Critical Metals Handbook E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Works
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 958

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Mankind is using a greater variety of metals in greater quantities than ever before. As a result there is increasing global concern over the long-term availability of secure and adequate supplies of the metals needed by society. Critical metals, which are those of growing economic importance that might be susceptible to future scarcity, are a particular worry. For many of these we have little information on how they are concentrated in the Earth's crust, how to extract them from their ores, and how to use, recycle and dispose of them effectively and safely. Published with the British Geological Survey, the Critical Metals Handbook brings together a wealth of knowledge on critical metals and provides a foundation for improving the future security and sustainability of critical metal supplies. Written by international experts, it provides a unique source of authoritative information on diverse aspects of the critical metals, including geology, deposits, processing, applications, recycling, environmental issues and markets. It is aimed at a broad non-specialist audience, including professionals and academics working in the exploration and mining sectors, in mining finance and investment, and in mineral processing and manufacturing. It will also be a valuable reference for policy makers concerned with resource management, land-use planning, eco-efficiency, recycling and related fields.

Leseprobe

Contents

Contributors

Acknowledgements

1. Metal resources, use and criticality

The geology and technology of metals

Will we run out of minerals?

Recycling and reuse of metals

The concept of criticality

Outlining this book

Acknowledgements

Note

References

2. The mining industry and the supply of critical minerals

Suppliers of minerals – miners and explorers

Industry dynamics

Constraints on mineral supply response

Critical minerals and the role of China

Policy issues

Notes

References

3. Recycling of (critical) metals

Rationale and benefits

Status and challenges of recycling critical metals

Recycling technologies

The significance of life-cycle structures

Conclusion and the way forward

Notes

References

4. Antimony

Introduction

Definitions and characteristics

Abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Major deposit classes

Extraction methods and processing

Specifications

Uses

Recycling

Substitution

Resources and reserves

Production

Projects under development

World trade

Prices

Environmental aspects

Outlook

References

5. Beryllium

Introduction

Properties of beryllium

Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust

Uses of beryllium

World production

World trade

World resources

Mineralogy of beryllium

Beryllium deposits

Mining and processing of beryllium

Recycling

Substitution

Environmental aspects

Prices

Outlook

Note

References

6. Cobalt

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction, processing and refining

World production and trade

Resources and reserves

Uses

Recycling

Substitution

Environmental issues

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgements

Notes

References

7. Gallium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Mineralogy and distribution

Sources of gallium

Recovery methods and refining

Specifications and uses

Substitution

Environmental aspects

World resources and production

Future supplies

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgements

References

8. Germanium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation

Specifications

Uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental aspects of the life cycle of germanium and its products

Resources and reserves

Production

Future supplies

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgments

Notes

References

9. Indium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Abundance in the Earth’s crust

Mineralogy

Major deposit classes

Extraction methods and processing

Specifications and uses

Resources and reserves

Production

World trade

Prices

Recycling and substitution

Environmental aspects

Outlook

References

10. Lithium

Introduction

Properties and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy and deposit types

Extraction methods and processing

Specification and uses

Recycling

Substitution

Environmental factors

World resources and production

Future supplies

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgements

Notes

References

11. Magnesium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation

Specifications and uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental aspects

World resources and production

World trade

Prices

Outlook

References

12. Platinum-group metals

Introduction

Properties and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Major deposit classes

Extraction and processing

Specifications and uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental issues

World resources and production

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgements

Note

References

13. Rare earth elements

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation

Specifications and uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental aspects

World resources and production

Future supplies

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Note

References

14. Rhenium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance

Mineralogy

Deposit types

World resources and production

Future supplies

Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation

Specifications and uses

Recycling and re-use

Substitution

Environmental issues

World trade

Prices

Outlook

References

15. Tantalum and niobium

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction methods and processing

Specifications and uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental aspects of niobium and tantalum

Geopolitical aspects

World resources and production

Future supplies

Prices

Outlook

Note

References

16. Tungsten

Introduction

Physical and chemical properties

Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s crust

Mineralogy

Deposit types

Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation

Specifications and uses

Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency

Substitution

Environmental aspects of the life cycle of the metal and its products

World resources and production

Future supplies

World trade

Prices

Outlook

Acknowledgements

References

Appendix 1 Units and symbols used in this volume

Appendix 2 Geological time periods (simplified)

