the scientific studies and reviews focused on this virus and related variants are still crucial. This book, corresponding to the third volume of the e-book series on ‘Coronaviruses’, brings together some essential data regarding the origin, pathology and chemotherapeutic drugs to treat coronavirus infections. It consists of six chapters concerning (1) the bat’s coronaviruses in the world (chapter 1 by Karin Correa Scheffer et al.), (2) the hospital challenges during the Covid-19 pandemic (Chapter 2 by Salman Zarka et al.), (3) the pro-inflammatory and thrombotic manifestations and the therapeutic options of Covid-19 (chapter 3 by Mradul Kumar Daga et al.), (4) the common and rare dermatologic manifestations registered in Covid-19 patients (Chapter 4 by Amin Daemi et al.), (5) the circulating biomarkers of cardiopulmonary disturbances in Covid-19 (chapter 5 by Amin Daemi et al.), and (6) the aspects of pathology and pathogenesis of coronavirus infection (Chapter 6 by V.A. Zinserling et al.). This new volume actually compiles the most important data/information on SARS-CoV-2 and associated Covid-19 diseases. It is therefore of clear value for all the researchers working in these research fields, and for the clinicians dealing with a growing number of persons with Covid-19 and/or suffering from post-Covid sequelae, referred to as long Covid (data from 23rd November 2022: 644 million cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection worldwide, with 6.6 million deaths).
List of Contributors
Bat Coronaviruses in the World
Karin Correa Scheffer1,*,Rene dos Santos Cunha Neto1,Willian de Oliveira Fahl1,Raphaela Mello Zamudio1,Marcela Mello Zamudio2,Karen Miyuki Asano1,Maria Eduarda Rodrigues Chierato1,Débora Fernanda Pavani Pedrozo1,Enio Mori1,Keila Iamamoto1,Micheli Cocchi1,Luciana Botelho Chaves1,Andréa de Cássia Rodrigues da Silva1,Helena Beatriz de Carvalho Ruthner Batista1Abstract
Bats belong to the second-largest order in a number of species diversity within the Mammalia class, containing 21 families and more than 1300 species. It is estimated that more than 200 viruses from 28 families have been isolated or detected in 37 different bat genera, many of them related to emerging infectious diseases with the potential to cross species barriers and infect other animals. The group of coronaviruses (CoV) is one of these viruses, which includes CoVs that can cause serious diseases in humans and animals, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), swine acute diarrheal syndrome (SADS) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Some of the human and animal coronaviruses appear to be originated from bats. With the advent of new generation molecular techniques and increased surveillance of wild animal species, many new coronaviruses have been identified. The coronaviruses belong to the Nidovirales order and Coronaviridae family. The subfamily Coronavirinae is divided into four genera, Alphacoronavirus (alphaCoV), Betacoronavirus (betaCoV), Deltacoronavirus, and Gammacoronavirus. Since the first report of coronavirus in a Miniopterus pusillus bat, the coronavirus occurrence in a bats population of different regions in the world has been studied and, until now, both alphaCoV and betaCoV have been detected. The aim of this study was to perform a literature review regarding the detection of coronavirus (alphaCoV or betaCoV) in different bat species around the world and their immune response against coronavirus. This review reinforces the importance of these animals as hosts, reservoirs, or sources of viruses, including emerging viruses.
INTRODUCTION
Bats belong to the order Chiroptera, which represents the second-largest order in a number of species diversity within the class Mammalia. This diversity is demonstrated in over 1300 species already identified, which are grouped in 21 families, distributed in two suborders, Yinpterochiroptera (Pteropodiformes) and Yangochiroptera (Vespertilioniformes). The suborder Yinpterochiroptera is formed by the family Pteropodidae (former Megachiroptera suborder) and the superfamily Rhinolophoidea (formed by the families Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, Rhinonycteridae, Rhinopomatidae, Megadermatidae and Craseonycteridae). Three superfamilies belong to the suborder Yangochiroptera, Noctilionoidea (families Mystacinidae, Furipteridae, Noctilionidae, Thyropteridae, Mormoopidae, and Phyllostomidae), Emballonuroidea (families Emballonuridae, Nycteridae and Myzopodidae) and Vespertilionoidea (families Molossidae, Vespertilionidae, Miniopteridae, Natalidae e Cistugidae) [1, 2].
The feature that groups and distinguishes bats from other mammals is the ability to fly. Genetic studies have shown that this singularity may have influenced some aspects of the innate immune system evolution of these animals, generating hypotheses that bats can control viral replication differently from other mammals. In addition, another theory would be that the high metabolic rate and the increase in body temperature during flight, similar to a febrile response, make it difficult to replicate temperature-sensitive infectious agents [3, 4].
