Critical Incidents in Counselor Education E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
In this textbook, prominent counselor educators provide guidance on key aspects of counselor education through case incidents in which an educator, student, supervisor, supervisee, researcher, or leader in the field is facing an ethical, moral, legal, or professional dilemma. Forty diverse case scenarios spanning four CACREP Standard domains for doctoral programs focus on real-world application of theories, concepts, and techniques. The incidents provide multiple perspectives on current issues faced in practice and promote learning opportunities for growth and development through critical thinking, discussion, and reflection. Each incident includes an evaluation of professional issues, a review of appliable ethical codes, a discussion of diversity and inclusion considerations, and an analysis of action steps and outcomes.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Part I: Teaching
Section 1: Student Engagement and Dispositions
Chapter 1: I Don’t Have a Clue: Responding to Unprepared or Unengaged Students
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 2: I Did My Part: Responding to Inequitable Group Project Contributions
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 3: It’s Not Their Work: A Case of Plagiarism
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 4: Too Much Information: Maintaining Boundaries During Skills Practice
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 5: I’m a Counselor . . . Well Almost: Boundary Extensions in Service Learning
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 6: I’m Here, I’m Not Participating: Student Resistance to a Group Experience
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 2: Dynamics Related to Diversity and Inclusion
Chapter 7: Whose Cultural Competence? Students’ Needs in Multicultural Courses
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 8: A Cohort Divided: Navigating Tensions Related to Race and Ethnicity
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 9: I Need a New Partner: Addressing Cultural Encapsulation and Racism
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 10: Interacting With Me: Title IX and Faculty-Student Consensual Relationships
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 3: Instructor Preparedness
Chapter 11: Embracing the Digital World: Instructor Preparedness for Online Delivery
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 12: Does It Apply to Me? Instructor Competency to Teach Specialty Courses
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 13: Something to Share: Promoting Unethical or Illegal Practice
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Resources
Part II: Supervision
Section 1: Supervisee Dispositions and Behaviors
Chapter 14: This Is Cool, Does It Work? Using a Technique With Limited Training
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 15: I Don’t Believe in That: Addressing Counselors’ Values Conflicts
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 16: I’m an Emotional Person: Determining Counselor Impairment
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 17: Don’t Watch Me: Not Bringing Session Recordings to Supervision
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 2: Issues With Site Supervisors
Chapter 18: I’m Getting Different Messages: Incongruence Between Supervisors
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 19: The Other Side: A Supervisor Presenting Differently to Students
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 20: To Tell or Not to Tell: Site Supervisor Impairment
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 3: Doctoral Student Supervisors
Chapter 21: Biased: A Doctoral Student Supervisor’s Struggle With a Supervisee’s Lack of Awareness
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 22: I’m Attracted to My Supervisee: A Doctoral Student Supervisor’s Struggle
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Part III: Research and Scholarship
Section 1: Collaboration and Authorship
Chapter 23: That’s My Idea: Taking Someone Else’s Work as Their Own
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 24: Who to Include: A Case of Contested Authorship
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 25: Is This How It’s Supposed to Be? Collaboration Gone Wrong
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 2: Client Interest and Well-Being
Chapter 26: I Need Your Approval, but I Don’t Want to Do That: Getting IRB Approval
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 27: Should He Be Included? I Know His Sister
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 28: Do We Stop the Study? Best for the Client vs. Best for Research
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 3: The Publication Process
Chapter 29: A Little Bit Here, a Little Bit There: The Least Publishable Unit
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 30: It’s Already Published: Can I Still Submit My Manuscript?
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 31: Do I Compromise to Get Published? Responding to Reviewers’ Feedback
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Resources
Part IV: Leadership and Advocacy
Section 1: Professional Organization Leadership
Chapter 32: Is There a Conflict? Balancing Fiduciary Responsibility
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 33: Who Are You Representing? Serving Two Professional Organizations
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 34: True to Our Mission: Establishing an Identity as a Professional Organization
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 35: It’s All About Mentorship: Managing Professional Journals
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 2: Leadership and Advocacy in the Local Community
Chapter 36: What Should We Fund? Addressing Budget Issues on a Community Board
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 37: My Hands Are Tied: Navigating University Prohibitions on Advocacy
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Section 3: Diversity and Inclusion Within Counselor Education Programs
Chapter 38: Do We Practice What We Preach? Diversity and Inclusion Plans
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 39: Maybe I Can Change This: Addressing Marginalization in a Program
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Chapter 40: You Can’t Treat Me That Way! Microaggressions and Bullying
Case Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection Questions
Critical Incident Response
Resources
References
Index
Technical Support
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
TABLE 2.1 Sample Rubric for Group Process Contribution
Chapter 23
WORKSHEET 23.1 Synthesis of the Ethical Decision-Making Model to Determine ...
Guide
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Bibliography
Index
Technical Support
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Critical Incidents in Counselor Education
Teaching, Supervision, Scholarship, Leadership, and Advocacy
edited by
Jacqueline M. Swank and Casey A. Barrio Minton
American Counseling Association2461 Eisenhower AvenueAlexandria, VA 22331www.counseling.org
Copyright © 2022 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.
