COVID-19: Epidemiology, Biochemistry, and Diagnostics E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19): A Perspective of New Scenario
- Sprache: Englisch
COVID-19: Epidemiology, Biochemistry, and Diagnostics explains COVID-19 from multidisciplinary angles such as the evolution of SARS-COV, genetic techniques to study the virus, and diagnostic methodologies widely used in the global COVID-19 pandemic.
The chapters in this book provide the reader with up-to-date literature about research on SARS-CoV-2 through three parts:
I) Evolution and Entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the host
II) Genetic Alteration and Structural Determination of SARS-CoV-2 Proteins
III) Quantitative Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 for research and medical diagnosis
Key Features:
- 15 chapters on SAR-CoV-2 in a multidisciplinary context
- Provides a comprehensive overview of SARS-CoV-2 evolution and genetics
- Provides biochemical information about SARS-CoV-2 proteins and receptor targets (both structural and non-structural proteins)
- Includes an overview of several methods of detecting SARS-CoV-2 virus particles (ELISA, PCR, Neutralizing Antibodies
- Covers some critical diagnostic modalities for COVID-19 diagnosis
- Provides bibliographic references for further reading
Readers will understand the significance of phylogenetic analysis of coronaviruses, along with the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and related diseases such as SARS and MERS. Applications of biochemical technologies such as RT-PCR and CRISPR are also demonstrated in the text. This book is a comprehensive introduction to COVID-19 research for medical researchers, microbiologists and virologists. Students in academic programs in life sciences and medicine will also benefit from the information provided in the book.
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Seitenzahl: 818
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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FOREWORD
The connection between human health, animals, and the environment has been widely recognized as important for the ecosystem we inherit and intend to improve for the generations to come. This of course is not a responsibility of a region or a country, rather its responsibility of all of us. Efforts have to be collaborative and transboundary in approach. Of the many types of challenges, respiratory diseases have emerged as a real threat in the recent past. Scientists have been working to reduce their load and easily spread it from animals to human beings. Newly emerging respiratory diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) posing a serious threat to the human population and reported in the year 2003, 2012, and 2019, respectively.
This book is very relevant in this connection. The volume-1 of this book consists of three key modules. The first module provides clearly defined progression and entry of SARS-CoV-2 to the human population. The learning outcomes of this module are developing knowledge, skills, and competencies in scientists, students, employers, and human resource specialists. The other modules of this book focus on developing a detailed set of guidelines regarding epidemiology, genetic alteration, a structural protein, quantitative analysis, and diagnostic approaches of SARS-CoV-2 and will give step-by-step awareness to the researchers about SARS-CoV-2. This book will be adopted to give reliable knowledge to all scientists globally. I hope that this book will be distributed widely in Pakistani higher institutions in the near future for thorough implementation at all levels of postgraduate studies.
PREFACE
Since the outbreak of novel coronavirus (CoVs), the first patient was related to seafood in Wuhan city, Hubei Province, China, on 12th December 2019. A new type of coronavirus was found in the patient's sample having pneumonia-like signs and symptoms via unbiased high-throughput sequencing. This new coronavirus was found in the patient's epithelial cell, which falls in the subgenus of the Sabevirus of the subfamily Coronavirus. Later, on 11th February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially announced and named "Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19)" and the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses named it severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). This virus is different from the previous isolated Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) which is the seventh one that can infect humans. SARS-CoV-2 spread rapidly and infected many of the population in Wuhan city then to other territories of China epidemically and abruptly abroad. Due to pandemic occurrence, on 31st January 2020, the WHO declared as "Global Health Emergency" as there is no effective drug and/or vaccine available for this infection till now. According to WHO and InfoGraphics CNA 31st March, there are 786,228 confirmed cases, 37,820 reported deaths, and 166,041 recovers from COVID-19. In the current scenario, the United States of America, Italy, and Spain are the most affected countries globally due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which is increasing day-by-day globally.
With this book proposal, we consolidate the various evolutionary domains, genetic techniques, and diagnostic methodologies widely used in the global emergency of COVID-19. Since SARS-CoV-2 is the closest to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, the approaches brought here will be similar and/or varying with a slight degree. It is cleared that in the last 17-18 years, this is the third outbreak of the same coronavirus with a small mutation that shock the whole world. The chapters in this book should be prioritized as up-to-date literature of techniques used in the study SARS-CoV-2 and will act as a suitable reference if any such wary appear soon.
The 1st volume of the proposed book proposal has been classified into three parts: Part I: Evolution and Entry of SARS-CoV-2, Part II: Genetic Alteration and Structural Determination of SARS-CoV-2 Proteins, and Part III: Quantitation Analysis of SARS-CoV-2.