The first suspicion that bats were reservoirs of viral zoonoses was suggested by Carini [5], who suggested that the transmission of rabies to herbivores was by the bite of the blood-sucking bat. This hypothesis was proven a few years later when Negri's corpuscles were first identified in a hematophagous bat [6], and since then, bats have been considered reservoirs for rabies and other lyssaviruses.
For a long time, the search for new viruses in bats has been neglected due to the tendency of researchers to search only for viruses that cause pathologies [7]. It is estimated that more than 200 viruses from 28 families have been isolated or detected in 37 different bat genera, many of them related to emerging infectious diseases with the potential to cross species barriers and infect other animals [7-10]. Therefore, these animals play an important role in the dynamics of viruses in the environment, acting as reservoirs and probable sources of infections for other animals [3].
Researchers point out that bats have certain characteristics that make them ideal for hosting and spreading a greater number of viruses than most animals [11, 12]. Among these characteristics, the ability to fly allows them to have greater contact with other different species in different locations when compared to other terrestrial mammals. In addition, this ability can also confer greater transmission of viruses between species [12].
The long life expectancy in relation to their body size can facilitate viral persistence through the transmission of chronic infections, besides the ability of bats to enter into prolonged torpor, with immunity decrease caused by the drop in body temperature. The gregarious way of life is also pointed out as an important characteristic, as it allows inter and intra species contact, which facilitates the transmission of pathogens. Lastly, another characteristic is the fact that different species have different diets [8, 11-14].
Environmental alteration by human activities has caused an enormous impact on the ecology, inducing the circulation of different wild animals species from their natural habitat to urban or rural areas [15], increasing the chances of human beings and domestic animals contact with wild animals. Consequently, several problems are arriving, mainly regarding viral zoonosis dissemination [16].
One of those viral zoonosis is the coronavirus, a disease caused by a virus belonging to order Nidovirales, family Coronaviridae, subfamily Coronavirinae, which is divided into four genus, Alphacoronavirus (alphaCoV), Betacoronavirus (betaCoV), Deltacoronavirus and Gammacoronavirus. It was believed that alphaCoV and betaCoV groups were only found in some mammals, while the Gammacoronavirus group would be restricted to birds [17]. However, recent research pointed out the presence of Gammacoronavirus in mammals and Deltacoronavirus common to birds and mammals [18].
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) was the first human pandemic of the XXI century, and a coronavirus causal agent of the disease, namely SARS-CoV, was discovered in 2002 [19, 20]. This pandemic generated the appearance of theories about the transmission and interspecies adaptation capacity of the coronavirus [21]. A virus similar to SARS-CoV in small mammals, masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), was detected and initially, it was thought to be the source of infection [22]. However, in 2005, a coronavirus related to SARS and a coronavirus isolated from P. larvata was isolated from bats, evidencing that bats could act as natural reservoirs of a SARS-CoV ancestral virus [23].
In 2012, MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) emerged caused by a new betaCoV, more related to bats HKU4 and HKU5 coronavirus [24]. Although the natural reservoir of MERS has not been identified yet, the high similarity with a nucleotide sequence of coronavirus implies that the origin is present in the bat [25].
A different coronavirus was reported in 2019 in registered cases in China. The virus was isolated and it showed to be genetically similar to SARS-CoV (nucleotide identity about 79,0%) and MERS (nucleotide identity about 51,8%) [26-28], therefore, it was denominated SARS-CoV2. The dissemination of the pandemic, called COVID-19, was observed in all continents and it was suspected that the origin of this new coronavirus are bats.
Woo et al. [29] pointed out that bats are carriers of a set of genes from alphaCoV and betaCoV. They also suggested that coronavirus from birds show a set of genes from gammacoronavirus, and the ancestral of all these viruses was present in a bat and it was transmitted to a bird, or vice versa. This phenomenon occurs due to the ability of these animals to migrate for long distances, allowing the exchange of the virus genetic material between hosts of different species. This predisposes to the high diversity of coronavirus in bats and birds, as well as the dissemination of this viral agent to other animal species.
Since the emergence of the first report of coronavirus in Miniopterus pusillus (bats) [30], the presence of coronavirus in bats population all over the world have been studied, and until now both alphaCoV and betaCoV were detected (Fig. 1). Within these two genera, new virus species obtained from bats are being determined, showing the importance of those animals as coronavirus hosts [31]. Next, the classification of coronavirus species detected in different bat species is presented in Table 1.