American Counseling Association2461 Eisenhower Avenue • Alexandria, VA 22331
Associate Publisher • Carolyn C. Baker
Digital and Print Development Editor • Nancy Driver
Senior Production Manager • Bonny E. Gaston
Copy Editor • Beth Ciha
Cover and text design by Bonny E. Gaston
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Swank, Jacqueline M., editor. | Barrio Minton, Casey A., editor.Title: Critical incidents in counselor education : teaching, supervision, scholarship, leadership, and advocacy / Jacqueline M. Swank, Casey A. Barrio Minton, editors.Description: Alexandria, VA : American Counseling Association, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021019222 | ISBN 9781556204029 (paperback)Subjects: LCSH: Counseling—Study and teaching (Graduate)—United States. | Counseling psychology—Study and teaching (Graduate) —United States. | Counselors—Training of—United States. | College teaching—United States. | Universities and colleges—United States—Graduate work.Classification: LCC BF636.65 .C75 2022 | DDC 158.3071—dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021019222
Dedication
To current and future counselor educators and to counseling supervisors, scholars, leaders, and advocates who continuously navigate ethical and professional dilemmas to enhance the counseling profession and those we serve.
To God for his continued blessings; my family and friends for their unending encouragement and support; and my mentors, students, and colleagues, who help me continually grow both professionally and personally.
—Jacqueline M. Swank
To the mentors and students who have made me a stronger teacher and leader.
—Casey A. Barrio Minton
Preface
Counselor educators have multiple roles and responsibilities as teachers, supervisors, scholars, leaders, and advocates for the counseling profession. Doctoral programs in counselor education and supervision have the challenging task of preparing students to embrace each of these roles with all their complexities. Despite rigorous instruction and experiential learning opportunities, counselor educators and supervisors, especially those new to their roles, often struggle with complex situations that they feel unprepared to address.
The challenging, complex critical incidents counselor educators navigate within their multiple roles become learning opportunities for growth and development. As we have trained and mentored counselor education doctoral students and new counselor educators, as well as reflected on our own experiences as counselor educators, we have been reminded of the similarities in the challenging situations we have experienced. Learning from others’ experiences may help aspiring and new counselor educators and supervisors avoid pitfalls in addressing similar situations. Thus, we designed this book to help you navigate critical incidents commonly experienced in counselor education and supervision. The cases are largely fictitious or composites, but the situations are real and are experienced by counselor educators frequently in their work settings.
This book focuses on critical incidents experienced by counselor educators across four unique areas in which they must develop specialty skills: (a) teaching, (b) supervision, (c) research and scholarship, and (d) leadership and advocacy. Within each chapter, experts in counselor education identify key issues relevant to the case; analyze the critical incident with overt attention to the ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association, 2014), existing literature, and diversity and inclusion; and discuss actions and outcomes. Experts also provide a response for each chapter that focuses on reinforcing decisions made, introducing additional literature, and providing contrasting opinions.
The first part is focused on teaching and includes 13 chapters within three sections: (a) student engagement and dispositions, (b) dynamics related to diversity and inclusion, and (c) instructor preparedness. The second part is related to supervision and encompasses nine chapters within three sections: (a) supervisee dispositions and behaviors, (b) issues with site supervisors, and (c) doctoral student supervisors. The third part pertains to research and scholarship and includes nine chapters within three sections: (a) collaboration and authorship, (b) client interest and well-being, and (c) the publication process. The final part focuses on leadership and advocacy and includes nine chapters within three sections: (a) professional organization leadership, (b) leadership and advocacy in the local community, and (c) diversity and inclusion within counselor education programs.
We expect you will find the stories and analyses helpful in multiple ways. Counselor educators may use this book throughout the doctoral curriculum in courses focused on each of the four domains as well as in more general professional orientation and ethics courses or internships. This will provide an opportunity to facilitate exploration of critical issues commonly experienced in counselor education and supervision. These conversations may help students develop an understanding of the complexities of the roles of counselor educators and supervisors. We expect counselor educators and supervisors will see themselves in many of the stories, perhaps using the book to explore multiple perspectives on common critical incidents they find themselves navigating.
The authors address challenges and opportunities counselor educators must navigate on an ongoing basis. The book also focuses on integrating multicultural and social justice issues through the inclusion of diverse counselor educators as authors, the inclusion of diverse individuals within the scenarios, and overt discussion of cultural dynamics and considerations across topics and issues. This book supplements existing textbooks within each of the four domains by focusing on real-world application of theories, concepts, and techniques. In sum, we believe you will find the book beneficial for preparing counselor education doctoral students and fostering the further growth and development of practicing counselor educators and supervisors.
Acknowledgments
A special thanks to the 61 authors who contributed to this text and to the mentors, counselor educators, teachers, supervisors, scholars, leaders, advocates, students, and clients who inspired this book and the case studies within it.
About the Editors
Jacqueline M. Swank, PhD, LMHC, LCSW, RPT-S, is an associate professor of counselor education at the University of Florida. She has extensive experience working with children and adolescents and their families in various counseling settings, including outpatient, day treatment, inpatient, and residential treatment facilities, and has worked clinically in both the United States and England. Her research interests focus on the holistic growth and development of children and adolescents, counselor competency, assessment, nature and play-based interventions, and international counseling.
Dr. Swank is the author of more than 70 articles and 16 book chapters and is currently working on a second book. She has been recognized for her scholarly work, having received nine awards for specific research projects from professional organizations, including the American Counseling Association, the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, the Association for Adult Development and Aging, the American Horticultural Therapy Association, and Chi Sigma Iota. She has also received a University of Florida University Term Professorship. She is currently the principal investigator on two federally funded grants totaling nearly 1.2 million dollars.
She has a strong commitment to service and has served as president of two national counseling organizations: the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling and the Association for Creativity in Counseling. She has also served in several other leadership capacities at the local, state, and national levels. She was recognized for her service and contributions to the field of creativity in counseling with the Association for Creativity in Counseling Professional Service Award and the Samuel T. Gladding Inspiration and Motivation Award, her contribution to the field of play therapy with the Viola Brody Award, and her contribution to assessment and research with the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling Professional Level Exemplary Practice Award. She has a passion for international work and has trained teachers and church leaders in using helping skills in Haiti. She enjoys teaching and mentoring students and has been recognized for her teaching with the Diane E. Haines Teaching Excellence Award at the University of Florida. Dr. Swank lives in Florida with her two cats, Holstein and Piper. She enjoys going on mission trips and volunteering, photography, playing games with friends and family, and going on adventures in nature.