With the emergence of new coronavirus variants, epidemiology, different host tropism permits a thorough analysis of their evolution and acquired adaptability to their host. Thus in Part I, we start the book with chapters' dealing with evolutionary epidemiology, evolutionary adaptation and genetics, and its entrance pathways. To keep in mind how the virus enters a host cell to provoke an infection is essential to design techniques to avoid it. Furthermore, chapters describing various methodologies regarding SARS-CoV-2 entrance pathways and characterizing the important proteins employed by the virus to achieve. In part II, a critical analysis of the virus involves the potential to mutate its genome by opposite genetics and to get better recombinant viruses with described mutations. Such processes will help study the capabilities of particular genes and their effects on virus survival and pathogenesis. These strategies can help determine checkpoints inside the virus genome growth and proliferation that give therapeutics strategies. We also added to know the biochemical characterization of spike glycoprotein and structural elucidation of viral proteins of SARS-CoV-2. Due to the emergence of COVID-19, a possible available diagnostic tool is employed in the medical setting to identify this virus and further prevent the infection. In part III, we added a chapter that helps detect antigen via virus loaded using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) based techniques. To measure host immune parameters, techniques such as microneutralization, pseudovirus neutralization assay, and COVID-19 specific antibodies using ELISA chapters are presented. The second last chapter is given to know the lung's condition via CT scan. In contrast, the last chapter describes the nucleic acid-based assays for COVID-19, which is a more precise and sophisticated technique.
This book will appear as a baseline for academicians, scientists, and health professionals as still, research will overcome this outbreak of COVID-19 and find effective diagnostic techniques. However, just a single book proposal like this wouldn't have flourished without enthusiasm and determined publishers' and investigators' strength to take time from their busy schedule and subsidize on time. We thank the whole investigators who contributed, directly and indirectly, to bring it to reality.
List of Contributors
Part I: Evolution and Entry of SARS-CoV-2
Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID- 19) Epidemiology
Ihtisham Ulhaq1,Abdul Basit2,Ijaz Ali1,Firasat Hussain3,Zahid Ali1,Faisal Siddique3,Haroon Ahmed1,Amjad Islam Aqib4,Kashif Rahim3,*Abstract
At the end of December 2019, patients were diagnosed with a pneumonia-like infection in the Wuhan wholesale market of seafood, Hubei Province, China. Laboratory diagnosis revealed a novel coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), that causes coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Initially, the novel virus was reported in bats. Due to the highly contagious nature of pathogens and the susceptibility of every human the virus spread rapidly across China then Globally. Respiratory droplets of infected patients played a significant role in the transmission of COVID-19 from human to human. Wuhan being a transport hub, and the crowd of people during New Chinese Year played a considerable role in the virus spread across the country. In link with earlier coronaviruses, the SARS-CoV-2 was noticed with a more contagious nature, and it quickly spread throughout the world. It was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 12, 2020. In March 2021, the spread of infection decreased in China but increased globally, mainly in Europe. In April 2020, the disease burden increased in the USA. Till April 17 2020, China reported 84,149 cases with 4642 deaths, while worldwide cases reached 2,074,5279 with 139378 deaths. Europe reported confirmed cases 1,050,871 with 93,480 deaths, 743,607 patients in USA regions, Western Pacific regions with 127,595 patients, Eastern Mediterranean Regions reached 115,824 cases, and South-East Asia Regions reported 23,560 cases while African regions had 12,360 cases. The below figure illustrates the analysis of the epidemiological studies of COVID-19 (Fig. 1).
INTRODUCTION
A patient with respiratory signs and symptoms was diagnosed in Wuhan city, Hubei Province, China at the end of December 2019 [1]. The patients were diagnosed having pneumonia infection-like symptoms. Still, after genomic analysis by next-generation sequence (NGS) and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of the throat, samples revealed a pathogen like a coronavirus [2]. Hence a novel coronavirus was identified and initially named novel coronavirus-2019 (nCOV-19) by World Health Organization (WHO) on January 7, 2020 [1, 3]. However, because of genetic similarity with previous SARS-CoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus), the nCoV-19 was renamed as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) [4]. The disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 was officially named coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) by WHO on February 11, 2020 [5]. The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) appeared to be more pathogenic in comparison with other coronaviruses, till January 2nd, 2020, it affected 42 individuals in China [6]. On January 13, 2020, the first COVID-19 disease case was reported in Thailand, which was the first case outside China [7]. First death due to COVID-19 disease outside China was reported in the Philippines [8]. The COVID-19 disease affects the human's respiratory tract, and disease symptoms include fever, cough, flu, sneezing, and fatigue. In contrast, the production of sputum, lymphopenia, dyspnoea, and diarrhea is observed in severe clinical conditions of patients [6, 9-11]. Additionally, the other severe symptoms include acute kidney failure, dysfunction of various organs, and even mental confusion is also expected [12]. The COVID-19 disease incubation period is almost two weeks [13], with a median of 4-5 days [14, 15]. However, the incubation period fluctuates in proportion to the patient's age, immune status and shorter old patients younger than 70 years [16]. The COVID-19 emergence in China was then rapidly expanded to various provinces and later to the globe, resulting in the declaration of a pandemic on March 12 2020 by the WHO [17]. Because of the highly contagious nature of SARS-CoV-2, non-availability of vaccines and antiviral drugs COVID-19 disease rapidly and as of April 7 2020, the disease affected 1,349,660 people worldwide in more than 190 countries with almost 74,816 deaths [18].
