Counseling for Social Justice E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Thought leaders examine social justice counseling from a global perspective in the latest edition of this pioneering book. Part 1 examines the historical and contemporary context of social justice counseling. Part 2 presents ideas for promoting social justice and challenging oppression and marginalization with individual clients and communities. Topics in this section include perspectives on peace, violence, and conflict; recommendations for global initiatives in school counseling; advocacy for decent work; promoting gender equity; fighting racism; and implementing social action strategies with LGBTQ+ communities, older people, people with disabilities, and undocumented immigrants. Part 3 contains chapters on the role of neuroscience in advancing social justice and infusing social justice perspectives in ethics, research, and counselor training.
"This third edition could not come at a better time given the current national and global political climates. Lee and his colleagues raise the bar, challenging counselors to move from simply understanding social injustice to engaging in actions that improve systemic inequities. The magnitude of this charge cannot be ignored. This text should be mandatory in every counselor education program in the United States and across the globe; the time is now. Counselors must take the lead by leaning in and changing the world one person at a time, one community at a time, and one nation at a time."
—Colleen R. Logan, PhD, Fielding Graduate University
"Courtland Lee continues to be a leader in helping to advance social justice in the counseling profession. This book builds on previous editions by offering new and emerging strategies for implementing social justice with clients and communities. It pushes the limits of what is possible when counselors incorporate social justice into their practice."
—Manivong J. Ratts, PhD, Seattle University
"This text provides crucial information on how counselors can engage in social justice work throughout their practice, research, and advocacy activities to not only become effective change agents but also transform how we see ourselves and the world."
—Anneliese A. Singh, PhD, University of Georgia
*Requests for digital versions from ACA can be found on www.wiley.com.
*To purchase print copies, please visit the ACA website
*Reproduction requests for material from books published by ACA should be directed to [email protected]
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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CONTENTS
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Acknowledgments
Part I: Introduction
Chapter 1: Counselors as Agents of Social Justice
The Globalization of Counseling in a World of “Savage Inequalities”
Social Injustice and a Symbol of Hope: The Story of Malala
The Context for Social Injustice
Defining Social Justice
What the Concept of Social Justice Means for Counselors
Counseling for Social Justice: A Conceptual Overview
Conclusion
References
Part II: Promoting Social Justice and Challenging Oppression
Chapter 2: A Culture of Positive Peace: Counseling for Structural and Cultural Transformation
Peace: An Overview
Positive Versus Negative Peace
The Relationship Between Violence and Peace
Working Toward a Culture of Peace
Peace and Social Justice: An Inseparable Relationship
Peace and the Counseling Profession
Peace and Social Justice: Direction for the Counseling Profession
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Ensuring Equitable and Inclusive Global Education: Transformational Perspectives for Global Counseling in Schools
Sustainable Development and Education
Getting to Education 2030
The Global State of Education
Education in High-Income or Rich Countries
The Current Global Picture of Education
The Current State of Counseling in Schools
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Advancing Social Justice by Advocating for Decent Work
Decent Work: What It Is, Where We Are, and What We Can Do
The Definition of Decent Work
Decent Work Indicators and the Status Quo
Counselors' Roles in Mainstreaming Decent Work
Promoting Career Development for Decent Work
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: LGBTQQI Social Justice Issues and Advocacy Strategies
The Power of Language
A Brief History of LGBTQQI Social Justice Events and Milestones
The Role of Mental Health Professionals
Current Social Justice Issues and LGBTQQI Communities
Strategies for Social Action
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: International Perspectives on and Advocacy Against Ageism
Demographic Changes: Aging as a Normative Life Experience
Counselors' Responses to Population Aging
The Consequences of Professional Neglect
Ageism: What, Where, When, How, and Why?
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: The Personal Impact of Ageism
An Alternative, Nonageist Perspective
Action Strategies for Counselors
The Macro Perspective: Advocacy and Empowerment
The Micro Perspective: The Counselor as Change Agent
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Counselor Advocacy for Access: Addressing the Challenges of People With Disabilities
Key Definitions: Social Justice, Advocacy, Enculturation
Discrepancies: Employment and Wages of PWDs
Education
Housing
Domestic and International Legislation for PWDs
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Challenging Sexism: Promoting the Rights of Men and Women in Contemporary Societies
The Unnatural Side of Sexism
Hegemonic Masculinity and the Hegemony of Men
Theories of Gender
Adopting a Social Justice Perspective to Challenging Sexism
Applying Social Justice Advocacy Strategies to Promote the Rights of Men and Women
Microlevel Social Justice Advocacy Strategies
Macrolevel Social Justice Advocacy Strategies
Implications for Counselor Education and Research
Making a Difference at the Global Level
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Crossing Borders: Social Justice and the Challenge of Undocumented Immigration
Immigration: The Contemporary Context
Implications for Counseling Practice: A Social Justice Perspective
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Combating Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance in Counseling
Back to Basics: Thinking About Identity
Reconfiguring Identity Through Intersectionality
Manifestations and Psychological Correlates of Discrimination
Constructing Otherness: Ego Splitting, Intersubjectivity, and Racist Projections
Conclusion
References
Part III: Social Justice: A Focus on Professional Issues
Chapter 11: The Role of Neuroscience in Advancing Social Justice Counseling
The Relevance of Neuroscience for Social Justice Counseling
How the Brain Works: Basic Concepts
Neuroscience at Different Levels of Counselor Awareness
Neuroscience and the Nature of Empowerment
Neuroscience and Counselor Advocacy
Social Justice Work Guided by Neuroscience Findings
Addressing Racial and Socioeconomic Gaps in School Readiness and Achievement
Neuroscience and Social Justice Counseling: A Caveat
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Social Justice and Counseling Ethics
Healing and Helping in Context
Potential Universal Principles
Navigating the Intersection Between Culture and Ethics
References
Chapter 13: Conducting Socially Just and Relevant Research
Levels of Social Justice Practice and Defining Social Justice Research
Social Justice Research Versus Multicultural Competence Research
The Social Justice Researcher
The Insider/Outsider Status of the Researcher
Social Justice Research Methods
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Training Counselors as Agents of Change: A Pedagogy for Social Justice
Training Counselors as Agents for Social Justice: The Rationale
Graduate Counselor Training From a Social Justice Perspective
Professional Counseling Orientation
The Nature of Ethical Practice
Career Development
The Nature of Counseling Relationships
Advocacy-Focused Professional Practice Experiences
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Final Thoughts: The Counselor as Agent of Social Justice: The Process of Becoming
Personal Action Steps
Conclusion
A Final Reflection
References
Index
Technical Support
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Table 2.1
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Part 1
Chapter 1
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Copyright © 2018 by the American Counseling Association Foundation. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lee, Courtland C., editor.