• • •
Casey A. Barrio Minton, PhD, NCC, is a professor of counselor education and the counselor education unit coordinator at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Her scholarly work focuses on crisis intervention, clinical mental health issues, and professionalization through teaching and leadership. She most enjoys teaching doctoral courses in professional orientation and teaching and master’s-level courses in multicultural counseling, diagnostic issues, and crisis intervention.
Dr. Barrio Minton is the author or editor of five books, including Practical Approaches to Applied Research and Program Evaluation for Helping Professionals, DSM-5 Learning Companion for Counselors, and Professional Counseling Excellence Through Leadership and Advocacy. She has been recognized for her scholarly work twice each by the American Counseling Association, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, and Chi Sigma Iota.
The founding editor of the Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, Dr. Barrio Minton is a past-president of Chi Sigma Iota International, the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling, and the Southern Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. She continues to actively serve these organizations through their mentorship programs and committees. At the time of this printing, she was serving as president of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. Dr. Barrio Minton began her service to the profession as a Chi Sigma Iota Leadership Fellow and chapter president in 2003, and she received the American Counseling Association’s Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished Professional Service Award in 2017. She is a Fellow of the American Counseling Association. Dr. Barrio Minton lives in Knoxville with her partner Joel, child Leah, and dog Rosie. She enjoys exploring new food and drink, going on adventures with Leah, and setting running goals that feel just out of reach.
• • •
About the Contributors
Vaibhavee R. Agaskar, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an associate professor at New Jersey City University. Currently she is serving as the principal investigator for a Behavioral Health Workforce Education and Training grant funded by the U.S. Health Resources and Services Administration to expand the behavioral workforce in integrated health care at primary care settings.
Heather J. Ambrose, PhD, LCMHC, LMFT, AAMFT Approved Supervisor, is a core faculty member in the School of Counseling at Walden University. Her expertise is in training clinical mental health counseling supervisors.
S. Anandavalli, PhD, NCC, is an assistant professor at Southern Oregon University. She holds leadership positions in the American Counseling Association and serves as cochair for the Writers’ Consortium for the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development.
Imelda N. Bratton, PhD, is a faculty member at Walden University. Her expertise is in play therapy.
Sherrie L. Bruner, PhD, LPC-MHSP, is a clinical assistant professor and director of the Counselor Training Clinic in the Educational Psychology and Counseling Department at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Her research interests focus on the intersection of counselor education practice and persistence for traditionally marginalized populations in higher education.
Diana Camilo, EdD, LPC, NCC, is an assistant professor at CSU San Bernardino. Her expertise is in school counseling, student services, and administration. Her research interests focus on culturally responsive practices for school counseling and college and career readiness.
Clewiston D. Challenger, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology at the University of Connecticut. His research interests focus on high school to college transition, college adjustment, sense of belonging and inclusion, self-efficacy, mental health, institutional attachment, academic buoyancy and motivation, and student athletes at predominantly white institutions.
Christian D. Chan, PhD, NCC, is an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. His research interests focus on intersectionality; multiculturalism in counseling practice, supervision, and counselor education; social justice and activism; career development; critical research methodologies; and socialization/communication of cultural factors in couple, family, and group modalities.
Catherine Y. Chang, PhD, LPC, NCC, CPCS, is a professor at Georgia State University and director of international programs for the College of Education and Human Development. Her research interests focus on multicultural counseling competence and social justice issues in counselor training and practice.
Jenny L. Chien, PhD, LPC (MI), LMHC (FL), QS (FL), is an assistant professor in the Clinical Mental Health Counseling Program at Cornerstone University. Her expertise and research interests focus on university mental health and counselor wellness.
Devika Dibya Choudhuri, PhD, LPC, NCC, CCMHC, ACS, is a professor of counseling at Eastern Michigan University. Her expertise is in sexuality, trauma, and identity. Her research interests focus on multicultural issues in psychotherapy, supervision, and pedagogy.
Philip B. Clarke, PhD, LCMHC, is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling at Wake Forest University. His expertise is in counseling individuals with substance use disorders, individuals with co-occurring disorders, and persons with dementia and their families. His research interests focus on wellness, addiction, older adults, and creative teaching approaches.
Leigh D. DeLorenzi, PhD, LMHC, LMFT, NCC, is an assistant professor at Rollins College. Her expertise is in the treatment of trauma, and she has spent her career counseling children, adults, families, couples, and groups. Her research interests focus on the effect of well-being initiatives within medical and mental health training environments.
Joel F. Diambra, EdD, LPC-MHSP-S, NCC, is an associate professor at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. His expertise is in group counseling and clinical supervision. His research interests focus on student development, group counseling, and clinical supervision.
Olga R. Dietlin, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Higher Education and Student Development Program at Wheaton College. Her expertise is in graduate counseling and student affairs training. Her research interests focus on the pedagogy of care in online settings, student development worldwide, and conflict in politically divided relationships.
David Julius Ford Jr., PhD, LCMHC (NC), LPC (VA, NJ), NCC, ACS, is an assistant professor at Monmouth University. His expertise is in culturally responsive counseling and supervision. His research interests focus on Black men attending predominantly white institutions, Black Greek life, Black men in counseling/counselor education, queer men of color, and HIV/AIDS.