Fig. (1)) Graphical abstract of the spread of Coronavirus.Besides humans, coronaviruses are also reported to infect other animals, including birds and fishes [19]. So far, three different human pathogenic coronaviruses are reported. The first two had caused minor outbreaks; however, SARS-CoV-2 had become the basis for the notoriety of the coronaviruses in the scientific community [20]. The International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses established the family of Coronaviridae in 1975 [21]. Among RNA viruses, the most giant virus is coronavirus [22]. The coronaviruses are non-segmented enveloped viruses with a genome of positive-sense RNA, belong to the Coronaviridae family, and are classified into an order of Nidovirales [23]. Among Nidovirales order, the most prominent family is Coronaviridae which comprises two subfamilies, Orthocoronavirinae and Letovirinae [24]. The Orthocoronavirinae family accommodated four genera. Two genera are instigated in birds, such as deltacoronavirus and gammacoronavirus while the other two were found in mammals that are alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus [24]. The members of betacoronavirus have got the zoonotic potential that essentially infects bats, camels, and humans [25-28]. The size of the betacoronaviruses is about 60-140 nm in diameter with round shape manifestation. The genome ranges from 26 to 32-kilobases in size that encodes both structural and non-structural proteins [29-31]. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA isolated from Wuhan patients entirely consists of almost 29844-29891 coding nucleotides while lacking the gene of hemagglutinin-esterase [23]. Lipids and proteins form the virus's envelope with a function to protect the nucleocapsid [32]. The viral genome and capsid are collectively known as the nucleocapsid. The envelope, capsid, and structural proteins ensure virus protection in the environment [33]. The coronavirus nucleocapsid is helical in symmetry. It is only thought to be present in negative-sense RNA and exceptional in the genome of positive-sense RNA viruses [20]. The coronavirus represents the crown (crown shape structure was observed under an electron microscope), spike glycoproteins give around, and pleiomorphic exterior forms like a crown to the virus [20]. Spikes protrusions of the coronaviruses are considered an essential characteristic prompting the coronavirus name [34]. Additionally, spikes glycoproteins of coronaviruses also play a role in the recognition and binding to host cell receptors during entry for replication and survival [35]. Two subunits are found in the spike proteins, the SI unit containing the receptor binding domain while the S2 domain is linked with the viral envelope [36].
SARS-CoV-2 was found to be novel betacoronavirus and genetically more parallel to SARS coronavirus than MERS coronavirus [37, 38]. SARS coronavirus and SARS coronavirus-2, both coronary viruses, used a similar cellular receptor in humans that is an angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2) while binding at the cell surface [36, 39]. However, the SARS-CoV-2 binds more weakly in comparison to SARS-CoV [37]. COVID-19 disease consequently causes alarming situations worldwide that pose a cluster of questions for the scientific community. Itinquired contemporaneous exploration of epidemiological studies such as the origin of the emerging coronavirus, its nature, mode and routes of transmission, host susceptibilities, and epidemic situations throughout the world. It also needs the purpose of valid and utmost awareness concerning circumstances and updates intercessions. The purpose of this comprehensive study was to report the updated epidemiological factors regarding COVID-19 to deduce all valuable tall parameters to fill gaps primarily.
Origin of SARS-CoV-2
Emergence and re-emergence of viral infectious diseases occur periodically in various countries globally, and some are moderate. At the same time, many are life-threatening, posing severe clinical conditions [40]. The sudden and unusual outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 representing impulsive nature were started at the end of 2019 [1] with the deficiency of deliberate and consistent epidemiological studies to summarize the SARS-CoV-2 source decisively. The SARS-CoV-2 source has remained a hot topic of great discussion after initial reports of pneumonia-like infections with unknown etiology [41]. Meanwhile, analyzing the risk factors and other associated features of the hospital enrolled infected patients, they were revealed to have epidemiologically associated with supermarkets and exposed them to seafood and wet animals [42]. Mammals include rodents and bats, had been an origin of the previous human pathogenic coronaviruses [43]. Retrospectively, SARS-CoV, which was reported in 2002, Guangdong Province, China, a wide variety of wild and domestic animals were examined to trace the virus origin. The most likely animals involved in virus transmission were raccoon dogs and Himalayan palm civets [44]. Unpredictably, genetically similar coronavirus to SARS-CoV was identified in bats [45, 46]. After a decade of SARS-CoV outbreak, another coronavirus Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), emerged in KSA (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). The disease signs and symptoms were similar to the SARS CoV [47]. However, without any past exposure history and serological evidence, the disease initiated the keen hunt for suspected animal origin [25, 47-49].