Title: Counseling for social justice/Courtland C. Lee, editor.
Description: Third edition. | Alexandria, VA : American Counseling Association Foundation, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018007025 | ISBN 9781556203565 (pbk. : alk.paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social justice. | Counseling. | Social action.
Classification: LCC HM671 .C68 2018 | DDC 303.3/72—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018007025
To Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings (1935–2010).
Esteemed psychologist, educator, and professor emeritus, Michigan State University.
All we know about counselors as advocates of systemic change started with you!
Preface
Like its predecessors, this third edition of Counseling for Social Justice is about social justice and its role in the counseling profession. Social justice encompasses the professional, ethical, and moral responsibility counselors have to address the significant social and economic inequalities that may have a negative impact on psychosocial development for various groups of people. Social justice relates to a counselor's sense of social responsibility. It involves counselors taking a stand on social issues and working to eradicate systems and ideologies that perpetuate discrimination, foster oppression, and disregard human rights.
National and international events since publication of the second edition in 2007 prompt the need to review the nature of social justice and its importance in advancing the theory and practice of counseling. As the profession of counseling continues to expand internationally, it is important to examine issues of social justice within a global counseling perspective. In developing their chapters, the contributors were asked to consult resources from the United Nations; the United Nations Educational, Social, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF); the International Labour Organization (ILO); and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Counseling for Social Justice is designed to provide professional counselors with direction for becoming agents of social change who intervene not only in the lives of their clients but also in the world around them. The contributors emphasize the need to direct counseling skill toward the significant contemporary issues that often have a negative impact on the lives of clients.
The book is divided into three sections. Part I introduces the notion of social justice and its historical and contemporary context in the profession of counseling. In Chapter 1, “Counselors as Agents of Social Justice,” Courtland C. Lee, Romina Baldwin, Suelle Micallef Mamará, and Lauren Quesenberry provide a conceptual framework for counseling for social justice. They explore the concept of counseling as a process that focuses not only on intervention in the lives of clients but also on action both with and for clients in the social arena.
Part II presents ideas and concepts for promoting social justice and challenging oppression. In Chapter 2, “A Culture of Positive Peace: Counseling for Structural and Cultural Transformation,” Vivian V. Lee presents an overview of theories of peace, violence, conflict, and international peace initiatives. She offers recommendations for global dialogue and the integration of peace, conflict, and violence theories in counseling training, practice, and research as a framework to promote sustainable positive peace. In Chapter 3, “Ensuring Equitable and Inclusive Global Education: Transformational Perspectives for Global Counseling in Schools,” Vivian V. Lee and John Carey explore global challenges for education, describe the state of counseling in schools globally, and make recommendations for both individual and collective education advocacy. In Chapter 4, “Advancing Social Justice by Advocating for Decent Work,” Elif Balin and ZiYoung Kang introduce the International Labour Organization's decent work agenda and discuss the roles counselors can assume to achieve the common goal of decent work for all. In Chapter 5, “LGBTQQI Social Justice Issues and Advocacy Strategies,” Michael P. Chaney and Michael D. Brubaker highlight current social justice issues that affect the LGBTQQI communities. Among these are employment discrimination, hate crimes and interpersonal violence, transgender and gender-variant counseling issues, and international LGBTQQI issues.
In Chapter 6, “International Perspectives on and Advocacy Against Ageism,” Laura R. Shannonhouse, Amanda D. Rumsey, and Mary Chase Breedlove Mize explore global demographic changes with a focus on the aging of populations and within-group factors that predispose some older people to significant personal and social risks. Counselors' responses to the graying of the globe and the consequences of these responses to the needs of older people are described along with their personal impact on older individuals. Strategies and actions for counselors and suggestions for counselor advocacy and empowerment relative to the diverse needs of older individuals are recommended. In Chapter 7, “Counselor Advocacy for Access: Addressing the Challenges of People With Disabilities,” Keith B. Wilson, Jason E. Gines, and Tierra Caldwell provide examples of advocacy to assist people with disabilities in obtaining greater access to goods and services to live fulfilled lives. They offer support for an inclusive definition of social justice that will inform a disability approach to advocacy. In Chapter 8, “Challenging Sexism: Promoting the Rights of Men and Women in Contemporary Societies,” Anabel Mifsud and Anna Borg discuss the nature of sexism, hegemonic masculinity, and theories of gender. They examine the role of social justice counselors in advocating for the rights of women and men and explore microlevel and macrolevel strategies that can be adopted by social justice counselors to address gender discrimination and oppression. They conclude with a discussion about counselor education and research in promoting gender equity and the need for social justice counselors to act globally in support of gender equality and empowerment. In Chapter 9, “Crossing Borders: Social Justice and the Challenge of Undocumented Immigration,” C. Adolfo Bermeo and Sheena Vella tie together a personal narrative and a discussion of the historical context of migration and how immigration policy affects undocumented immigrants, refugees, and asylum seekers. They stress the importance of counseling for social justice in the struggle to recognize the legitimacy of those who cross borders as they seek a better life for themselves and their families. In Chapter 10, “Combating Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance in Counseling,” Roy Moodley and Sela Kleiman begin with an epistemological discussion of how historical and social forces have determined what and how we think about race and other social identities. They explain how scholars are moving beyond simple understandings of social identity and taking an intersectional approach to examine the complex interactions of diverse social identities and an individual's unique experiences with discrimination and privilege. They offer a brief glimpse into object relations theory to set a backdrop against which the actors and performances of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerances play out.