Jesse Fox, PhD, is an assistant professor at Stetson University and executive director of the Episcopal Counseling Center. His expertise is in spirituality, religion, and mental health. His research interests focus on theory of religious and spiritual integration, spiritual bypass, and religious and spiritual struggle.
Jean Georgiou, EdD, LPC, NCC, ACS, is an associate professor in and chair of the Department of Counselor Education at New Jersey City University. She is currently involved in a project in Western Kenya, where she conducts mission work and psy-choeducational groups.
Michelle R. Ghoston, PhD, LCMHC, LPC, ACS, is an assistant professor at Wake Forest University. Her interests focus on equity and neuroscience education.
Tiphanie Gonzalez, PhD, is a tenured assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Psychological Services and diversity coordinator for the School of Education at State University of New York at Oswego. Her expertise is in multicultural competency and working with P–16 students/clients. Her research interests focus on multicultural counseling, advocacy in counseling ethics, and creative counseling.
Kristopher M. Goodrich, PhD, LPCC (NM), ACS, is a professor and department chair at The University of New Mexico. His expertise is in lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) issues in counseling, clinical supervision, and professional identity.
Paul C. Harris, PhD, is an associate professor at the University of Virginia. His expertise is in issues related to promoting equity in schools and in the college and career readiness of Black males and student athletes.
Natoya Hill Haskins, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an associate professor at the College of William & Mary. Her expertise is in counselor education, culturally responsive teaching, and support structures for Black and Brown students. Her research interests focus on culturally responsive counselor education experiences for graduate students of color, critical race theory in counselor education, and school counselor advocacy efficacy assessment tools.
Kathryn L. Henderson, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an associate professor of counselor education at the University of Saint Joseph. Her expertise is in ethical and legal issues in counseling, in particular in gatekeeping.
Nicole R. Hill, PhD, LPC, is a professor in and dean of the College of Education and Human Services at Shippensburg University. She focuses on cultivating faculty and student development, championing humanistic engagement in professional communities, and advocating for excellence. Her research interests focus on leadership, mentoring, counseling identity, and social justice and access in higher education.
Erik M. Hines, PhD, is an associate professor at Florida State University. His expertise is in college and career readiness for African American males and in improving and increasing postsecondary opportunities for first-generation students, low-income students, and students of color.
Carlos P. Hipolito-Delgado, PhD, is a professor at the University of Colorado Denver. His research interests focus on the sociopolitical development of students of color, the cultural competence of counselors-in-training, the ethnic identity development of Latinx youth, and the internalization of racism in communities of color.
Leigh Falls Holman, PhD, LPC-MHSP-Supervisor, RPT-S, is the Clinical Mental Health Counseling Department chair for the Dallas campus of The Chicago School of Professional Psychology. Her research interests focus on counselor burnout, trauma interventions with addiction and offending behaviors, and teaching and supervising students and emerging counselors who are working with forensic populations.
Renée C. Howells, PhD, NCC, is an assistant professor at The University of New Mexico. Her expertise is in crisis and trauma counseling. Her research interests focus on traumatology and disability identity and inclusion.
Denita N. Hudson, PhD, LPC, is an associate professor at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology. Her expertise is in multicultural counseling and social justice and in counseling student development. Her research interests focus on global counseling, the effect of racial trauma on Black families, career choice, and development.
Marty Jencius, PhD, is an associate professor at Kent State University. His expertise is in the application of technology to the practice and teaching of counseling. His research interests focus on teaching and technology innovation in counseling and on the study of counselor subjectivity using Q methodology.
Güls¸ah Kemer, PhD, NCC, ACS, is an associate professor in and director of the Counseling Doctoral Program at Old Dominion University. Her expertise is in clinical supervision. Her research interests focus on counselor and supervisor training and development with a specific focus on beginning and expert supervisors’ thought processes.
Aiesha Lee, MA, NCC, is a doctoral student at the College of William & Mary. Her expertise is in trauma and systems theory. Her research interests focus on trauma, spirituality, and multicultural counseling.
A. Stephen Lenz, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an associate professor at The University of Mississippi. His expertise is in youth development, holistic approaches to counselor training, and community-university partnerships for public mental health promotion. Additional interests focus on using multiple modalities in research and evaluation for cultivating practice-based evidence.
Huijuan Li, MEd, is a doctoral student in counselor education and supervision and a research assistant at The University of Iowa. Her expertise is in school counseling. Her research interests focus on trauma-related and multicultural issues in school counseling.
Kathryn P. Linich, LPC, is a doctoral student at the University of South Carolina. Her expertise is in grief and loss. Her research interests focus on grief education and wellness interventions for clients experiencing grief and loss.
Melissa Luke, PhD, LMHC, NCC, ACS, is Dean’s Professor in the Department of Counseling and Human Services and the associate dean for research in the School of Education at Syracuse University. Her research interests focus on effective preparation and supervision of counselors to more effectively respond to the needs of underserved clients.
Erin C. M. Mason, PhD, LPC, is an assistant professor at Georgia State University. Her research interests focus on school counselor professional identity, pedagogy in counselor education, technology, and social media.
W. Bradley McKibben, PhD, RMHCI (FL), NCC, is an assistant professor at Nova Southeastern University. His expertise is in clinical mental health counseling and clinical supervision. His research interests focus on professional counselor development and relational/cultural issues and attachment strategies in clinical supervision.
Shekila Melchior, PhD, NCC, is an assistant professor and academic program coordinator at George Mason University. Her expertise is in school counseling, social justice, and immigration. Her research interests focus on social justice identity development, undocumented students/immigrants, the professional identity development of school counselors, human trafficking, and activist wellness.