Primarily bats were considered as the origin of the MERS-CoV. However, after a brief analysis of suspected animals, the camels were also identified as host MERS-CoV along with bats [50]. About 90% of the camels are found with the MERS-CoV in the Middle East regions [51]. Recently, SARS-CoV-2 emerged in China with an unknown origin; however, the affected people had an association epidemiologically with seafood and wet animals in the wholesale market, indicating zoonotic origin [52, 53]. During early investigations, genomic analysis of various patient specimens revealed 99.9% genomic similarity among them, giving the clue of a very new host genetic shift into patients [9, 39]. Like the other two previous coronaviruses, such as SARS and MERS, those animals of the market were postulated as an intermediate host between virus and human, even though the particular animal is still not identified [6]. The zoonotic origin of SARS-CoV-2 was predicted from the exposure of the infected population to the live animals in the wholesale market of Wuhan [42].
The exact origin and location of SARS-CoV-2 is still unexplored. Yet, bats were suggested as culprits due to genomic sequence similarity of SARS-CoV-2 to the other coronaviruses. SARS-CoV-2was isolated from bats [54] during the serological investigations of other animals with direct or indirect links with the affected patients. It is thought that after escaping from origin (bats), SARS-CoV-2 faced evolution and mutated on exposure to different environmental conditions and got the potential to infect humans [55]. Consequently, it was the adaptation of coronavirus to a pathogenic state under the influence of nature. Southern China, Europe, Asia, and Africa are abundant with the species of bats species of Rhinolophus affinis [56]. Human interference in natural territories and recurrent incorporation of different species in markets is one of the leading causes of novel 'viruses' emergence and re-emergence [23]. However, 96% of the genetic similarity was found between bat coronavirus and SARS-CoV-2 [40]. Bats are natural hosts of the coronaviruses, and because of mutation, several viruses had experienced evolutionary phases inside bats [57, 58].
Furthermore, the other indicated animals with having the potential of intermediate hosts were snakes, cat civets, and pangolins [59]. Considerably, coronaviruses similar to SARS-CoV-2 were found in the Manis javanica (Malayan pangolins) that were shipped to Guangdong province of China without authorization [60]. Surprisingly, the identified genes of SARS-CoV-2 were identical to the partial spike genes of other coronaviruses. Another coronavirus isolated from pangolins [61-63] had a potential linkage with SARS-CoV-2 [64].
Above and beyond all recent research innovations and breakthroughs, there are still certain issues that need to be addressed, along with the questions of evolution patterns. The forces that drive the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak precisely need to be answered [65]. The emergence of novel coronavirus signified the unique challenges to biological/medical sciences and stimulate the researcher's interest in tracing the exact viral origin.
Host Susceptibilities
During an early epidemic of COVID-19 presumed the susceptibility of every individual. However, vulnerability increase with certain risk factors and underlying conditions like diminished immunity, older age, renal disorders, smoking, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension [56]. The host's susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 is determined by the presence of a particular receptor ACE-2 on SARS-CoV-2 binds to enter its genome inside the host cell [66]. Previous SARS-CoV that emerged in 2002 was using the same receptor ACE-2 during pathogenesis [67], though the SARS-CoV-2 binds more weakly in comparison with the SARS-CoV [37]. The SARS-CoV-2 mainly targets the respiratory tract of humans [68]. The lower airways cells have been reported as target sites of SARS-CoV-2. The evidence of radiology graphs confirms the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in that site, although no apparent clinical symptom appears in infected patients [69]. The motive behind the targeting of the respiratory tract by SARS-CoV-2 is an ACE-2 receptor that facilitates its genetic materials entry of pathogen inside the cells. ACE-2 is primarily expressed in the human respiratory tract [70-72]. The individuals are at a higher risk for COVID-19 disease with a high magnitude of ACE-2 receptors on the cell surfaces. Based on some theories, the expression of the ACE-2 receptor might be associated with race as an early report suggested males from Asian countries had major proportions of cells that express ACE-2 receptors than African people, white people, and Americans [73].