Appendix 3 List of the elements in the Periodic Table sorted alphabetically by element symbol

Glossary of technical terms

Index

This edition first published 2014 © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, LtdThis work is a co-publication between the American Geophysical Union and Wiley

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Critical metals handbook/edited by Gus Gunn.        pages cm    Includes bibliographical references and index.    ISBN 978-0-470-67171-9 (cloth)

1. Metals–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Gunn, Gus, 1951-    TA459.C75 2014    669–dc23

2013022393

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image: The Spor Mountain open-pit beryllium mine in Utah operated by Materion Brush Natural Resources Inc. (Courtesy of Materion Corp.)Cover design by Steve Thompson

Contributors

Bob BrownPublisherMagnesium Monthly ReviewPrattvilleAlabamaUSATeresa BrownBritish Geological SurveyKeyworthNottinghamUKRichard BurtGraviTa Inc.EloraOntarioCanadaThomas ButcherIndependent ConsultantNew YorkUSAPeter BuchholzMineral Resources Agency (DERA) at the FederalInstitute for Geosciences and Natural Resources(BGR)Dienstbereich BerlinWilhelmstraße 25-3013593 Berlin-SpandauGermanyKeith EvansIndependent ConsultantSan DiegoCaliforniaUSAT.E. GraedelCenter for Industrial EcologyYale UniversityNew HavenConnecticutUSAGus GunnBritish Geological SurveyKeyworthNottinghamUKChristian HagelükenDirector EU Government AffairsUmicore AG & Co. KGHanau-WolfgangGermanyDavid HumphreysIndependent ConsultantLondonUKIan JonassonFormerly research scientist at Geological Surveyof CanadaOttawaOntarioCanadaRobert LinnenRobert W. Hodder Chair in Economic GeologyDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Western OntarioLondonOntarioCanadaAnthony LipmannManaging DirectorLipmann Walton & Co LtdWalton on ThamesSurreyUKFrank MelcherFederal Institute for Geosciences and NaturalResources (BGR)StillewegHannoverGermanyTom A. MillensiferExecutive Vice President and Technical Directorof Powmet, Inc.RockfordIllinoisUSANeale R. Neelameggham‘Guru’Ind LLC9859 Dream CircleSouth JordanUtahUSAPeter PitfieldBritish Geological SurveyKeyworthNottinghamUKStephen RobertsSchool of Ocean and Earth ScienceNational Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUKPhillip SabeyManagerTechnology and QualityMaterion Natural ResourcesDeltaUtahUSAUlrich Schwarz-SchamperaFederal Institute for Geosciences and NaturalResources (BGR)StillewegHannoverGermanyDave SinclairFormerly research scientist at Geological Surveyof CanadaOttawaOntarioCanadaLuis Tercero EspinozaFraunhofer Institute for Systems and InnovationResearch ISIKarlsruheGermanyDavid L. TruemanConsulting GeologistRichmondBritish ColumbiaCanadaFrances WallHead of Camborne School of Mines andAssociate Professor of Applied MineralogyCamborne School of MinesUniversity of ExeterPenrynUK

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the authors and reviewers of each chapter who worked hard to deliver high-quality content suitable for the intended non-specialist readership of this book. I am particularly grateful to colleagues at the British Geological Survey for their expert contributions: Teresa Brown for many contributions to editing, map preparation, provision of statistical data, and compilation of appendices and the glossary; Debbie Rayner for preparing all the diagrams and tables; Ellie Evans for formatting text and references; and Chris Wardle for assisting with the cover design. I would also like to express my gratitude to the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) UK for provision of funding through a knowledge exchange grant that allowed me to work on this project. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Barbara, for her patience, understanding and support throughout the preparation of this book.

Gus Gunn

British Geological Survey Keyworth, Nottingham, UK April 2013

1. Metal resources, use and criticality

T.E. GRAEDEL1, GUS GUNN2 AND LUIS TERCERO ESPINOZA3

1Center for Industrial Ecology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA2British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK3Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI, Karlsruhe, Germany

The geology and technology of metals

Key concepts

In a book such as this, which is intended for a broad audience, it is important to discuss some key concepts and terminology relating to minerals and metals which, although widely used, are seldom defined. In some cases the meaning may be obvious, while in others they are anything but obvious. To avoid confusion and misuse, and to minimise the risks of misunderstanding, we define in the first part of this chapter certain fundamental terms that will provide a foundation for the chapters which follow.