Anita A. Neuer Colburn, PhD, LPC (VA), LCMHCS (NC), BC-TMH, ACS, NCC, is a clinical associate professor at The Family Institute at Northwestern University. Her expertise is in clinical supervision competency. Her research interests focus on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender advocacy; spiritual integration in counseling and supervision; and group approaches to career management.
Jonathan H. Ohrt, PhD, is an associate professor at the University of South Carolina. His expertise is in school counseling. His research interests focus on mental health in schools, wellness promotion, and group work.
Derrick A. Paladino, PhD, LMHC, NCC, is a professor at Rollins College. His expertise is in college counseling, identity development, and crisis assessment and intervention. His research interests focus on college student development and multiracial identity.
Samir H. Patel, PhD, LPCC-S, LMHC, is an associate professor at Murray State University. His expertise is in clinical mental health counseling. His research interests focus on wellness within a multicultural/social justice framework and counselor training to enhance clinical efficacy.
Vanessa Placeres, PhD, LPC, Certified School Counselor, RPT, is an assistant professor at San Diego State University. Her research interests focus on multiculturalism and school counselor training.
Diandra J. Prescod, PhD, LPC, CCSP, is an associate professor at the University of Connecticut. Her expertise is in mental health and career counseling. Her research focuses on effective career development interventions for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics students and minoritized students in higher education.
Elizabeth A. Prosek, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an associate professor of counseling at The Pennsylvania State University. Her expertise is in clinical mental health counseling. Her research interests focus on counseling military populations; the diagnosis and assessment of co-occurring disorders; and ethics, competence, and professional identity development in counseling and counselor education.
Mark B. Scholl, PhD, LMHC (NY), is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling at Wake Forest University. His expertise is in providing career counseling to members of the ex-offender population. His research interests focus on culturally responsive counseling, promoting career development among ex-offenders, and constructivist career counseling.
Megan Speciale, PhD, is an assistant professor at Palo Alto University. Her expertise is in sexual wellness and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) children, adolescents, adults, and families. Her research interests focus on feminist and queer perspectives on counseling and counselor education, sexuality counseling/education, and LGBTQI+ issues.
Shawn L. Spurgeon, PhD, NCC, LPC-MHSP, ACS, is an associate professor at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. His research interests focus on African American male development and counselor identity development.
Sam Steen, PhD, PK-12 License in School Counseling, is an associate professor and academic program coordinator at George Mason University. His expertise is in school counseling, group work, and multiculturalism. His research interests focus on group counseling in school settings, school counselor identity development, and the achievement of students of color.
LoriAnn Sykes Stretch, PhD, LCMHC-S, NCC, ACS, BC-TMH, is a clinical associate professor at the College of William & Mary. Her expertise is in issues of social justice, international counseling, telehealth, and online pedagogy. Her research interests focus on educational equity, global counseling, telehealth, and clinical supervision.
Matthew Tirrell, MS, LPC, NCC, ACS, is the director of field placement and an adjunct professor in the Department of Professional Counseling at Monmouth University. His expertise is in counseling people with comorbid disorders and supervising counselors-in-training. His research interests focus on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) people in recovery and contextual factors in multicultural supervision.
Linwood G. Vereen, PhD, NCC, is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling and College Student Personnel at Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania. His research interests focus on leadership, Black existentialism, group work, and humanistic counseling.
Unity Walker, MEd, NCC, is a doctoral student at the College of William & Mary. Their expertise is in marginalized advocacy, transpersonal issues in counseling, and counselor development. Their research interests focus on marginalized advocacy and transpersonal development.
Richard E. Watts, PhD, LPC-S, is SHSU Distinguished Professor and Texas State University System Regents’ Professor in the Department of Counselor Education at Sam Houston State University. His research interests focus on the integration of Adlerian, cognitive, constructivist, humanistic-existential, and psychodynamic theories and applications in work with individuals, couples, and groups; supervision; education; and leadership. He is also interested in ethical, religious, and spiritual issues related to counseling.
Jo Lauren Weaver, MS, ALC, NCC, is a doctoral student and research assistant at the University of Florida. Her research interests focus on effective treatment modalities for children and adolescents, restorative justice, generational impacts of social media, and creativity in counseling and counselor education.
Jane M. Webber, PhD, LPC, is an assistant professor and doctoral program coordinator at Kean University. Her expertise is in trauma counseling; disaster response; and child, adolescent, and school counseling. Her research interests focus on trauma training and counseling approaches and on trauma-informed supervision.
Kelly L. Wester, PhD, LCMHC, NCC, is a professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her expertise and research interests focus on researcher identity and research self-efficacy development and on nonsuicidal self-injury.
Cirecie A. West-Olatunji, PhD, is a professor at Xavier University of Louisiana and a past-president of the American Counseling Association. Her research focuses on the relationship between traumatic stress and systemic oppression.
Kathy Ybañez-Llorente, PhD, LPC-S, is an associate professor at Texas State University. Her expertise is in ethics, multicultural supervision, advocacy, professional leadership and service, and licensure regulation. Her research interests focus on professional identity, clinical supervision, ethics, and licensure regulation.
Part ITeaching
Section 1Student Engagement and Dispositions
Section 2Dynamics Related to Diversity and Inclusion
Section 3Instructor Preparedness
Counselor educators spend more time teaching than in any other role. The 2016 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) Standards (CACREP, 2016) specify teaching as a core area, including coverage of a more traditional knowledge base (e.g., models of adult learning) alongside specialty skills for delivering coursework, assessing skills, and addressing problems of professional competence. Likewise, the ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2014) addresses ethical issues counselor educators may encounter within the classroom, including the importance of self-growth, clear expectations for students, and gatekeeping responsibilities. Furthermore, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision Teaching Initiative Taskforce (2016) provides Best Practices in Teaching in Counselor Education to guide these processes.