Moreover, the expression of the ACE-2 gene is considerably high in smokers, suggesting smokers are more susceptible to COVID-19 [74]. Additionally, the ACE-2 receptor is also expressed in the epithelial cells and type2 pneumonocytes of the submucosal glands of ferrets and cats [75]. Thus, these animals facilitate the efficient replication of SARS-CoV-2 and make the ferrets a suitable candidate to be utilized for evaluating vaccines and antiviral drug trials or other therapeutic strategies against COVID-19 as an animal model. Finally, the susceptibility of Egyptian fruit bats is also reported to be infected by SARS-CoV-2, although disease symptoms were not observed nor capably spread the infection to other animal members [76].
Inhaling the SARS-CoV-2 containing aerosols is the most probable cause of COVID-19 disease [77-80]. Initially, the SARS-CoV-2 penetrates in the nasal opening and binds with the ACE-2 receptor on epithelial cells, where its replication started [81]. In vitro study of the SARS coronavirus indicates that the ciliated cells in the conducting airways to be infected primarily by the virus [83]. In this phase, because of limited, inadequate responses of innate immunity, the virus propagates locally and diagnosed with nasal swabs. However, the viral load is low but still infectious [84]. Furthermore, the virus propagation continues besides conducting airways and reaches the lower region of the respiratory system, and infection symptoms become visible, representing typical clinical symptoms of the disease. The virus triggers innate immunity response robustly; early markers of inherent immunity virus yield should be present in the sputum and nasal swabs. The innate immunity response in cytokines, like the intensity of CXCL10, may be predictive of the consequent clinical course [85]. However, in the infections of SARS coronaviruses, the reported valuable disease marker is the CXCL10 gene [86]. Approximately 20% of patients progress to the next phase of COVID-19 characterized by pulmonary infiltrates development, while some develop severe type disease with a 2% fatality rate [87]. Initial research findings of demographic and clinical distinctiveness of laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 patients in China revealed the susceptibilities of all individuals of both sexes, male and female of all ages, with ranges of 0 to >90 [88]. The people at the highest risk to get COVID-19 infection those with underlying diseases and abnormal health conditions like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiac, renal, malfunctioned immune system, and elders individuals [89, 90]. Especially the elders with underlying diseases like renal, lung, coronary infections, and high blood pressure can slow down the immune system processes, increasing their vulnerability for COVID-19 [87]. During an early outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 till January 2, 2020, in China, among initial 42 hospitals admitted laboratory-confirmed patients, 30 patients were male with the 49 years age median, fewer than half were noticed with background diseases like hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [6]. These comorbidities like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension are rarely observed among children compared to adults [91]. There are mild immunological reactions in children due to less prevalence of C-reactive proteins result in reduced immunity or less minor immune damage in children. There is a greater chance of immune damage in adults due to a higher prevalence of increased C-proteins [92]. Untilmid-March 2020, reported confirmed cases of COVID-19 reached 169,930 confirmed COVID-19 cases worldwide, among which 73% of patients were 40+ in age and the fatality rate of patients younger than 40 years was 2.6%. Notably, no fatalities were reported among children of less than ten years [93]. According to the COVID-19 reports of the different countries, the older patients presented the highest case fatalities [94]. In Italy, the highest fatality rate is reported in older people with age ranges of 70-80 years. However, based on reports of statistics, China and Italy reported similar fatalities in older people in age ranges of 0-69 years [95]. The aged male population with hypertension is more susceptible to developing the severe type of COVID-19 with the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) that helps maintain the blood pressure homeostasis and the salt balance and fluids [96].
