Table of Contents
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
Usage Rules:
Disclaimer:
Limitation of Liability:
General:
PREFACE
List of Contributors
History of Coronaviruses
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ORIGIN
Animal Origin
SARS-CoV
MERS-CoV
SARS-CoV-2
Community-acquired HCoVs
Interspecies Transmission
Endemic Origin
SARS-CoV
MERS-CoV
SARS-CoV-2
NOMENCLATURE
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIANTS
Alpha Variant
Beta Variant
Gamma Variant
Delta Variant
Omicron Variant
Variants of Concern (VOC)
Variants of Interest (VOI)
Variants Being Monitored (VBM)
Variants of High Consequence (VOHC)
TYPES OF CORONAVIRUSES
HCoV-229E
HCoV-NL63
HCoV-OC43
HKU1 (beta-coronavirus)
MERS-CoV
SARS-CoV
SARS-CoV-2
GENOMIC EVOLUTION
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF CORONAVIRUS SPIKE PROTEIN
CONCLUSION
TAKE-HOME MESSAGES
What you will learn
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
References
Epidemiology of Coronavirus
Abstract
INTRODUCTION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CORONAVIRUS
ETIOLOGY OF CORONAVIRUS
ORIGIN/DISEASE BACKGROUND
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF CORONAVIRUS
Variants of Coronavirus
Risk Factors
TRANSMISSION
Transmissibility of SARS-CoV2
Transmission Routes
Respiratory Transmission
Faecal-oral Route of Transmission
Vertical Route of Transmission
Sexual Route of Transmission
Ocular Route of Transmission
Incubation Period and Serial Interval
Period of Infectivity / Infectious Period
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS AND SEVERITY OF THE DISEASE
Asymptomatic Cases
Mild Cases
Moderate Cases
Severe Cases
CASE FATALITY RATE
Based on Gender
Based on the Age Factor
CONCLUSION
Take-home Message
What you will learn
List of abbreviations
References
Replication and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses
Abstract
Introduction
Genomic Organisation of SARS-CoV-2
Structural Proteins of the SARS-CoV-2
Spike Protein
Envelope Protein
Membrane Protein
N Protein
Replication of SARS-CoV-2 Genome
Entry of Coronavirus inside the Host Cell
SARS-CoV-2 Infection via CD16 Receptor
SARS-CoV-2 Replicates inside the Macrophages in the Human Lungs
Genome Multiplication
Viral Assembly and Release
The SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis
Direct Cytopathic Effect of SARS-CoV-2
Initiation of Innate Immune Response
Adaptive Immune Response
SARS-CoV-2 Activates Inflammasomes
Hypercytokinemia and Organ Damage
Renin-angiotensin System in COVID-19
Conclusion
Summary
References
Transmission Cycle of SARS-CoV-2
Abstract
Introduction
Transmission Cycle
Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 entry into the human cell
Modes of Transmission
Animal-to-Human Transmission
Human-to-Human Transmission
Horizontal Transmission
Fomite Transmission
Oral-Fecal Route of Transmission
Nosocomial Transmission
Environmental Transmission
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Weather-related Parameters
Preventive Measures to Combat Transmission
Conclusion
Take home message
References
Symptoms and Diagnostic Techniques of COVID-19
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Asymptomatic Illness
Moderate Illness
Severe Illness
Critical Illness
Other Symptoms
Neurological Symptoms
Olfactory and Gustatory Dysfunction
Altered Mental Status/confusion/delirium
Myalgia
Cerebrovascular Diseases
Stroke
Cerebral Venous (sinus) Thrombosis
Encephalitis, Meninges-encephalitis, and Meningitis
Acute Myelitis
Gastrointestinal Manifestations
Myocardial Symptoms
Renal Manifestations
Hepatobiliary Manifestations
Diagnostic Techniques for COVID-19
Computed Tomography
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test
Reverse Transcriptase Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR)
Reverse Transcription loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP)
CRISPR-based Diagnosis
Cartridge-based Nucleic acid Amplification Test (CBNAAT)
TruNat
Serological Assays
Lateral Flow Immunoassay
Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay (CLIA)
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay for Testing SARS-CoV-2 Specific Antibody
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay for Testing Serum SARS-CoV-2 N Antigen
Discussion
Conclusion
What you will learn
References
Treatment Options for COVID-19 Infected Patients
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Important Targets for Pharmaceutical Treatment
Treatment Strategies
Pharmacological Interventions
Antiviral Drugs
Convalescent Plasma Therapy
Monoclonal Antibody Therapy
Immunomodulator Therapy
CRISPR-Cas13 Therapy
Vaccines
Non-Pharmacological Interventions
Challenges Associated with Various Treatments
Take Home Message
CONCLUSION
What You Will Learn
References
Challenges Posed by COVID-19
Abstract
Introduction
Challenge: Mental Health of Healthcare Workers
Risk Factors Associated with Challenges Related to Mental Health Due to COVID-19 Outbreak
Infomania
Restriction Measures
Changes in Daily Habits
Current or Past Medical History-
Challenge: Vaccine
Major Hurdles in Vaccine Development against Global COVID-19 Pandemic
Lack of Proper Funds
Time is a Barrier
Emergence/Evolution of Variants of Concern (VOCs)
Vaccine Equity
Different Vaccine Delivery Platforms
Challenge: COVID-19 Diagnosis
Factors Interfering Diagnosis of COVID-19
Unavailability of Effective Diagnostic Tool
Specialized Laboratory Settings
False Results
Sampling Error
Shortage of kits/limited Supply of the Reagents
Challenge: Identification of Potential of Drug Candidates Against COVID-19
Why Drug Discovery is a Challenge?