Like many tasks in our complex profession, teaching is about so much more than delivering content and ensuring aspiring counselors have the knowledge to pass licensure examinations. Rather, counselor educators must create environments in which students learn content, establish foundations for complex skills, and cultivate the dispositions they need to succeed. Even in courses with a high level of content, counselor educators require self-growth and awareness exercises, model elements of counseling relationships, and navigate intricate intrapersonal dynamics and interpersonal peer relationships. Furthermore, counselor educators engage these tasks in the context of holistic, professional programs, thus adding a layer of complexity to our teaching tasks. This part of the book encompasses 13 chapters grouped within three primary, although sometimes overlapping, areas: (a) student engagement and dispositions, (b) dynamics related to diversity and inclusion, and (c) instructor preparedness.
Student Engagement and Dispositions
Most counselor educators in graduate, professional programs focused on human relationship and communication expect a level of preparedness and engagement from adult learners in the classroom. A number of issues or situations may lead students to not meet expectations for engagement. Whether in part-time programs in which many students navigate work and family demands or in full-time programs in which they may be deluged with coursework (and also navigate work and family demands), students may manage their workload in ways that impact peers and course processes as a whole. In “I Don’t Have a Clue: Responding to Unprepared or Unengaged Students,” an instructor flounders when students have not read or prepared for class and thus cannot engage the lesson he prepared for them. Next “I Did My Part: Responding to Inequitable Group Project Contributions” features a group member who stops engaging with group members, who initially do her work out of fear for their grade; the instructor must decide how to address this, including considering strategies for balancing both the collaborative group process (an important work skill for any workplace) and the content of the assignment.
Counselor educators also encounter situations in which students intentionally or unintentionally violate the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) as part of course experiences. These situations raise critical questions regarding student retention and remediation processes. Instructors must discern how to address concerns related to dispositions or ethical comportment in ways that are developmentally and culturally sensitive yet protect the public. “It’s Not Their Work: A Case of Plagiarism” features an instructor who balances ethics and care when responding to a case of blatant plagiarism, adjusting course materials and processes to prevent future instances. Not all disposition concerns are so clear. In “Too Much Information: Maintaining Boundaries During Skills Practice” a student repeatedly shares her own trauma with peers, even after the instructor sets limits for sharing to help students practice appropriate self-disclosure. Likewise, “I’m a Counselor . . . Well Almost: Boundary Extensions in Service Learning” involves a student who oversteps her bounds of competence and parameters outlined as part of a service-learning engagement, raising questions regarding her self-awareness and willingness to follow supervisory directives.
As is also illustrated in the previous cases, counselor educators have unique responsibilities to help students develop self-awareness, intrapersonal understanding, and interpersonal skills. The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) also directly states that “self-growth is an expected component of counselor education” (Standard F.8.c.), noting the importance of ethical principles and allowing students to decide what to share or withhold in class. These responsibilities are further highlighted in the 2016 CACREP Standards (CACREP, 2016) for experiential learning within multicultural counseling coursework and the requirement for at least 10 clock hours as members within a small-group experience. In “I’m Here, I’m Not Participating: Student Resistance to a Group Experience,” an instructor must decide how to address a student, older than many of her peers, who chooses not to engage in small group.
Dynamics Related to Diversity and Inclusion
The counselor education curriculum must include clear and specific attention to the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC; Ratts et al., 2015). The CACREP Standards (CACREP, 2016) require attention to the MSJCC in programs’ admission processes, in the social and cultural diversity core area, and throughout other core areas, an expectation for infusion that is echoed in the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014). All counselor educators must have skills for facilitating growth in the MSJCC and broaching cultural issues and dynamics within programs at large. “Whose Cultural Competence? Students’ Needs in Multicultural Courses” features a multicultural counseling course instructor whose attempt to meet a white student in their developmental space raises questions among peers of color regarding how their needs are met in the course. Likewise, “A Cohort Divided: Navigating Tensions Related to Race and Ethnicity” illustrates how dynamics regarding students’ race and ethnicity can play out even in coursework not expressly focused on cultivation of the MSJCC. In both cases, instructors need to navigate tensions related to student dispositions and development.
At times, students will demonstrate dispositions that raise significant questions regarding their ability to work with diverse clients. Even when not nested within “the” multicultural course, instructors have a responsibility to respond in a timely, ethical manner. “I Need a New Partner: Addressing Cultural Encapsulation and Racism” features a student who requests a new partner for skills practice because she has difficulty understanding her peer’s accent and cultural experiences. The doctoral student facilitator and instructor work to respond to the white student; however, they struggle to address the needs and experiences of the student of color.
Finally, the very nature of adult learning and of self-growth exercises inherent in counselor education can create situations in which students and faculty members feel connected with each other. This dynamic is compounded given the apprenticeship nature of relationships between doctoral students and faculty members. “Interacting With Me: Title IX and Faculty-Student Consensual Relationships” features a case in which a faculty member and doctoral student develop an increasingly flirtatious, personal relationship that ends in a Title IX complaint. Although university policy does not disallow such connections, the case raises important questions regarding boundaries, modeling, and aspirational ethics.
Instructor Preparedness
A final set of critical incidents encountered by counselor educators feature instructor preparedness and competence to engage teaching assignments. Many established counselor educators never engaged in sustained study of teaching and learning. Rather, they use their understanding of human development and relationships to navigate the teaching and learning process, often becoming highly skilled instructors. Although written before the coronavirus pandemic, “Embracing the Digital World: Instructor Preparedness for Online Delivery” highlights a critical issue experienced by the majority of counselor educators in 2020: expectations to move courses online with no or minimal preparation in online teaching and learning.