Furthermore, due to the critical immune system of the aged individuals and weakening capability to heal damage, the epithelium is particularly higher at risk of getting COVID-19. The virus may spread efficiently to gas exchange units of the lungs as a result of reducing mucociliary clearance in this population [97]. For aged people, the COVID-19 can be life-threatening and devastating. Raise the concentration of myocardial enzymes indicates that COVID-19 has a striking effect on other vital organs like the heart other than lungs which are thought to be remarkable characteristics of COVID-19 infection in humans. Though, these circumstances of increased myocardial enzymes are observed in both children and adults [6]. Moreover, a case study of COVID-19 disease was conducted on infants with age ranges of 45 days to 1 year, all patients were noticed with mild symptoms, and the requirement of intensive care was not observed [98]. Conversely, a WHO report noticed the infected children group that was rarely affected with mild symptoms of COVID-19 disease, and the infection percentage of the children and teenagers was 2.4%. At the same time, the other patients that were above 60 years and those with underlying diseases were appeared to develop the COVID-19 disease with severe symptoms; even death is also reported [99]. The COVID-19 disease is less prevalent in children attributable to limited outdoor activities and less exposure to the potential source. Moreover, according to some scholars, due to less exposure to outdoor, they did not experience hazardous pollutants, and their respiratory tract is healthier. Furthermore, the cytokines storm develops with less intensity in the immune system of children [100]. However, the symptoms progress is accelerated with background diseases and co-infections like influenza virus and bacterial infection (Klebsiella) that lead the disease to be poorly diagnosed. Additionally the significant deterministic feature of the severity of the symptoms is age and those underlying disease [101]. Although according to the study's findings conducted in Singapore, the infected patient could too build up severe disease without background diseases. Additionally, they need to be facilitated with intensive care [102]. Furthermore, postoperative patients with COVID-19 disease are noticed with severe complications and included death. According to Wang et al. [103], 138 COVID-19 confirmed patients were hospitalized, among which 34 patients undergo surgery. Later on, seven operative patients with severe complications of COVID-19 disease were died. However, this fatality rate of operative patients is much higher than the general mortality rate of 2.3% COVID-19 [87]. It is also higher than fatalities of 7.9% of the other noncardiac postoperative ICU admitted patients without COVID-19 disease [104]. In another surgery-linked study of COVID-19 patients, 34 postoperative patients quickly manifested the COVID-19 symptoms and subsequently confirmed by laboratory diagnosis as well. However, priorsurgery, they were not observed with the signs of COVID-19.They had been exposed directly to the city of Wuhan [105]. It was believed that earlier than enduring surgeries, those patients were in the incubation period of COVID-19 infection that time. It is evident that the severity and exacerbation of the COVID-19 disease progression lead by surgical pressure during the incubation period [104]. Moreover, besides surgeries majority of patients were aged and suffering from other diseases. Postoperative patients were found with immune malfunctioning [106]. In addition to immune malfunctioning, the systemic inflammatory response is also induced due to surgery [107]. If a patient recently recovered from viral infection if got COVID-19 disease, he could have severe challenges while combating COVID-19 as his immune system is down due to that recent viral infection [108]. In a viral infection, the immune cells are diminished in body fluids, and cytokine levels become high, which leads to a condition termed cytokine release syndrome (CRS). It is sensitive systemic inflammatory patterns in which patients suffer from fever and malfunctions of numerous organs dysfunctions [109]. According to the review, Amir ad colleagues [66] has gathered the clinical data of 76993 COVID-19 patients, the most common background disease found among the COVID-19 affected population was hypertension (16.37%), the fraction of the affected population with cardiovascular disease was 12.11%, diabetic patients were 7.87%. In contrast, the lowest susceptible population was 7.63% smokers [66]. Individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions are at risk of developing COVID-19 infection; the pro-inflammatory cytokines are decreased due to cardiovascular diseases that lead the immune system to become weak [110, 111]. The ACE-2 receptors in smokers are unregulated in remodeled cell types. However, smoking amount, duration, and cessation also play a role [66].
Previously, the receptor of MERS coronavirus dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) was reported with high expression in smokers [112]. Notably, the consequences of the COVID-19 have been noticed more severe in people with smoking habits and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) [113]. This is a significant point that needs to be considered. People with tumors are also more vulnerable to COVID-19 disease than those without tumors as they can become immunosuppressed by taking chemotherapy, surgery, and other anti-cancerous treatments [114]. Therefore, the people with the aforementioned therapies, conditions and risk factors should be examined thoroughly. The concerned authorities are responsible for screening the travelers and immediately isolating the confirmed COVID-19 patients, providing a protective mechanism, guiding the local people, and instructing the population with the highest susceptibilities [115, 116]. Travel restrictions are essential for the patients with those underlying diseases. They must be conscious about their vulnerability, equipped with the basic fundamental knowledge of COVID-19 disease prevention like the covering of nose and mouth, frequent hand washing with a sanitizer, and social distancing [117]. A study investigated comparing blood groups among infected patients. Interestingly, the individuals with the A-blood group are significantly higher at risk of getting COVID-19 disease, while individuals with the O-blood group are lower at risk for the disease [118]. However, females are noticed to have a lower chance of developing severe and critical illness. At the same time, the male is comparatively higher at risk of developing the severe and critical disease [119], of developing severe and critical acute disease [119], the exact reason is unknown. However, the probable cause may be smoking and underlying conditions contributing to the worsening of males [120].