Mandatory Clinical Trials
Drug Designing Approaches
Lack of Host-targeting agents (HTAs) and Anti-viral Resistance
COVID-19 Complexities
Cost and Risk
Challenge: Antimicrobial Resistance
Factors Responsible for the rise in AMR Due to COVID-19 Pandemic
High Rate of Antimicrobial Utilization
Disruption of Healthcare
Antibiotic Availability
Challenge: Economical Burden
Blockades Choking Global Economy Unemployment
Travel Restrictions
Impact on other Sectors
Challenge: High morbidity and Mortality
Risk Factors Resulting in Higher Morbidity and Mortality Rates
Age
Gender
Co-morbidities: (Bacterial co-infection, viral co-infection, and non-communicable diseases)
The Co-morbidities Associated with Severity and Greater Mortality during COVID-19 Pandemic
Obesity
Hypertension
Diabetes
Bacterial/Viral co-infection
COVID-19 Vaccination
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Resilience, Rest and Recover
Vaccination Drives
Multivalent Vaccine
Private-public Collaborations
Monitoring Approaches
Drug Repurposing
Point-of-care Diagnostic Devices/standardization of New Protocols for Better Diagnostic Approaches
References
The Impact of COVID-19 on the Economy and Roadblocks to Recovery
Abstract
COVID-19 infection
Statistics of COVID-19- Morbidity, Mortality
The Overall Impact of Covid-19
Impact of COVID-19 on Macroeconomics and Macroeconomics
Manufacturing
Employment
Travel
Economic activities
Response to the impact of COVID-19 on Macroeconomics and Microeconomies by authorities
Impact of COVID-19 at an Individual Level
What you will Learn
References
AI-Based Diagnosis of Novel Coronavirus Using Radiograph Images
Abstract
Introduction
COVID 19- Etiology, Clinical Imaging, and Prognosis
Chest Imaging
Ground-glass opacity (GGO)
Peripheral or posterior distribution
Crazy-paving appearance
Air bronchograms
Fibrous lesions
Halo sign
Computational Diagnosis for COVID-19
Techniques Used in Diagnosis of Covid 19
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test
Serological tests
Biosensors
Radiology Imaging
Microfluidic approach
ML based Approaches [35]
Role of ML in COVID-19 Diagnosis
Circumstantial Use of ML
Patient Diagnosis through Radiology Images
Tracking of COVID-19
Tracking Patient Health Condition
Use of ML in Vaccine and Drug Development
ML Algorithms Used to Combat COVID-19
Decision tree
Random Forest
Naive Bayes
Support vector machine
k-Nearest-Neighbor (KNN)
Gradient-boosted Decision Tree (GBDT)
Logistic regression
Artificial Neural Network
Different Models and Networks of ML Used in COVID-19 Diagnosis
LR Model
XGBoost Model
Boosted RF Model
Deep Forest Model
Truncated Inception Net
CASE STUDIES
CASE I
CASE II
CASE III
CASE IV
CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
TAKE AWAY HOME MESSAGE
CONCLUSION
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN
REFERENCES
Use of Machine Learning in Diagnosing COVID-19 Infection
Abstract
Introduction
Role of Modern techniques in the diagnosis of COVID-19
Nucleic acid Amplification Tests
Serological Tests
Biosensors
Radiology Imaging
Microfluidic Approach
ML based Approaches
ML and its role in COVID-19 Diagnosis
Circumstantial use of ML
Patient Diagnosis Through Radiology Images
Tracking of COVID-19
Tracking Patient Health Condition
Use of ML in Vaccine and Drug Development
ML Algorithms used to Combat COVID-19
Decision tree
Random forest
Naive Bayes
Support Vector Machine
k-Nearest-Neighbor (KNN)
Gradient-boosted Decision Tree (GBDT)
Logistic Regression
Artificial Neural Network
Different Models and Networks of ML used in COVID-19 Diagnosis
LR Model
XGBoost Model
Boosted RF Model
Deep Forest Model
Truncated Inception Net
Case Studies
CASE I
CASE II
CASE III
CASE IV
Challenges and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Future Technologies for Coronaviruses (COVID-19)
Abstract
Exploration of Robotics in Pandemic Mitigation Strategies
Integration of Robotics in Combating Coronaviruses
Robotics Techniques and Tools
Cough recognition network (CRN)
Automated AMBU Ventilator
Autonomous Robotic Point-of-Care Ultrasound Imaging for Monitoring of COVID–19–Induced Pulmonary Diseases
Robot-Assisted Ultraviolet (UV) Disinfection in Radiology
Robotic-assisted Surgery for Autopsy
Ultrasound Scanning Robot
Medical Telerobotic Systems
Drones Redefining Pandemic Surveillance and Response
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Technological Advancements in Drones to Combat COVID-19