Fig. (1)) Distribution of alphaCov and betaCoV cases described in bats worldwide.In some hosts, a disease may not be caused by intraspecific transmission, however, the transmission can occur from another reservoir species that maintains a relatively high pathogen population. In such a case, the pathogen typically reaches high prevalence in the reservoir and then spills over into the other host; a process called “the spillover effect” or “pathogen spillover” [32].
As spillover from reservoirs occurs, the proportion of new virus emergences seems to be increasing [33], and studies show that some virus families are more prevalent in bats with spillover potential for other species of animals [8, 34].
The proliferation of bat-associated viruses demands a combination of factors, such as an opportunity for contact between reservoirs and hosts, molecular and cellular compatibility between virus and host, and a flexible immune response [35].
Research has shown that SARS-CoV-2, the etiologic agent of Covid-19, is likely to originate from bats of the genus Rhinolophus [36], which is similar to the origin of others coronavirus species that also cause human diseases, SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV [37]. Furthermore, SARS-CoV was identified in palm civets and MERS-CoV in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius), which would act as intermediate hosts before crossing the species barrier to infect humans. In addition, Malaysian pangolins (Manis javanica) could act as intermediate hosts for SARS-CoV-2 [38].
The aim of this study was to perform a literature review about the detection of coronaviruses (alphaCoV or betaCoV) in different bat species throughout the world and their immune response against coronavirus.
CORONAVIRUSES IN BATS FROM NORTH AMERICA
In the Americas, the first occurrence of coronavirus in bats was in 2007, in the Rock Mountains region (Colorado-USA) [39]. Seven different bat species were tested, and new alphacoronaviruses were detected in two species (Myotis occultus and Epitesicus fuscus), different from those known in Asia. In this study, a high detection frequency of the virus was observed, 50% in M. occultus and 17% in E. fuscus.
In 2010, two studies using metagenomics confirmed the presence of alphaCoV in bats in the USA. Li et al. [40] identified alphaCoV in bat guanos collected in a cave inhabited by Tadarida brasiliensis, Myotis velifer, Nycticeus humeralis and Perimyotis subflavus. Donaldson et al. [41] identified new species of alphaCoV in Epitesicus fuscus, namely Appalachian Ridge CoV (ARCoV).
From 2007 to 2009, a large surveillance study was conducted in Colorado, where alphaCoV was detected in four different species of bats, Eptesicus fuscus (prevalence of 10%), Myotis volans (prevalence of 8%), Myotis lucifugus (prevalence of 3%) and Myotis evotis (2% prevalence). There was a higher prevalence of the virus in young animals and the presence of coronavirus positive colonies in shelters in an urban area close to human residences suggested a risk of potential transmission of the virus [42].
Huynh et al. [43] showed by molecular clock analysis that alphaCoV sequences derived from the North American tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus) are predicted to share common ancestry with human CoV (HCoV)-NL63.
In Florida, alphacoronaviruses were detected in Tadarida brasiliensis, similar to those detected in T. brasiliensis and Molossus molossus in Brazil. This fact suggests that similar coronaviruses may be present in bats of the same species even in very different regions and that viruses can evolve according to the bat species [44].
In Canada, there are few studies on coronavirus in bats. The first report of coronavirus was described by Misra et al. [45] in M. lucifugus. This alphaCoV showed genetic similarity to the coronavirus found in M. occultus in the Rock Mountains region [39].
Subudhi et al. [46] detected the presence of coronavirus in 30% of the hibernating M. lucifugus and observed that the infection persisted for at least 4 months. In addition, the authors performed immunohistochemistry of the lungs on infected animals, which detected the presence of viral antigen, however, without a consistent inflammatory reaction. A low level of neutrophilic infiltration in the infected lungs reinforces the fact that bats are unique in the way they respond to coronaviruses.
Davy et al. [47] demonstrated that the coronavirus elimination by bats can be increased when they are co-infected with Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the fungus that causes White Nose Syndrome (WNS). The systemic effects of WNS can down-regulate the antiviral response in M. lucifugus infected with coronavirus, increasing viral replication and, consequently, viral elimination.