Transmission Routes
The SARS-CoV-2 has emerged in China in a particular population who were exposed to seafood and wet animals in the Huanan wholesale market of Wuhan city [6]. Early investigations of the bats were postulated as the origin of the SARS-CoV-19. Patently, there was 88% of the genomic similarity among SARS-CoV-2 and the two SARS-like coronaviruses that were isolated from bats during early investigations of SARS-CoV-2 origin [37, 121]. It is revealed that only that population could be infected with COVID-19 who have experienced the reservoir or eaten the infected animals. Although SARS-CoV-2 needs to be spread resourcefully to cause large extended transmission from human to human-like previous SARS coronavirus reported in Guangdong province, China 2002 [6, 122]. Based on two previous coronavirus epidemics, such as SARS and MERS experiences, the initially proposed mechanism for transmission of SARS-CoV-2 was human to human by respiratory secretions through close contact [123]. In the beginning, the transmission from bat origin and other suspected infected wilds animals were considered the reason for early outbreaks of COVID-19, whereas human-to-human transmission was not highlighted. Surprisingly the SARS-CoV-2 spread from humans to humans was appeared by a cluster of COVID-19 cases among members of the same family through close contact between them [124-127]. Hence this was the first report which describes the SARS-CoV-2 transmission among humans. Surprisingly, after the first outbreak in China, SARS-CoV-2 spread worldwide by close contact of human-to-human in a month [6]. After the initial symptoms onsets of COVID-19 infection, the highest virus load was found in nasal secretions instead of the throat [56]. The nasal secretions start spreading the virus in almost one week of infection, and then within four days, the outflow and transmission rate reaches peak [12, 129]. Besides nasal secretions, the virus is also found in the stool, but nasal secretions are thought to be the primary mode of transmission [130]. In comparison with other animal viruses the particular conditions of the environment required for the SARS-CoV-2 endurance and spread are fewer and limited but obvious to some extent [131], included humidity and temperatures that are noticed for having the potential to affect the SARS-CoV-2 transmissibility. Moreover, the most probable route of COVID-19 infection transmission is human to human that is supported by family members cases that did not expose to wet animals but developed COVID-19 infection [132, 133]. Besides the family cases, additional evidence made known the person-to-person transmission with the particular staff of the hospital, such as physicians, nurses, and support staff. Notably, the room's condition in the hospital where the COVID-19 infected patients were quarantined was noticed with extensive contamination [56, 134]. Eventually, virus transmission from human-to-human due to close contact was officially recognized by scientists and health professionals as the disease spread rapidly [103]. Furthermore, some other persons were diagnosed with COVID-19, and they have not even visited the seafood market or contacted wet animals. Shockingly transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via person to person noticed from asymptomatic carriers as well [103, 125] while having peak viral loads like symptomatic individuals without revealing any symptom of COVID-19 [135]. MERS coronavirus transmission from person to person was also reported in the primary healthcare settings and the same transmission route and mechanism as by coughs and sneezes [136]. The same route and mode of transmission as SARS CoV-2 and MERS were observed in the SARS outbreaks in 2002 as well, although, in comparison with COVID-19, the SARS coronavirus was not that much quickly transmitting. Additionally, the other less common transmission methods include handling the wild animals, transmission by feco-oral route, and fomites [137]. The transmission of SARS Coronavirus was reported using fecal-containing materials and broken sewage pipes [138]. Human-to-human transmission occurred by respiratory secretions through coughs and sneezes. Those who are most frequently involved in COVID-19 spread and do not be confused with transmission through the air [139]. Because due to the large size of droplets, it has a propensity to go down on the ground around the infected person within 2 meters instead of remain in the air. However, due to direct and indirect contact, the SARS-CoV-2 can transmit to other humans from the landed droplets of the infected population. Meanwhile, before or after landing, any close human is present nearer to the infected person [93]. From the droplets of the infected person, the virus attached to the host cell receptor by spikes containing receptor binding proteins while facilitating the viral entry inside the cells. Furthermore, the complement host cell receptor is determined by species range and tissue tropism of the virus [140, 141]. However, in the case of humans infection, the SARS-CoV-2 binds to ACE2 present on their cells [142]. Infection transmission from infected patients was more probably observed in the early stages of infection meanwhile peak viral loads in the nasal cavity [135].
However, the SARS-CoV-2 is also isolated from a stool sample of COVID-19 infected patients that suggests the alternative mode with transmission potential by route of feco-oral, although official transmission is not documented yet [128, 129, 143, 144]. Furthermore, the SARS-CoV-2 was also found in the serum samples [145, 146], blood samples [6], saliva samples, urine samples, and rectal swabs [147]. Interestingly no vertical transmission of COVID-19 by sexual intercourse and during breastfeeding is reported so far. However, in a couple of COVID-19 infections in infected mothers, the infant was perceived with adverse health results, including death [14, 149]. There were 1252000, and 1423 healthcare officials reported in China and Italy, respectively, on March 17, 2020 [150, 151]. The transmission of COVID-19 infection through blood is not recognized yet. However, precautionary procedures were made active by the National Blood Center of the National Institute of Health (ISS) for blood transfusion practices [152]. Under another Chinese published study, 8.7% of patients were reported to get infection directly from the potential source (Huanan fish market). In comparison, the human-to-human transmission was reported in 41% of patients, 12.3% were family cases, and 29% were healthcare officials [103]. Until April 1, some countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Angola, Namibia, Sudan, Somalia, Mongolia, and Papua New Guinea did not report the infection spread due to local transmission. Therefore, infection remains limited to imported cases [153]. However, some countries, such as the Holy See, Timor-Leste United Republic of Tanzania, where transmission classification is under investigation [153].