BLOCKCHAIN
Wearable Sensing
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Edge-Computing-Based Drone Technology
Genetic Engineering at the Forefront: CRISPR-Cas, Gene Therapy, RNAi
CRISPR/Cas9
Diagnosis and Therapy
RNAi
Gene Therapy
Repurposed Drugs
Precision Pandemic Intervention through Advanced Nanotechnology Applications
Nanoparticles to Combat COV19/SARSCOV2
Vaccine Delivery Methods via Nanocarriers
Future Prospect
Conclusion
Take home message
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN
References
COVID-19: Causes, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Edited by
Mohammad Sufian Badar
Department of Bioengineering, University of California
Riverside, CA, USA
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. If you do not agree to these terms and conditions then you should not use the Work.
Bentham Science Publishers agrees to grant you a non-exclusive, non-transferable limited license to use the Work subject to and in accordance with the following terms and conditions. This License Agreement is for non-library, personal use only. For a library / institutional / multi user license in respect of the Work, please contact: [email protected].
Usage Rules:
All rights reserved: The Work is the subject of copyright and Bentham Science Publishers either owns the Work (and the copyright in it) or is licensed to distribute the Work. You shall not copy, reproduce, modify, remove, delete, augment, add to, publish, transmit, sell, resell, create derivative works from, or in any way exploit the Work or make the Work available for others to do any of the same, in any form or by any means, in whole or in part, in each case without the prior written permission of Bentham Science Publishers, unless stated otherwise in this License Agreement.You may download a copy of the Work on one occasion to one personal computer (including tablet, laptop, desktop, or other such devices). You may make one back-up copy of the Work to avoid losing it.The unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted or other proprietary content is illegal and could subject you to liability for substantial money damages. You will be liable for any damage resulting from your misuse of the Work or any violation of this License Agreement, including any infringement by you of copyrights or proprietary rights.
Disclaimer:
Bentham Science Publishers does not guarantee that the information in the Work is error-free, or warrant that it will meet your requirements or that access to the Work will be uninterrupted or error-free. The Work is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or implied or statutory, including, without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the results and performance of the Work is assumed by you. No responsibility is assumed by Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction, advertisements or ideas contained in the Work.
Limitation of Liability:
In no event will Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors, be liable for any damages, including, without limitation, special, incidental and/or consequential damages and/or damages for lost data and/or profits arising out of (whether directly or indirectly) the use or inability to use the Work. The entire liability of Bentham Science Publishers shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the Work.
General:
Any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims) will be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of Singapore. Each party agrees that the courts of the state of Singapore shall have exclusive jurisdiction to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims).Your rights under this License Agreement will automatically terminate without notice and without the need for a court order if at any point you breach any terms of this License Agreement. In no event will any delay or failure by Bentham Science Publishers in enforcing your compliance with this License Agreement constitute a waiver of any of its rights.You acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, and agree to be bound by its terms and conditions. To the extent that any other terms and conditions presented on any website of Bentham Science Publishers conflict with, or are inconsistent with, the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement, you acknowledge that the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement shall prevail.
Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd.
80 Robinson Road #02-00
Singapore 068898
Singapore
Email: [email protected]
PREFACE
Since the ongoing pandemic has affected every individual, we need a book that is simple, precise, and easy to comprehend. I feel that very few books are available in the market aimed at the common person. Most books are written for college-going students, academicians, or researchers. This book covers all the aspects required to understand the present situation.
Generally, books are written for students, academicians, or researchers. However, this book is intended for the ordinary person to raise awareness. Therefore, it is written in a way that is coherent and understandable to the average person. Furthermore, the chapters' names and the contents' language are straightforward.
As we have already mentioned, the primary audience is the general masses. This book is written to include the role of all emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, for predicting and diagnosing COVID-19 infection. Therefore, this book takes care of the primary and secondary audiences, without compromising the need and availability of the required material.
Since the primary audience is the general masses, we need to design the content so they can understand it easily and not lose interest. Readers will also learn all they need to know about emerging technologies (Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain), so they can understand how these technologies can be used to diagnose and fight COVID-19. Due to this coherency, the reader goes to a higher level of understanding without realizing it.
Three key features:
1. Generally, books are written for students, academicians, and researchers. This is the only book written based on the needs of the general masses of the population. Since this pandemic has affected every strata of society, many people want to learn more about the causative Coronaviruses, the viral agent that causes this disease. For that, they will need to learn about the basics of cause, epidemiology, pathogenicity, transmission, diagnosis, treatment, and challenges. The above-mentioned characteristics are explained in detail in the first few chapters.
2. The book is organized in a way that the reader acquires knowledge from basic to advanced levels. After learning about the biology of the coronaviruses, readers will learn how Machine Learning, a common buzzword that everyone uses, is used to diagnose and fight COVID-19 infection. This book will also discuss the challenges we face in using these technologies to carry out such a task.
3. Along with Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) can also be used in the fight against COVID-19. This book will also use Blockchain technology to find and control the socioeconomic and educational post-pandemic impacts of COVID-19.
Mohammad Sufian Badar
Department of Bioengineering, University of California
Riverside, CA, USA
List of Contributors
Aisha IdrisDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAreeba KhanDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAliaDepartment of Computer Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, IndiaAnkita PatiDepartment of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAhmad Masroor KarimiClinical Oncology, South West Wales Cancer Centre, Swansea Bay University Health Board, Swansea, UKAnam MursaleenDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAsrar Ahmad MalikDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAamir NehalConsultant Physiotherapist, Bank Road, Motihari, Bihar, IndiaAbul Kalam NajmiDepartment of Pharmacology, SPER, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaAzfar KamalPostgraduate Diploma in Orthopedics, Senior Consultant, District Hospital, Sambhal, IndiaBipasa KarBioinformatics Division, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Odisha, IndiaBudheswar DehuryBioinformatics Division, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Odisha, IndiaBarka BasharatDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, IndiaFaiz Akram SiddiquiAIIMS, New Delhi, IndiaFahim AhmadDepartment of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USAFaiyaz AhmadMadhubani Medical College & Hospital (MMCH), Madhubani, Bihar, IndiaFarheen AsafMax Super Speciality Hospital, New Delhi, IndiaHarsha NegiDepartment of Pharmacology, SPER, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaHimanshu DagarDepartment of Computer Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, IndiaIbtesaam HafeezDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaImtshan NawazDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaJunaid AlamDivision of Trauma Surgery & Critical Care, AIIMS Jai Prakash Narayan Apex Trauma Center, New Delhi, IndiaJavaid Ahmad SheikhDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaKamakshi SrivastavaDepartment of Computer Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, IndiaK. Shruti LekhaSOA University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, IndiaLabeebah Rizwan BadarBadar Medical Centre, New Delhi, IndiaMd MustafaDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaMohammad Sufian BadarDepartment of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
Director (Academic), SPI Darbhanga, India