Two works on Coronavirus present in bats has been published in Mexico so far, and as a result, both alphaCoV and betaCoV have been detected. The first description was made in the region of Campeche, Chiapas and Mexico City, where 13 different coronaviruses were found, 9 classified as Alphacoronavirus and 4 as Betacoronavirus, demonstrating a great diversity. Of the 42 species tested, 11 were positive for coronavirus, Artibeus lituratus, Artibeus phaeotis, Artibeus jamaicensis, Carollia sowelli, Carollia perspicillata, Lonchorhina aurita, Pteronotus parnelli, Nyctinomops laticaudatus, Tadarida brasiliensis, Myotis fusifercus and Epitesicus fuscus. In the same year, a new betaCoV was detected in a Pteronotus davyi in La Huerta, Jalisco State [48].
Analyses of these viruses in the context of their hosts and ecological habitat indicated that host species or genus is a strong selective driver in CoV evolution, even in allopatric populations separated by significant geographical distance, and that a single species/genus of bat can contain multiple CoVs [49].
Fig. (2) shows the distribution of cases in North America, considering alphaCoV and betaCoV and Table 1 shows coronaviruses family or genus, continent and country, identification of bats, number of animals, samples from where viruses were isolated, and references.
Fig. (2)) Distribution of alphaCoV and betaCoV cases described in North American countries and the number of bats described.CORONAVIRUSES IN BATS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA
Central America can be divided into two parts, one located between North America and South America, known as continental Central America, including Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Belize. The other part comprises the islands of the Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. The region is one of the most diverse hotspots, home to approximately 7% of the world’s plant and animal species [50]. The bats constitute an important group in the Central American mammals, with nine families, predominantly the Phyllostomidae bat family, more than 80 genera and about 200 species [51]. Similar to South America, both alphaCoV and betaCoV occur in the Central American bats (Fig. 3) and Table 1.
Fig. (3)) Distribution of alphaCoV and betaCoV cases described in Central American countries and the number of bats described.The first coronavirus description in Central American bat species was the alphaCoV in 2008. Two alphacoronaviruses were reported in two species, Glossophaga soricina and Carollia perspicillata, from Trinidad, an island of the Caribbean archipelago. Even though both coronaviruses clustered in the same clade, relatively a high divergence found was from the adaptations of the virus to different host species [52].
In 2013, extensive research discovered other alphacoronaviruses in Central American countries. Panama presented three different alphaCoVs in three bat species, Artibeus jamaicensis, Artibeus lituratus and Phyllostomus discolor. Two bat species in Costa Rica tested positive for two alphacoronaviruses, Carollia perspicillata and Anoura geoffroyi. The same study reported only the beta coronaviruses detection in Costa Rica until now. Two beta coronaviruses were detected in Pteronotus parnellii and Carollia perspicillata bat species, not found in South America [53]. Finally, the latest study detected four alphacoronaviruses in four bat species, Artibeus jamaicensis, Carollia perspicillata, Carollia castanea and Glossophaga soricina from Costa Rica. All alphaCoV sequences clustered with preliminary published data from South and Central American countries, except the G. soricina sequence. This divergent sequence indicates that the diversity of coronaviruses in particular bat species could be more significant than formerly known [54].
CORONAVIRUSES IN BATS FROM SOUTH AMERICA
South America is the fourth largest continent, with a total area of 17.840.000 km2. The continent includes the following 13 countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela and the overseas territory of French Guinea. Due to the richness of hydrological, geological, geomorphological and climatic variety, South America possesses a notable diversity for the most existing biological groups, including vertebrates [55]. It is estimated that South America has about 30% of existing mammal species [56], among which bats can be highlighted with 9 families, approximately 80 genera and 300 species [51].
Bats are known to be hosts or reservoirs to various viruses, including coronaviruses. Naturally, as a result of the richness and diversity of bat species present in South America, coronaviruses were reported in some countries. Unfortunately, the scarce information regarding bat coronaviruses disabled the knowledge of the real situation in all South American countries. Of the coronaviruses reported, both alphaCoV and betaCoV are present in South American bats [37].
Overall, alphaCoV appears to be more prevalent, with a higher detection rate worldwide compared to betaCoV [37]. Despite the lower detection rate of betacoronaviruses, it was the first genus discovered around 2008 in South America, Brazil. A group of betaCoV was detected in the Desmodus rotundus (vampire bat). Until that year, coronavirus had only been described in insectivorous bats. In addition, the authors already supported the hypothesis of
reservoirs for exclusive coronavirus lineages, emphasizing the importance of this bat species in the coronavirus area [57].
However, the prevalence of alphacoronaviruses is considerably higher. So far, in South America, only Brazil reported the occurrence of alphaCoV in 17 different bat species (Fig. (4) and Table (1)).
Fig. (4))