Minerals are essential for economic develop-ment, for the functioning of society, and for maintaining our quality of life. Everything we have or use is ultimately derived from the Earth, produced either by agricultural activities or by the extraction of minerals from the crust. Unlike crops, which are grown for the essential purpose of maintaining life by providing the nutrients we need to survive, mankind does not generally need the minerals themselves. Rather, minerals are extracted for the particular physical and chemical properties their constituents possess and which are utilised for specific purposes in a huge range of goods and products. Following some form of processing and purification, a mineral, often in combination with certain other minerals, is incorporated into a component which is used in a product. It is the need or desire for the productsthat generates a demand for minerals, rather than demand for the mineral itself. As a result, there is always the possibility of finding an alternative material to provide the required functionality. The only exceptions to this possibility are nitrogen, phosphate and potash, which are essential to life itself and cannot be substituted.

The term ‘mineral’ is used to describe any naturally occurring, but non-living, material found in, or on, the Earth’s crust for which a use can be found.1 Four principal groups of minerals may be distinguished according to their main uses:

1. Construction minerals – these comprise bulk minerals such as sand and gravel, crushed rock and clay, which are used for making concrete and bricks to provide foundations and strength in buildings, roads and other infrastructure. They are produced in large quantities at low cost from extensive deposits that are widely distributed at shallow depths in the Earth’s crust.

2. Industrial minerals – these are non-metallic minerals that, by virtue of specific chemical or physical properties, are used for particular applications in a wide range of industrial and consumer products. There are numerous industrial minerals but the most widely used include salt, gypsum, fluorspar, and kaolin. They tend to occur in large quantities but only at relatively few locations. They generally require specialist processing in their production and consequently they are relatively expensive.

3. Energy minerals – these are minerals such as oil, gas and coal that are used to generate energy that is captured when they are burned. They are used in the production of electricity, in fuels for transportation and heating, and also in the manufacture of plastics. Coal is relatively easy to find and cheap to extract; in contrast, oil and gas are generally difficult to find and extract and, therefore, command high prices.

4. Metals – metals are distinguished by distinctive chemical and physical properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility and the ability to form alloys. They are exploited for a multitude of purposes and some, such as iron, aluminium and copper, are used in huge quantities. Other metals with fewer or more specialised applications, such as platinum, indium and cobalt, are used in much smaller quantities, ranging from tens to hundreds or thousands of tonnes per year. Economic deposits of metals are rare and difficult to locate. The metal-bearing ores are expensive to mine and to process, and consequently metals command a high price.

Another term in common usage is ‘mineral commodity’ which is used to refer to any mineral raw material that can currently be extracted from the Earth for a profit.

The abundance of individual metals in the Earth’s crust varies greatly (Figure 1.1) and influences the costs involved in locating, mining and preparing the metals for use. Some of the major industrial metals, like iron, aluminium and calcium, have crustal abundances similar to the main rock-forming elements, such as oxygen, silicon and calcium, and are several orders of magnitude more abundant than many of the widely used base metals such as copper, lead and zinc. Many others, such as the precious metals gold and platinum, are considerably rarer. However, crustal abundance is only one factor that influences production costs. Some metals that are common in the crust, such as magnesium, aluminium and titanium, occur in forms that need a high input of energy to separate them from their ores, thus making them relatively expensive. It is also important to note that the localised concentrations of metals that can be exploited economically result from unusual geological processes. Consequently, the distribution of economic deposits in the Earth’s crust is highly dispersed, with some regions richly endowed in metals and others largely devoid of them. Furthermore, our knowledge of the processes that lead to the concentration of particular metals in the Earth’s crust varies widely. For metals that are used in large quantities, such as copper and zinc, we have a reasonably good idea of where and how to locate new deposits. However, for many of the scarcer metals, especially those that have been brought into wide use relatively recently, information on their occurrence, concentration and processing is generally very limited.