Part III examines important professional issues that must be considered when social justice becomes an integral part of counseling practice. In Chapter 11, “The Role of Neuroscience in Advancing Social Justice Counseling,” Carlos P. Zalaquett and Allen E. Ivey discuss the newly emerging role of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system, in advancing social justice counseling. Key neuroscience and counseling findings regarding mind, body, and environmental interactions are reviewed, and specific findings relevant to social justice demonstrate how neuroscientific information can help improve the effectiveness of specific social justice interventions. In Chapter 12, “Social Justice and Counseling Ethics,” Barbara J. Herlihy, Angela E. James, and Karen Swanson Taheri discuss ethics from a global perspective and the importance of having an ethical framework in counseling for social justice. In Chapter 13, “Conducting Socially Just and Relevant Research.” Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy covers aspects of social justice research, including the levels of social justice practice (macro vs. macro practice), and delineates the differences and overlaps in the aims of social justice research and multicultural counseling competence research. She concludes with a discussion of the use of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods designs in relation to social justice research. In Chapter 14, “Training Counselors as Agents of Change: A Pedagogy for Social Justice,” Courtland C. Lee describes the structure and the content for a preservice counselor training program that prepares students for social justice work. Infusing social justice theory and practice throughout the curriculum of a counselor education program is mandatory. In Chapter 15, “Final Thoughts: The Counselor as Agent of Social Justice: The Process of Becoming,” Courtland C. Lee focuses on the process of becoming a counselor who is an agent for social justice. Lee describes the steps that will help counselors live a life that is committed to social justice.
About the Editors
Courtland C. Lee, PhD, is the author, editor, or coeditor of five books on multicultural counseling and two books on counseling and social justice. He is also the author of three books on counseling African American males. In addition, he has published numerous book chapters and articles on counseling across cultures. Lee is the former editor of the Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. He has served on the editorial board of the International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling and was a senior associate editor of the Journal of Counseling & Development. He is past president of the International Association for Counselling, a Fellow and past president of the American Counseling Association, and a past president of the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. He is also a Fellow of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, the only American to receive this honor.
About the Contributors
Romina Baldwin, MA, has a bachelor's degree in psychology and a dual master's from the University of Malta and the University of Maryland in transcultural counseling and in counseling psychology. She also has a master's in gestalt psychotherapy from the Gestalt Psychotherapy Training Institution, Malta. Baldwin is an infertility counselor, a member of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, and is qualified in human resources management and victimology. She is a member of the Malta Association for the Counselling Profession, the European Association for Psychotherapy, and the Malta Association for Psychotherapy. She is also an International Alumni Association member. Baldwin has more than 20 years' experience working with victims. She currently works with the Ministry of European Affairs and Equality in the Commission on Domestic Violence.
Elif Balın, PhD, is an assistant professor of counseling at San Francisco State University. She received her PhD in counselor education from The Pennsylvania State University with an emphasis in women's studies. Bal̅n has published several articles on career counseling and international student career development. In addition, she has served on committees and led research projects at the National Career Development Association. She is a past editorial assistant of The Career Development Quarterly and has professional school counseling and career counseling experiences in Turkey and the United States.
C. Adolfo Bermeo, PhD, is retired from UCLA where he was associate vice provost for Student Diversity and Community College Partnerships, director of the Academic Advancement Program (AAP), and a faculty member in the Cesar Chavez Center for Chicano/a Studies. His development of AAP's Pedagogy of Excellence and his commitment to high expectations, high standards, a multiracial academic community, and the graduation of students dedicated to transforming our society made AAP a nationally and internationally recognized program and a model for best practices in working with underrepresented and underserved students. The UCLA Academic Senate recognized his contributions to a diverse academic environment by awarding him the Chancellor's Fair and Open Academic Environment Award. He is particularly interested in the impact of immigration on the cultural, political, social, educational, and economic experience of Latino immigrants to the United States. He has been a strong advocate for Latino immigrants, particularly undocumented students, and remains an outspoken advocate for opening the doors to higher education to low-income, first-generation college, historically underrepresented, and immigrant students and for social justice for all those denied access to the fruits of U.S. society.
Anna Borg, PhD, is the director of the Centre for Labour Studies at the University of Malta. She is an expert in gender equality and is an experienced researcher in matters relating to the issue of labor exploitation, labor exclusion, and labor market integration. She has worked as a reporter and editor for research carried out for the European Working Conditions Observatory and the European Restructuring Monitor of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Dublin) and is the Maltese expert on the European Social Policy Network. She has managed the EU Educational and Vocational Program, Leonardo Da Vinci, in Malta and was a project leader for various Trans-European Social Fund projects related to gender equality across Europe. She also managed the Gender Equality Unit at the Employment and Training Corporation for a number of years and chaired the Malta Confederation of Women's Organisations.
Michael D. Brubaker, PhD, is an associate professor and counseling program coordinator at the University of Cincinnati. His clinical and research interests have focused on underserved and socially marginalized populations, including the homeless; those who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT); and ethnic minorities. Taking a combined strengths and social justice perspective, he has sought to address clinical and social barriers to substance abuse and mental health services for these populations. He has published numerous book chapters and articles on multicultural counseling approaches and is the senior author of one book on how to succeed in doctoral studies. He is currently the associate editor for the Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy and has served as co-guest editor of the Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. He is the past-president of Chi Sigma Iota International Honor Society.
Tierra Caldwell, MS, is a fifth-year doctoral student in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at The Pennsylvania State University. She obtained her MS in Rehabilitation Counseling from Winston-Salem State University where she studied the differences in successful closures of transitional-aged youth in both rural and urban settings. Currently, her research interests are focused on examining multicultural competence and overall satisfaction and effectiveness in clinical supervision.
John Carey, PhD, is professor emeritus, Department of Student Development; director, Center for Youth Engagement; and associate director, Ronald H. Fredrickson Center for School Counseling Outcome Research, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. He is a leader in the evidence-based school counseling movement and has research interests in the development and evaluation of social-emotional learning programs in schools and in policy research related to school-based counseling. He is coauthor of Evidence-Based School Counseling: Making a Difference With Data-Driven Practices; Achieving Excellence in School Counseling: Building Motivation, Self-Direction, Self-Knowledge, and Relationships, and Multicultural Counseling in Schools: A Practical Handbook. Carey is also a leader in international school-based counseling and a founding member and chair of the Executive Council of the International Society for Policy Research and Evaluation in School-based Counseling. He is the lead editor of the 2017 International Handbook for Policy Research in School-Based Counseling. He has received Fulbright Specialist grants in 2014 and 2016 to help the counseling programs at Korea University (Seoul, South Korea) and Christ University (Bangalore, India) incorporate evidence-based practice into their graduate programs. In addition, he received a 2010 Cooperinc International Scholar Award to support collaborative school counseling research and program development at the University of Verona. His research is widely published in counseling journals, and he is a frequent presenter at international and national school counseling conferences.