Environmental Factors Influence on SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 was broke out in China in late December 2019 [154], while the virus emerged in humans most probably during the second week of November 2019 [155]. These two months (November and December 2019) in China are the coldest months of the winter season [156]. Additionally, during these months, severe drought season was observed in Wuhan for almost 40 years with 5.5mm precipitation in December 2019 [157, 158]. Coincidently, the outbreak of the first SARS-CoV was observed in the same country and same season in Guangdong Province, 2002 [159] with similar weather patterns like Wuhan [160], while the precipitation was 0 mm in Foshan, Guangdong in December 2002 [161]. According to the study of Chan and colleagues [162], the humidity and low temperatures may have a positive impact on the SARS-CoV-2 spread. Usually, low temperatures provide a conducive environment for the virus, while in the moist temperate areas, the virus would not spread proficiently [163]. The summer and monsoon periods can decrease the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 effectively [164]. Indirectly low temperatures can significantly enhance the viral pathogenesis because of reduced blood supply that causes immune cells provision to the nasal route. At the same time, cilia cells can eliminate particles of the virus from the airway reduced in low humidity, which can facilitate viral pathogenesis and survival [165]. An experimental study was conducted on airborne human coronavirus 229E (HCV/229E) similar to SARS-CoV-2 as a representative, which shows that at 30 and 50% humidity, the half-life of the virus was 27 and 67 hours respectively.
In contrast, the half-life of the virus was reduced to only 3 hours at 80% humidity [166]. The temperature harm the survival of SARS Coronavirus, the optimal environmental temperature during the cases of SARS Coronavirus was from 16°C to 28°C [167], and the virus quickly inactivated at 20°C in the in vitro comparison with the lower temperature less than 5°C on surfaces [168]. According to another laboratory study, the viability of coronavirus rapidly lost at higher temperatures while at 22-25°C temperature virus can remain stable for more than 5 days on smooth surfaces [123]. Furthermore, the viability and survivability of betacoronaviruses depend on the nature of the surface on which nasal secretions of the patient landed. Founded on previous coronaviruses, SARS, and MERS, on glass, plastic, metals, or other inanimate surfaces, viruses remain viable and infectious from 2 hours to 9 days. However, this period can increase colder and dry environments [169-171]. Similarly, the MERS virus was also susceptible to high temperatures, and less stability was observed at high temperatures [170]. Most of the studies have revealed the sensitivity of the coronaviruses (SARS and MERS) to high temperatures.
Correspondingly, SARS-CoV-2 was also expected to be denatured at the start of outbreaks. Still, according to Zhu and co-workers' laboratory study, the negative consequence of high temperature could not observe on COVID-19 infection [172]. The survival of human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) was evaluated by infecting human hands revealed that 45% of viruses remain viable following 60 minutes. This experiment was performed as a substitute for SARS-CoV-2 due to its similarity. The deliberate infection of COVID-19 is not permissible because of safety and ethical considerations [173]. Following another study, washing hands with water reduced 70% viral concentration of HCoV-229E, while with hand sanitizer, the virus was declined by 99.99% within half a minute [174].
Additionally, the common disinfectants like sodium hypochlorite and ethanol were reported effective and inactivate the coronaviruses within 1 min contact [169]. In comparison with the other pathogenic viruses, all the three coronaviruses SARS, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2, are at higher risk influence by environmental factors [175]. According to scientific reports, the high temperatures have depress the SARS-CoV-2 survival. Therefore, infectivity is reduced with high temperatures as the droplets containing SARS-CoV-2 nuclei evaporated with high temperatures [176, 177]. Although, ultraviolet light has been reported to have the potential to denature the viruses, the susceptibility of previous SARS coronavirus to ultraviolet light has already been reported. Still, it is not exclusively analyzed against SARS-CoV-2 [178].
Worldwide Epidemics of COVID-19 Disease
Outbreaks of COVID-19. The earliest cases of COVID-19 with the distress of respiratory system was reported at the end of December 2019, in the population of Wuhan city, Hubei Province, China during the last dates of the month [179], during the period of December 18, to December 29, one patient died among the enrolled patients in hospital [9]. Further till January 2, 2020, a total of 41 other laboratories confirmed patients reported with the COVID-19 disease in Wuhan, China [6