An additional issue related to instructor preparedness relates to balancing counselor-first and specialty identities. Many counselor educators develop specialty skills in one work setting (e.g., clinical mental health counseling, school counseling) yet teach core curricular coursework for students as a whole. In addition, last-minute budget or personnel issues may force counselor educators to teach courses for which they have little specialty expertise, creating tensions regarding scope of practice. This raises important questions regarding how instructors can ethically and competently help students apply material to their specialty areas. “Does It Apply to Me? Instructor Competency to Teach Specialty Courses” features a counselor educator who helps his department by teaching fieldwork courses outside his specialty area.
Even when they are well prepared in teaching methods and content, counselor educators experience tensions related to intersections of best practice and real-world practice. Often counselor educators lean on guest speakers to help make these connections. At times, however, guest speakers may inadvertently promote problematic practices. In “Something to Share: Promoting Unethical or Illegal Practice,” an instructor must decide how to respond when a protégé discloses a well-intentioned yet fraudulent payment practice.
Section 1Student Engagement and Dispositions
Chapter 1I Don’t Have a Clue: Responding to Unprepared or Unengaged Students
Jonathan H. Ohrt and Kathryn P. Linich
2014 ACA Code of Ethics Standards Addressed
F.7.a. Counselor Educators
F.9.a. Evaluation of Students
• • •
During his first semester teaching in a counselor education program, Professor O had been very excited for every class. He had spent hours preparing and updating handouts, developing experiential activities, and reviewing videos to show in class. On the day of class, he would review assigned readings to make sure he was up to date on the material. Although he did not spend nearly as much time preparing for courses currently, he continued to be enthusiastic about teaching and was very well prepared to engage with students. He hoped that students shared his enthusiasm and were equally prepared to engage in a shared learning experience.
Professor O primarily adhered to a humanistic (C. R. Rogers, 1969) and experiential (Kolb, 1984) teaching philosophy. He tried to facilitate warm, empathic, genuine, and trusting relationships with students. He attempted to facilitate an open environment in which students felt comfortable sharing their perspectives and enjoyed inquiring about course topics within a learning community. Professor O viewed student learning as an active process that included both cognitive and affective components. He believed students learned best by doing, reflecting, and trying new approaches.
On the first day of class, Professor O reviewed the syllabus and discussed requirements, including reading and assignments. He explained that he would not lecture directly from the book and expected that students would read and be prepared to discuss the content. Professor O emphasized his belief that active learning was most helpful and class was most enriching when everyone was engaged. Professor O liked to start each class with a check-in and a brief discussion of students’ perceptions of the topic. For example, he might ask about personal or professional experiences related to the topic or how the topic related to other aspects of counseling. In the first few weeks of class, he often facilitated brainstorming activities to engage the class in discussion.
One particular semester, Professor O taught the course Critical Issues in School Counseling. The course was an overview of current issues and concerns school counselors encounter. The content for the class session included environmental risk factors K–12 students face related to academics and overall well-being. Professor O started class by asking students to share some thoughts about the reading. He inquired about which risk factors surprised them most and how they believed school counselors could help prevent student distress related to them. Although he typically started class this way, the discussion during this class related more closely to concepts covered in the required reading.
After about a minute of observing the glazed looks on students’ faces, Professor O realized most were unsure about how to answer the question because they could not recall specific risk factors in the reading. In an attempt to encourage participation, he half-jokingly reminded them “Participation is 15% of your grade—let’s make sure we all get our points today.” A few of the students laughed nervously while others continued to stare with blank faces. After a few more moments of silence, he asked, “Is any of this ringing a bell?” He still did not get a response. It became clear that students either had not completed the assigned readings ahead of time or did not comprehend the material well enough to share their perspectives.
Professor O was confused because the discussion had been rather lively in previous class meetings. When it became clear nobody was going to volunteer, he asked students what was keeping them from sharing. After another moment of silence with no real response, Professor O blurted out, “Did anybody read?” He noticed guilty looks on students’ faces as some reluctantly shook their heads. He then asked, “So what’s going on? Why aren’t we reading?” Finally, a more vocal student jumped in and explained, “We just finished a big paper that was due yesterday for another class, and we have an exam in our class tomorrow. We have just been really busy this week.” Although the student was not speaking on behalf of everyone, there appeared to be somewhat of a consensus among the students.
Professor O’s genuine internal reaction was to be a bit offended. He had spent time planning his class, and he felt disappointed that students were not invested in his class. Professor O was careful not to shame the students. Instead, he tried to empathize with them: “You are overwhelmed this week. Sometimes in graduate school things are piled on all at once and it is hard to get to everything. Reading can be hard when it’s not directly tied to a grade or assignment.” He spent some time talking about how reading ahead is imperative to having fruitful class discussions. Professor O eventually moved on to the content of the class. Students were engaged in the discussion throughout the rest of the class when prompted or when asked to work in small groups.
Case Analysis and Discussion
Many instructors assign readings to help students prepare for class so they can use class time to focus on discussion and activities without spending time reviewing concepts students can easily read. Although it is not uncommon to encounter students who are unprepared, it can be frustrating. Instructors know how and why the material is important, and they can see how it plays into the bigger picture of learning outcomes. Instructors get excited to hear students’ perspectives, and it can take the wind out of their sails to be met with blank stares and silence. Silence can cause instructors to have to think on their feet, rearranging plans to account for students’ lack of preparation. This is a skill all instructors develop throughout their careers.