Michael P. Chaney, PhD, is an associate professor and coordinator of the Addictions Specialization in the Department of Counseling at Oakland University. A Licensed Professional Counselor, National Certified Counselor, and Approved Clinical Supervisor, he received his PhD in counseling from Georgia State University. He is past president of the Association of LGBT Issues in Counseling and currently serves as editor-in-chief for the Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling and is an editorial board member for the Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling. He is a member of the Human Rights Committee of the American Counseling Association. He has demonstrated competencies and expertise working with individuals dealing with substance use and mood disorders, sexual compulsivity, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, male body image, and past trauma. In addition, he has specialized training in counseling individuals who are infected or affected by HIV/AIDS. He has numerous publications in prestigious professional journals in the areas of substance use disorders, sexual compulsivity, sexual orientation, male body image, and social justice and advocacy in counseling.
Jason E. Gines, PhD, is the director of Inclusion and Diversity Engagement in the College of Information Sciences and Technology at The Pennsylvania State University. He obtained his PhD in counselor education and supervision with a specialized focus in rehabilitation counseling from PSU. His research focus includes employment and reentry opportunities for people with disabilities and criminal histories as well as multicultural issues among people with disabilities.
Barbara J. Herlihy, PhD, professor emeritus at the University of New Orleans, is the coauthor of three current books on counselor ethics: ACA Ethical Standards Casebook, Boundary Issues in Counseling (both with Gerald Corey), and Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in Counseling (with Theodore P. Remley). In addition, she has published numerous journal articles and book chapters on ethical practice, social justice and advocacy, transcultural counseling, and feminist therapy. She is a past recipient of the SACES Courtland Lee Social Justice Award and the ACES Distinguished Mentor Award. Currently, she serves as president of Chi Sigma Iota International Honor Society, is senior co-chair of the ACA Ethics Committee, and is associate editor of Counseling & Values.
Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy, PhD, is the dean of the School of Education at American University. Previously she was the vice provost for faculty affairs and a professor of counseling and human development at Johns Hopkins University. She has held appointments as the vice dean of academic affairs at Johns Hopkins University's School of Education; as an associate professor of counselor education at the University of Maryland, College Park; and as an assistant professor of education at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York. Her areas of research specialization include the measurement of multicultural self-efficacy in school counseling and the examination of school counselors' influence on low-income students' college and career readiness. Holcomb-McCoy is the author of the best-selling book School Counseling to Close the Achievement Gap: A Social Justice Framework for Success and is an associate editor of the Journal of Counseling & Development. She was selected to speak at the White House's Reach Higher Summit titled “College Opportunity Agenda: Strengthening School Counseling and College Advising,” which was held at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has received awards for outstanding multicultural/diversity research, excellence in teaching, and exemplar service.
Allen E. Ivey, EdD, received his counseling doctorate from Harvard University and is distinguished emeritus professor at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and courtesy professor, Counselor Education, University of South Florida, Tampa. He is past president and Fellow of the Society for Counseling Psychology of the American Psychological Association, APA's Society for the Study of Ethnic and Minority Psychology, the Asian-American Psychological Association, and the American Counseling Association. He has received many awards throughout his career and has authored over 40 books and 200 articles and chapters. His works have been translated into 23 languages. His recent work has focused on applying developmental counseling and therapy and neuroscience to the analysis and treatment of severe psychological distress.
Angela E. James, MA, has presented nationally and internationally on several counseling topics including international social justice, spirituality, and the globalization of counseling. She also provides mental health counseling and supervision through her private practice. She has taught multicultural counseling and transcultural counseling courses and has over 13 years' experience in higher education, having worked professionally in various areas of student affairs. She is currently pursuing her doctorate in counselor education from the University of New Orleans. She has authored contributions to a number of published works regarding counseling.
ZiYoung Kang, PhD, is in the Department of Won Buddhism, Youngsan University of Sǒn Studies, South Korea. She earned her PhD in counselor education at The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania. The summary of her dissertation can be found in the article “Constructivist and Social Constructionist Career Counseling: A Delphi Study” published in The Career Development Quarterly. In addition, she has published several book chapters on career intervention. She has served on the ad hoc editorial board of the Career Development Quarterly.
Sela Kleiman, PhD (candidate), is in the Counselling and Clinical Psychology Program at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. Her research interests include whiteness, cultural countertransference, racial attitudes, and racial microaggressions.
Vivian V. Lee, EdD, is associate professor in the Counseling Human Development Program at Johns Hopkins University. She trains school counselors with a focus on student well-being, cultural competence, systemic and data-driven programs, and equity in urban environments. Her interests focus on peace and social justice, global education, and global issues in counseling. She is an accomplished counselor educator, author, trainer, and presenter, both nationally and internationally, with a history of organizational leadership in school counseling and international issues. She is the former senior director of The College Board National Advocacy and Policy Center's National Office for School Counselor Advocacy, is the chair-elect of the Society for Policy Research and Evaluation for School-based Counseling, and is past president of the Maryland Counseling Association. She also served as co-chair of the 5th National White House and Reach Higher Convening, which focused on cultural competence in school counseling services to increase equity in college and career readiness outcomes. She has authored and coauthored articles and book chapters on conflict resolution and violence, group counseling, and systemic and data-driven school counseling programs and peace, advocacy, and ethics.