Department of Computer Science and Engineering (Bioinformatics), School of Engineering Sciences and Technology (SEST), Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaMd Anzar AlamDepartment of Medicine (Moalajat), SUMER, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaMairaj Ahmed AnsariDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaM. AnjuDepartment of Bioscience and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kerala, IndiaNadeem Zafar JilanDepartment of Pediatric Emergency, Sidra Medicine, Ar-Rayyan, QatarNushrat JahanDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaOnaiza AnsariDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaPunit KaurAIIMS, New Delhi, IndiaRavindra KumarDiwan of Royal Court, , Muscat, Sultanate of OmanSadia SabaDepartment of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, USASarbani MishraBioinformatics Division, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Odisha, IndiaShamim Ahmed ShamimDepartment of Nuclear Medicine, AIIMS, New Delhi, IndiaTahira KhanDepartment of Pharmacology, SPER, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaUmme Hania IrfanDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaVivas SalimDepartment of Bioscience and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kerala, IndiaWaseem AliDepartment of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaZaid Hussain SiddiqueDepartment of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, IndiaZara KhanDepartment of Computer Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
History of Coronaviruses
Mohammad Sufian Badar1,2,3,4,*,Umme Hania Irfan5,Zaid Hussain Siddique5,Ahmad Masroor Karimi6,Mairaj Ahmed Ansari5,Fahim Ahmad7,Faiyaz Ahmad8
1 Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
2 Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
3 Director (Academic), SPI Darbhanga, India
4 Department of Computer Science and Engineering (Bioinformatics), School of Engineering Sciences and Technology (SEST), Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
5 Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
6 Clinical Oncology, South West Wales Cancer Centre, Swansea Bay University Health Board, Swansea, UK
7 Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
8 Madhubani Medical College & Hospital (MMCH), Madhubani, Bihar, India
Abstract
Over the past two decades, coronavirus-associated diseases such as SARS and MERS have challenged the public health systems globally. Around 2002-2003, a near-pandemic of a previously unknown β-coronavirus, named SARS-CoV, arose in China and 29 other countries. Not much attention was paid to it post-disappearance of this outbreak. An understanding of the coronavirus began only after alarming predictions of the virus’s re-emergence began in 2007. Identification from previous studies revealed that bats have proven to be a major reservoir of animal coronavirus. SARS-related bat coronaviruses have all the essential components of SARS-virus, have along with similar genome sequences to that of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, and thus, are able to cause infection and transmit between humans directly. Later in 2012, another unknown β-coronavirus named Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), with close relation to the SARS-CoV, caused an epidemic limited to the Middle-East. The emergence of yet another bat-origin coronavirus, α-coronavirus, in China caused epizootic disease in pigs, thus named swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV). Subsequently, unattended warnings of 12 years led to the most fatal bat-derived sarbecovirus, recognized as SARS CoV-2, springing up in November 2019, sweeping the globe. The predictions of SARS-CoV-2 to be a natural event with association to transmission directly from bats to humans or through an intermediate host have been essentially proven to be true. SARS-Cov-2 shares genetic properties with many other sarbecoviruses; this slies fully within their genetic cluster and is, thus, a naturally emerged virus.
Based on the genomic structure coronavirus is mainly divided into four subgroups alpha, beta, gamma, and delta.
CoVs are fall under the family Coronaviridae, and subfamily Orthocoronavirinae. The virus is protected by receptor binding domain (RBD) that binds to ACE2 receptor found in kidneys, lungs, heart and gastrointestinal tract, which that promote viral entry into target cells.
Domestic animals can act as intermediary hosts in the transmission of viruses from natural hosts to people. Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea CoV(PEDC), which originated in pigs, was found to be similar to SADS-CoV. It has been transferred from bats to pigs. SADS-CoV was first found in rhinolophids or horseshoe bat, before the SARS epidemic Recombination of bat SARSr-CoVs, or recombined virus, infected and adapted to civets and humans. MERS-CoV is a zoonotic virus. It was transferred from dromedary camels to humans. The first confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-like viruses were found in raccoon dogs in live animal markets and palm civets. Another bat coronavirus, CoV RaTG13, was isolated from the Rhinolophus affinis bats.
Corona variants are classified into variants of concern (VOCS), variants of interest (VOI), variants of high consequence (VOHC), and variants being monitored (VBM).
Some common coronaviruses of human are 229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1, which infect the upper-respiratory tract.
Keywords: ACE2 receptor, A570Y, ARCoV-2, APN, AIBV, BALF, CTD, CEACAM1, CoV-HKU5 strains, D614G, DPP4, Fatal pneumonia, GISAID, HCoV, HKU1, HCoV-OC43, MERS-CoV, NL63, N5014, Nsp, NTD, Orthocoronavirinae, Orf1a, PL-pro, PEPV, RaTG13, Rf4092, RBd, SARS-CoV-2, Spike (S1), SARS-CoV, SADS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, SARsr-CoVs, TMPRSS2, TCOV(TECoV), TGEV, VOI, VBM, VOCs, VOHC, WIV16.
*Corresponding author Mohammad Sufian Badar: Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA; E-mail:
[email protected]