There are some important considerations in this case. It could be helpful to consider students’ learning preferences. Some students may feel intimidated to speak up in front of the whole class, even if the class is small. Students may do better in pairs or small groups, where the focus is not solely on them. Although it might be nice to have a full class discussion, not all students are initially comfortable participating in this way. Another consideration is that some students learn better through experiences and discussions rather than reading. They may not get as much out of reading because there is nothing to apply it to in the moment. The relevance of topics at hand may become clearer once a discussion begins, an activity is done, or experiences are shared that can better contextualize the meaning of the concepts learned (Kolb, 2015). Finally, some students may not have actually completed the reading. Many professionals cannot honestly say that they have completed all assigned readings. Sometimes students simply do not want to do it, and so they do not. Other times they may feel overwhelmed; readings get cut from the to-do list in favor of something of higher priority. Sometimes students forget about the readings. Regardless, students are coming to class with no introduction to the topic, and they may be secretly hoping other students will contribute and save the class.
Critical Analysis
Regardless of which of the aforementioned issues applies, the reality is that the instructor is faced with a room full of students who are not prepared. Educators should question realistic expectations when it comes to classroom preparation. The ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2014) states that counselor educators should be “skilled in applying . . . knowledge; and make students and supervisees aware of their responsibilities” as well as serve as role models for the profession (Standard F.7.a.). Instructors provide a syllabus that clearly outlines expectations for the course, but it can be tricky to address students when expectations are not being met. As counselors, students will be faced with clients or students who are not following recommendations or putting in work outside of session. It would not be appropriate for them to scold or punish their clients for not meeting expectations. However, counselor educators are ethically responsible for modeling counselor characteristics while still evaluating student progress and assessing for competency (ACA, 2014). Instructors who gently remind students about the importance of participating and explore their reasons for not doing the reading can model professionalism while holding students accountable and working toward a solution, just as they might with a reluctant or resistant client.
What appears to be a lack of student preparation can also be misleading. An important part of experiential learning is reviewing readings assigned in class (West et al., 2013). West et al. (2013) suggested spending 15 to 20 minutes at the beginning of each class going over important topics and referring to specifics in the readings. This can help students understand the most important parts of a lesson prior to engaging in discussion and activities. West et al.’s approach is interesting because they posited that students who react to prompts in the ways described in the case above may not be unprepared. Rather, they may have read without knowing what they were looking for; thus, they were not able to retain key topics or concepts. This is students’ first exposure to the material, and they may also be taking other classes in which they are flooded with new information. Providing an overview of why assigned readings matter or what to look for may be key to helping students retain information in the long run.
It is also important to remember cultural considerations that may impact students’ preparation. Ng (2006) found that the three most common concerns for non-Western international counseling students were English proficiency, adjustment, and conflict with Western understanding and approaches. Students may not understand readings or questions because English is not their first language. They may be dealing with concerns around cultural adjustment. They may also be struggling to relate to Western conceptualizations of cases and solutions. Sharing conflicts or personal experiences with a group of strangers may also be inappropriate from a cultural standpoint. It is important to check and provide assistance as well as consider the unique perspectives of non-Western students in the context of class discussion (Ng, 2006).
When instructors consider cultural differences, it is important that they think about aspects of U.S. culture and history that may make international students and English language learners uncomfortable (Interiano & Lim, 2018). Historical inequalities and experiences of marginalization may cause students to feel uneasy asking or answering a question in class. In this same vein, dominant white American culture tends to strongly favor assimilation, encouraging people of color to abandon their culture of origin in favor of adopting dominant norms and values. Students may worry about their English not being good enough or their perspectives going against white American values. These concerns can lead to students being rejected by peers and faculty members. Instructors can combat this by viewing the material they are teaching through a multicultural lens. Incorporating multiple cultural perspectives into lessons and opening the door for conversations about culture may encourage students to share their views.
There are also considerations for working with minoritized students from the United States. In one study, Black doctoral students suggested that having white teachers who were invested in them and their success helped them feel supported and have more trust in their mentors (E. M. Brown & Grothaus, 2019). White faculty members may leverage networks and resources to help minoritized students access opportunities that are more difficult to access as a result of systemic oppression; this is a way to show investment in their success. Instructors can also demonstrate investment in students’ success and experience by reaching out to students outside of class to check in, which may help them feel more comfortable speaking up in class.
Actions and Outcomes
Professor O spent some time processing students’ lack of preparation. He empathized with their heavy school workload and reiterated the importance of coming to class prepared. These actions were consistent with his teaching philosophy. In this case, the incident could have been mitigated with better planning on the part of the instructor. Although Professor O discussed expectations, more explicit directions may have been helpful for students. For example, he could have provided discussion prompts prior to class to help students prepare ahead of time rather than relying on students’ ability to recall specific concepts from the reading.
As a result of this incident, Professor O provided more guidance by developing questions for review prior to class. He adjusted the class format to give students an opportunity to engage in small-group discussion prior to large-group discussion. Students discussed prompts with a partner before coming together for class discussion. This helped accommodate students who were not comfortable speaking in front of the large group. In future courses, Professor O tied class discussions based on readings to course credit to help students feel more invested in the activity.
Professor O confronted students about being prepared, but he ultimately did not hold them accountable by reducing participation points. He also could have required students to complete readings or an additional activity or assignment to demonstrate understanding of the topic as opposed to moving on with the class. Although he processed students’ reactions, he could have spent more time processing expectations for active participation. For example, he could have started by getting a sense of students’ preferences and their comfort sharing in large groups. Professor O could also have sought more explicit feedback on course readings. It could have been that the readings were not interesting or were too difficult for students to understand.