Suelle Micallef Marmarà, MA, started her professional career in the nursing profession, working as a staff nurse at the intensive care unit before moving to the neonatal and pediatric intensive care unit. Through this experience she developed an interest in counseling and obtained an MA in transcultural counseling and a master's in gestalt psychotherapy. With the ever-growing number of immigrants and refugees in Malta, together with her interest in adolescence, she studied the effect of immigration and cultural differences on this population and how they adapt to a new country. She worked with immigrant adolescents, women, and children experiencing domestic violence; women following a drug rehabilitation program; and prisoners in drug rehabilitation. She set up a counseling service for a new infertility clinic in Malta's general hospital and then moved to an educational setting in schools where she manages the counseling service being provided to adolescents, children, and their families. She has her own private practice and has been a member on the Council of Counselling, which regulates the counseling profession in Malta.
Anabel Mifsud, MA, is a doctoral student in the counselor education and supervision program at the University of New Orleans. She has a master's degree in health psychology from University College London and King's College London, U.K. Her research interests are social justice and advocacy in counseling, intergenerational trauma, counseling as a vehicle for community development and peacebuilding, the internationalization of counseling, and psychosocial services for migrants and refugees, and persons with HIV/AIDS. She has presented at conferences in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malta.
Mary Chase Breedlove Mize is a doctoral student studying counselor education and practice as well as gerontology (MA, research track) at Georgia State University. Her clinical experience includes working in acute crisis stabilization with adults across the life span. She is an Applied Suicide Intervention Skills Training (ASIST) trainer, and her research interests include combating ageism, working with older persons, death anxiety, terror management theory, and suicide intervention and prevention.
Roy Moodley, PhD, is associate professor of counseling psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto and director of the Centre for Diversity in Counselling and Psychotherapy. His research interests include critical multicultural counseling and psychotherapy, race and culture in psychotherapy, traditional healing practices, and gender and identity.
Lauren Quesenberry, MA, is a graduate school student in the clinical mental health counseling program at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, Washington DC. She obtained an MA in women's studies and gender studies from Loyola University Chicago in 2011 and a BA in English and psychology from Gardner-Webb University in 2009. Her areas of professional and academic focus include women's trauma/recovery, dual-diagnosis, and the LGBTQQI population.
Amanda D. Rumsey, PhD, is an assistant professor at Clemson University and completed her PhD in counselor education and practice at Georgia State University. Her clinical counseling background includes over 20 years of mental health and school counseling with adolescents and their families in a variety of programs, including outdoor residential treatment, wilderness therapy, hospital settings, and rural, suburban, and urban school settings. She is a nationally certified counselor, a licensed professional counselor, and certified school counselor. Her research focuses on adolescents, trauma, and school counseling, with emphasis on training needs and skill acquisition in the areas of suicide intervention, trauma, and multiculturalism. Her interest in social justice and advocacy have driven her counseling practice and research activities to include topics related to marginalized subgroups such as individuals with disabilities, high school dropouts, LGBTQQI individuals, refugees, and older persons.
Laura R. Shannonhouse, PhD, is an assistant professor at Georgia State University. She has practiced in collegiate, oncology, crisis, and disaster contexts (e.g., day-care center fire disaster in Mexico; illness-related trauma in South Africa/Botswana; post-Katrina charter school teachers; Burmese, Bhutanese, Vietnamese, and Haitian refugees; and post-flood Baton Rouge). Her research focuses on crisis intervention and disaster response, particularly social justice and spiritual issues in these contexts, and she has coauthored the field manual Spiritual First Aid for Disasters: Field Operations Guide to Providing Practical Presence. She conducts training and research in K–12 schools to prevent youth suicide (suicide first aid) and works with populations affected by disaster to foster meaning making through one's faith tradition (spiritual first aid). She is the recipient of the ACA Best Practices in Research Award, ACA Courtland C. Lee Multicultural Excellence Scholarship Award, and the SACES Courtland C. Lee Social Justice Award.
Karen Swanson Taheri, PhD, is a Licensed Professional Counselor, Registered Play Therapist, and National Certified Counselor. She enjoys providing services to children and their families, educating professionals, and engaging in professional advocacy. She has provided services to children, adults, and families in a variety of settings: a university-based clinic, community agencies, schools, a hospital, and private practice. She has provided education and training to students and professionals in a variety of contexts: community-based workshops; teaching, coteaching, and guest lecturing at several universities (including the University of Malta); presenting at local, national, and international conferences; and authoring and coauthoring several publications. She founded the Provisional Counselor Association of Louisiana, a division of the Louisiana Counseling Association. She resides in Austin, Texas, and teaches play therapy remotely through the University of Mississippi.
Sheena Vella, MSc, is a social and cultural psychologist and has worked in the field of migration for 7 years in Malta and the U.K. Her Photovoice research on the social representations of asylum seeking and the future in Malta was awarded a distinction from the Institute of Social & Cultural Psychology at the London School of Economics & Political Science. She has worked at the University of Malta, within government open centers for asylum seekers, and in the NGO and voluntary sector. She is currently co-coordinator of the integration and community development activities at Migrants Resource Centre in London. She is particularly interested in empowerment and development models of migrant and refugee women, development of transcultural competencies, and social justice.
Keith B. Wilson, PhD, is a professor in the Rehabilitation Institute in the College of Education and Human Services at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale. He received his PhD in rehabilitation education/services from The Ohio State University. He has been honored with various service, research, and lifetime achievement awards in education over the past 30 years. His research focus includes cross-cultural/multicultural issues among people with disabilities and privilege-based hue/color skin (phenotype) in the United States.
Carlos P. Zalaquett, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at The Pennsylvania State University; he serves as professor-in-charge of the Counselor Education Program and co-coordinator of the Clinical Mental Health Counseling Program. He is the president-elect of the Society of InterAmerican Psychology and the Pennsylvania Mental Health Counselors Association. He is the author or coauthor of more than 50 scholarly publications and the books Intentional Interviewing and Counseling (Cengage), Essentials of Intentional Interviewing (Cengage), Las Habilidades Atencionales Basicas (Alexander Street Press), and Essential Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (Cognella) with Allen Ivey and Mary Bradford Ivey; Evaluating Stress: A Book of Resources (Scarecrow Press), Volumes I and II, with Richard Wood; and Becoming an Ericksonian, Becoming Yourself (P. Catholic University of Chile). He has received many awards, including the USF Latinos Association's Faculty of the Year, the Tampa Hispanic Heritage's Man of Education Award, and the SMHCA Emeritus Award. He is an internationally recognized expert on mental health, counseling, psychotherapy, diversity, social justice, and education and has conducted workshops and lectures in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Japan, Mexico, Peru, and Singapore.
Acknowledgments
As with the previous editions of this book, I am indebted to a number of individuals for their assistance. First and foremost are the contributors to this book. Thank you for the time, thought, and patience you put into preparing your chapters. Your scholarly efforts and commitment to social justice are greatly appreciated. It was an honor and a privilege to work with you.
A special acknowledgment must go to Jane E. Myers, whose chapters on social justice and aging were major components of the first two editions of this book. Jane passed away prior to this edition, but her influence continues to be extremely strong, as can be seen in Chapter 6 in this edition. Myers was a true warrior for social justice who is greatly missed!
I am also grateful to Garry Walz and Jeanne Bleuer for their enthusiasm for and sponsorship of this project. They have been tireless in their efforts to advance knowledge, and I thank them for their continued belief in the need for a book such as this and its importance to the counseling profession. Garry passed away during the development of this edition, but his spirit was a guiding force in its completion.
Thank you also to the American Counseling Association Foundation for its support of this project. I am honored that the members of the ACAF Board see this book as an important way to advance the foundation's mission of enhancing excellence in human development through strengthening the counseling profession.
Appreciation is also expressed to Carolyn Baker, Associate Publisher at ACA, for her participation in this effort. Carolyn's support has been most helpful. It is always a pleasure to work with Carolyn.
I would also like to express my appreciation to Shelli Berman, who served as my editorial assistant on this project. Thank you for all of your work!
Part IIntroduction
Chapter 1Counselors as Agents of Social Justice
Courtland C. Lee, Romina Baldwin, Suelle Micallef Mamarà, and Lauren Quesenberry
If you tremble with indignation at every injustice then you are a comrade of mine.
—Ernesto “Che” Guevara
Social justice has become a crucial concept in the theory and practice of counseling. It has been labeled the “fifth force,” following the paradigms of the psychodynamic approach, the cognitive-behavioral approach, humanism, and multiculturalism (Ratts, D'Andrea, & Arredondo, 2004). Counseling for social justice is perceived to be the next logical evolutionary step from multicultural counseling—a move from understanding the experiences of oppressed groups toward social action with the goal of achieving social equity for these groups. Improving society by challenging systemic inequities has been an important concept in counseling literature for some time (Banks & Martens, 1973; Gunnings & Simpkins, 1972; Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2003; Lewis, Lewis, & Dworkin, 1971). Social justice offers a direction for social action on the part of counselors.
To support the importance of social justice and counselors taking part in social action, authors have begun to challenge the notion of value neutrality in the field of counseling (McClure & Russo, 1996; Seem & Hernandez, 1998). Value neutrality assumes that the act of counseling operates in a vacuum that is free of sociopolitical considerations. The assumption of value neutrality serves to support the status quo of inequity in society (McClure & Russo, 1996; Seem & Hernandez, 1998). By neglecting societal inequities, environmental conditions that affect individual clients go undetected (McClure & Russo, 1996; Moeschberger & Ordonez, 2003; Seem & Hernandez, 1998). This eventually leads to a “blame the victim” mentality, and clients' problems are seen as originating internally (McClure & Russo, 1996; Seem & Hernandez, 1998). Consequently, prescribed interventions call for clients to adapt to unjust or inequitable social systems, leaving larger societal issues unaddressed. Under the banner of value neutrality, the counseling profession runs the risk of perpetuating an inequitable society. Thus, the counseling profession has been called upon to move to a stance that supports social action (McClure & Russo, 1996).
This call to social action has been underscored by the ACA Code of Ethics, which prescribes the role and responsibility of counselors as agents of social justice. According to section A.7.a: “When appropriate counselors advocate at individual, group, institutional, and societal levels to address potential barriers and obstacles that inhibit access and/or the growth and development of clients” (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2014, p. 5).
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a conceptual framework of counseling for social justice. It explores counseling not only as an intervention into the lives of clients but as an action both with and for clients in social, political, and economic arenas.
The Globalization of Counseling in a World of “Savage Inequalities”
In discussing the concept of social justice in contemporary counseling practice, the growing international context of the profession must be considered. There is a growing worldwide awareness of the profession, and counselors are becoming involved in global efforts to promote well-being and human development (Lee & Na, 2013). This awareness on the part of the counseling profession reflects an emphasis on the concept of globalization. Globalization is the reality shaped by an increasingly integrated world economy, new information and communications technology, the emergence of an international knowledge network, and other forces beyond the control of economic, cultural, and social institutions (UNESCO, 2009). Globalization has fostered a focus on internationalization, and institutions and governments are implementing a variety of policies and programs in response to globalization (UNESCO, 2009). The world, in essence, has become a “global village” significantly enhanced by universal improvements in communication and travel (Lee, 1997).
As institutions and governments grapple with responses to globalization, so too must the profession of counseling. A review of events associated with globalization suggests that counselors in their work are often confronted with a world of savage inequalities, a term coined by American author Jonathan Kozol (1991) in a discussion of the disparities in American education based on class and race. However, savage inequalities transend the American education framework and the term is used today in reference to the state of the world. The following list of worldwide savage inequalities is not exhaustive, but it is indicative of the responsibility counselors have within a global context.
Africa
Specific foreign (Asian) business interests are purchasing large tracts of land in Ethiopia and inadvertantly depriving the Ethiopian people of the economic benefits of land ownership (Holden, Deininger, & Ghebra, 2011).
In Somalia, children as young as 9 have been forcibly abducted and used in combat as soldiers (Amnesty International, 2011b; Human Rights Watch, 2012; Ortiz-Ospina & Roser, 2018; UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2013; UNICEF, 2006).
In sub-Saharan Africa, 33 million primary school-aged children do not go to school, and 18 million of these children are girls (Rosenberg, 2012; UNICEF, 2009; World Health Organization, 2009). Only two-thirds of children who start primary school reach the final grade (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012).
In Uganda, a child who quits attending school is 3 times more likely to be HIV-positive later in life than a child who completes a basic education (De Walque, 2007; UNAIDS, 2003).
An estimated 5,500 AIDS deaths occur each day in Africa (Lau & Muula, 2004).
Women in many parts of Africa are subjected to attacks on their humanity, including facing genital mutilation, merely because of their gender (UNICEF, 2012a, 2013); are being forced into marriage as childen (CEWLA, 2002; Forced Marriage Unit, 2006; Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise, & Watts, 2006: Home Affairs Committee, 2008; UNFPA, 2005); and are victims of honor killings at much higher rates than men (Khafagy, 2005; NGO Service Centre and Alliance for Arab Women, 2005).
It is widely known that the effects of climate change are not evenly spread out between countries and regions. Africa is responsible for only 3.8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, but it is suffering most from the devasting effects of climate change (Patz, 2007; United Nations Development Programme, 2008).
Despite its rich oil resources, Egypt continues to struggle with extensive poverty, chronic unemployment, severe strains on infrastructure/state services, threats to social cohesion, and increasingly visible economic inequality. Nearly half the population of Egypt live on less than $2.00 USD per day (Bales, 2012). Shortly after the 2011 Egyptian revolution, a group of women began protesting and demanding equal rights. Some of the protesters were incarcerated and subjected to virginity tests (Amnesty International, 2011a, 2012; CIHRS, 2012).
The Americas
In the United States, for every dollar of assets owned by a single Black or Latina woman, a member of the Forbes 400 has over $40 million (Johnson, Smeeding, & Boyle Torrey, 2005; Smeeding & Rainwater, 2004).
Any one of the 10 richest U.S. citizens has enough income to pay for a room for every homeless person in the country for an entire year (UNICEF, 2005; United Nations Development Programme, 2005).
The pervasive achievement gap in U.S. education continues. Recent data suggest that the achievement gap between rich and poor children is more pervasive than the gap between Black and White children, suggesting that socioeconomic status is a stronger indicator of educational inequality than race (Donald, 2012; Reardon, 2011).
Mass incarceration has had a devastating effect on Blacks and Hispanics in the United States. Blacks are 6 times more likely to be incarcerated than Whites, and non-White Hispanics are almost 3 times more likely to be incarcerated than Whites. Incarceration hits hardest at young Black and Hispanic men without a high school education. An astounding 11% of Black men between 20 and 34 years of age are behind bars. Much of the racial disparity is a result of the war on drugs that began in the 1980s. Despite the fact that Blacks use drugs at roughly the same rate as Whites, by 1988 Blacks were arrested on drug charges at 5 times the rate of Whites. By 1996, the rate of drug admissions to state prison for Black men was 13 times greater than the rate for White men (Stewart, 2008). Many of these young men are released from prison not only with the same barriers as prior to entry (lack of education, opportunity, and so forth) but with a criminal record, which makes locating housing and establishing jobs even more challenging, if not impossible (The Sentencing Project, 2016).
In 2000, 92% of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, and intersex students in the United States reported frequently hearing homophobic slurs such as “faggot,” “dyke,” or “that's so gay” (Morrow, 2001). Moreover, school faculty and staff often contribute to the problem by either making such comments themselves or failing to intervene when they overhear such remarks (Lim, 2002).
In Brazil, the government is pandering to large industrial entities by allowing indigenous people to be dispossessed of their lands (Salil, 2013).
Colombia has the third highest number of human trafficking victims in Latin America after the Dominican Republic and Brazil. Human trafficking in Colombia is a complex situation involving issues of armed conflict, economic crisis, displaced people, forced recruitment to the armed forces, and the drug trade (Taylor & Jamieson, 1999).
In Canada, First Nations people are 3 times more likely than non-Aboriginal people to be victims of violent crime, and they are at an even higher risk for being victims of assault, sexual assault, robbery, and partner abuse (Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, 2003). First Nations people who live in urban areas in Canada are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as non-Aboriginal people. First Nations people also are significantly overrepresented as offenders in the Canadian criminal justice system (Statistics Canada, 2001).
Asia
Despite Asia's rapid growth in recent years, economic inequity has widened. The share of income going to the richest households has increased in the past decade, with close to 20% of total income in the hands of the wealthiest 5% in most countries in the region (World Bank, 2005).
In India, the number of malnourished children, nearly 50%, has barely changed whereas a handful of Indian billionaires have increased their share of national income from less than 1% in 1996 to 22% in 2008 (Pankaj, 2013). It is still common, despite illegal rulings, for a bride's family to pay a dowry to the bridegroom's family. When a girl is born, if her family is poor, sometimes they will kill the child (or perform abortion if the sex is known) out of an inability to eventually pay a dowry for her to marry. Many of the girls who survive face discrimination, prejudice, violence, and neglect (Biswas, 2012).
In Afghanistan, many farmers have been forced to hand over their daughters because they are unable to repay drug lords for opium crop loans. These girls are called the “opium brides of Afghanistan” (Khan, 2012).
Japan is recognized as having one of the most significant human trafficking problems among the major industrialized democracies. As a part of this, Japan continues to be an international hub for the production and trafficking of child pornography (Picarelli, 2002).
In Nepal, gender discrimination fuels malnutrition in children less than 5 years of age. More than 29% are chronically malnourished, and girls are neglected because they are often thought not to need strength (Ministry of Health and Population, Nepal; New ERA; & ICF International Inc., 2012).
Many women from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka are working as domestic help; stories of long hours, abuse by employers, or nonpayment of wages are not uncommon (International Organisation for Migration, 2002).
Thailand is sometimes referred as the “Disneyland for Pedophiles.” It has up to 600,000 AIDS cases and a huge sex-for-sale industry, driven mostly by European and American male tourists. It is estimated that the number of prostitutes in Thailand ranges from 800,000 to 2 million, with 20% of prostitutes being 18 years old or younger. Most of the women working in the sex industry in Bangkok are from the northeastern part of Thailand, the poorest part of the country, where their parents may earn less than $5 a day. Ironically, many of these daughters can make $30 in less than an hour (Decker, McCauley, Phuengsamran, Janyam, & Silverman, 2010).
Europe
In Europe alone, officials estimate that more than 200,000 women and girls (one-quarter of all women trafficked globally) are smuggled out of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Republic each year. The bulk of these women end up working as enslaved prostitutes (Malarek, 2004).
In Malta, undocumented migrants from Africa seeking asylum are often placed in detention centers with inhumane conditions for extended periods of time even though the legal length of detention is limited to 18 months (HUMA, 2011).
The highest poverty rate in Europe is found in Romania where 25.5% of children are living below the poverty line (UNICEF, 2002; World Bank, 2001).
Thirty-five percent of the migrant population in Europe is at the risk of poverty or social exclusion compared to 20% of people who are still living where they were born (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2007).
The United Nations estimates that 2.5 million people in Europe are forced into labor at any given time as a result of sex trafficking (Holmes, 2008). Workers also are exploited in the international textile, food, and beverage industries. Dozens of suspected people traffickers have been arrested in Spain and France for forcibly smuggling Chinese migrants into Europe (Burridge, 2013).
Poverty among ethnic minorities, particularly the Roma (Gypsy) population, is an acute problem in Europe, particularly in Bulgaria and Romania. The Roma population in these countries represents the real “underclass”; they are excluded from the mainstream of society because of their ethnicity and status (World Bank, 2001).
Neglect and homelessness among children and young people have become alarming characteristics of Russian society. This social phenomenon is a consequence of the current socioeconomic and moral situation in Russia, which is engendered by complex factors behind the fall in living standards of a substantial part of the population (Andrienko & Guriev, 2003).
In the United Kingdom, babies with Down syndrome are about a quarter of the babies aborted yearly under the 1967 Abortion Act, which allows for abortion up to 40 weeks if the child is “seriously handicapped.” However, Down syndrome may not constitute a serious handicap (Fiano, 2013).
London is the most economically disparate city in the developed world, with the richest 10th of the population amassing 273 times the wealth owned by the bottom 10th, creating a “means chasm” not seen since the days of a slave-owning society (Dorling, 2010).
The first United Kingdom survey of homophobic crime and harassment revealed widespread incidents of homophobic physical assault, with 25% of those reporting such assaults needing medical treatment (Guasp, Gammon, & Ellison, 2013).
The Middle East
In the Middle East, Bedouin smugglers involved in people trafficking are believed to be preying on refugees and stealing their organs if they are unable to pay what is demanded by the smugglers. Organs are extracted from refugees' bodies when they are living (Pleitger & Fahmy, 2011).
The ongoing wars in Syria have caused its citizens a lifetime of tragedy. The United Nations recently reported that over 1 million Syrians are without food and shelter and cannot be helped due to lack of funds and access to violent combat zones. At least 100,000 Syrian citizens have been killed or tortured, and many thousands more have been forced to leave their homes (Heisbourg, 2015).
In Lebanon, the gap between rich and poor is increasing. Individuals who work in the public sector have much more privilege, longevity, and health than those in the private sector or those who are self-employed (Miles, 2002).
Many Iranian women who survived the Islamic Revolution have been forced into housewifery, required to wear the hijab, removed from public office, forced into polygamy, and have become second-class citizens in their own country (Bahramitash, 2001).
During the past 15 years, there has been significant child malnutrition in Iraq. This peaked during the mid-1990s largely due to sanctions on importing food and medicine. In 2006, about one-quarter of Iraqi children were chronically malnourished and many more were underweight (Iraq country profile, 2010; UNICEF, 2000, 2012b).
These inequalities from around the world are significant examples of contemporary social injustices. Many of these stories receive a great deal of media attention, but others are barely known outside of their specific context. It is apparent that despite the country or continent, social injustice is a function of a series of complex interrelated factors. For example, social injustice is oftentimes symbiotic with discrimination based on several characteristics including racial/ethnic background, religion, sexual orientation, and citizenship status. It is important to note that social injustice oftentimes is fueled by economic disparities. Whenever select individuals have a significant degree of accumulated wealth, the potential increases for exploitation or abuse of those who are less fortunate, who experience economic instability, or who have a lack of accumulated wealth.
In this review of the world's savage inequalities, there is much to say about exploitation based on age and gender as well. Social injustices often target the most vulnerable, which in many cases are women and children. From economic oppression to sexual exploitation, women and children appear to be among the most vulnerable of the world's citizens. Savage inequalities also are evident in the manner in which individuals from around the world are stigmatized. For a number of reasons, people become burdened with any number of potentially disempowering or stigmatizing labels, including “convict,” “mentally ill,” “disabled,” “illegal immigrant,” “gay,” “single mother,” “prostitute,” “addict,” or “poor.” These labels become disempowering when individuals internalize their meaning, that is, when the oppressed begins to believe in the ideology of the oppressor. Savage inequality is not limited to stigmatization and use of specific language, but these labels tend to fall on certain groups in unequal proportions.
Social injustices are inevitably created through policies and procedures that reflect the political status quo in many countries. It is often easier for governments to maintain a social order that exploits its citizens than to proactively address the economic, cultural, and social conditions that perpetuate many savage inequalities.
Social Injustice and a Symbol of Hope: The Story of Malala
The following narrative embodies many of the factors related to social injustice. However, the story is also a tale of hope.
Malala Yousafzai is a young Pakistani woman who dared to speak out about militant religious sanctions that banned girls from attending school in her region of that country. In 2012, when she was 15 years old, Malala was shot in the head and neck in an assassination attempt by Taliban gunmen while returning home on a school bus. She survived this attempt and continued to voice her opposition to the educational oppression of girls in her country and beyond. The assassination attempt sparked an international outpouring of support for Malala. A United Nations petition was launched in Malala's name, using the slogan “I am Malala” and demanding that all children worldwide be in school by the end of 2015. Malala began to speak out against the Taliban's stand against education for girls when she was 11 years old, and she has shown the world that there is no age limit for standing up against social injustice.
The Context for Social Injustice
A review of the global magnitude of social injustice suggests that savage inequalities inherent among the world's population result from an abuse of both power and privilege. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around him- or herself, as well as to control the behavior or environment of other people. Privilege results from having social, political, economic, or cultural advantages that equate to dominance in a society. In most instances, these advantages are unearned; they are innate and often come as birthrights. Such innate advantages come with race/ethnic background, language, sexual orientation, gender, ability status, religion, and socioeconomic status.
