Crop Biofortification E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Develop more nutritious crops to aid in the fight against world hunger with this timely volume
One in nine people worldwide suffer from hunger or food scarcity. Massively increasing food production is one of the most urgent scientific projects in the modern world, particularly as a changing climate places increasing pressure on the global food supply and on sustainable food production processes. Biofortification is a process in which plant breeding, improved agronomic practices, and/or modern biotechnology are employed to increase nutrient density of crops without sacrificing any of their desirable characteristics. It’s an essential tool in the global fight against hunger.
Crop Biofortification offers an up-to-the-minute overview of this essential subject and its recent advances. It covers all the latest methodologies and techniques deployed in biofortification, as well as surveying plant responses to genetically induced biofortification and the effect of climate change on biofortified crops. Designed to allow for the application of these techniques at the field level, it’s a significant contribution towards the search for a sustainable global food supply.
Crop Biofortification readers will also find:
- Presentation of recent advances in omics, particularly metabolomics, which can decipher potential changes in plants caused by biofortification
- Detailed discussion of methods for increasing the nutritional content of edible plants to address specific nutritional deficiencies
- Contributions towards a road map for increasing global food production by 70% before the year 2050
Crop Biofortification is ideal for researchers, policymakers, and professionals interested in the potential biofortification of crop plants, as well as graduate and advanced undergraduate students in agronomy, plant physiology, plant breeding and genetics, agricultural biotechnology, and related fields.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Biofortification of Food Grains in Relation to Food Security
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Agronomic Biofortification
1.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Golden Rice Project and Its Impact on Global Nutritional Security
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Rice
2.3 The Place of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Human Nutrition
2.4 Biofortification
2.5 Golden Rice
2.6 Malnutrition
2.7 Golden Rice Project and Its Impact on Global Nutritional Security
2.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Biofortification of Cereals and Pulses Using New Breeding Techniques
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Malnutrition a Hidden Hunger
3.3 What Has to Be Biofortifying?
3.4 Methods to Address Hunger
3.5 New Breeding Techniques
3.6 Role of Genome-wide Association Studies
3.7 Speed Breeding’s Part in the Slow Development of Biofortified Crops
3.8 NBT-developed Varieties’ Regulatory Aspects
3.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 4: Crops Biofortification through OMICs based Knowledge
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advancements in Omics Technologies
4.3 Applications in Healthcare
4.4 Challenges and Opportunities
4.5 Future Directions
4.6 Genomics in Biofortification
4.7 Transcriptomics and Proteomics
4.8 Metabolomics for Nutrient Profiling
4.9 Integration of Omics Data and Multi-omics Approaches
4.10 Importance of Biofortification
4.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Current Challenges and Recent Advancements in the Adoption of Omics to Enhance Biofortification
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Omics Technologies
5.3 Approaches for Biofortification
5.4 Genomics in Biofortification
5.5 Regulations, Consumer Acceptance, Opportunities, and Prospects
5.6 Transcriptomics in Biofortification
5.7 Multi-omics Platforms
5.8 Immunity and Infection
5.9 Host Microbiome Interactions
5.10 Statistical Methods for Present Challenges
5.11 Sample Number Versus Molecule Numbers
5.12 Recent Challenges and Viewing to the Future
5.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Role of Nanoparticles in Improving Biofortification: An Overview
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biofortification of Food Crops: Tackling Malnutrition and Hidden Hunger
6.3 Strategies for Crop Biofortification
6.4 Nanotechnology-based Approaches for Crop Biofortification
6.5 Nutrient-based Nanoparticles in Food Crops and Human Health
6.6 Mechanism of Nanoparticle Uptake and Translocation in Plants
6.7 Challenges of Nanoparticle-induced Biofortification
6.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Role of Seed-priming in Biofortification
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Seed Structure
7.3 Methods of Seed-priming
7.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Selenium Biofortification in Wheat: A Way Forward Toward Nutritional Security
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Essentiality of Selenium for Animal Health
8.3 Role of Selenium in Plant Growth and Development
8.4 Uptake, Absorption, and Assimilation Dynamics of Selenium in Plants
8.5 Se Biofortification in Wheat
8.6 Factors Affecting Se Uptake and Absorption
8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 9: Scope and Research Perspective of Lithium Biofortification in Crop Plants
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Historical Context of Lithium in Agriculture
9.3 Li Uptake, Translocation, and Accumulation in Plants
9.4 Conventional and Novel Biofortification Strategies
9.5 Scope of Li Biofortification
9.6 Challenges and Limitations
9.7 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 10: Global Action Plan for Agricultural Diversification for Achieving Zero Hunger
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Present Status of Global Food Security
10.3 Essential Principles of Agricultural Diversification
10.4 Regulatory Framework for Expanding Agricultural Crop Diversity
10.5 Techniques for Implementing Agricultural Diversification
10.6 Evaluation for Assessing Progress in Agricultural Diversification
10.7 Importance of International Corporation
10.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Targeting Tissue-Specific Zinc Acquisition in Cereal
11.1 Introduction to Tissue-Specific Zinc Acquisition
11.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Zn Uptake in Cereal Roots
11.3 Enhancing Zn Transporters Expression in Specific Tissues of Cereal
11.4 Strategies for Enhancing Zn Concentration in Plant Tissues
11.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Combating Mineral Malnutrition Through Iron Biofortification in Cereal Crops
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mineral Nutrients
12.3 Mineral Malnutrition
12.4 Causes of Malnutrition in Plants
12.5 Biofortification
12.6 Iron Biofortification for Combating Malnutrition in Cereal Crops
12.7 Conclusion
12.8 Future Prospects, Challenges, and Recommendations
12.9 Recommendations and Challenges
References
Chapter 13: Selenium Biofortification in Horticultural Crops
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Selenium in Horticultural Plants/Crops
13.3 Enrichment of Horticultural Crops with Selenium
13.4 Biofortification of Horticultural Crops and Plants with Selenium
13.5 Beneficial Effects of Selenium Supplementation on the Production, Quality, and Senescence of Leafy Vegetables
13.6 Impact of Selenium Fortification on Fruit Crops: Its Influence on Crop Yield, Fruit Quality, and Senescence
13.7 Selenium Metabolism
13.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Magnesium Mysteries Unveiled: Insights into Its Impact on Plants and Human Health and Biofortification Strategies to Enhance Magnesium Content in Cereal Crops
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functions of Magnesium in Plant Systems
14.3 Detecting Magnesium Deficiency and Toxicity in Plants, Symptoms, and Threshold Values
14.4 Transport Mechanism of Magnesium in Plant Systems
14.5 Magnesium’s Functions in the Human Body and the Health Issues Caused by Low Magnesium Intake
14.6 The Role of Magnesium in Improving Quality Characters of Cereal Crops
14.7 Biofortification Techniques for Enhancing Mineral Nutrition in Crop Plants
14.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Combating Fe Biofortification Under Heavy Metal Pollution
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Effect of Heavy Metals on Plants
15.3 Remediation Techniques
15.4 Micronutrients to Reduce Heavy Metals Toxicity
15.5 Strategies to Improve Micronutrient Deficiency in Plants
15.6 Role of Biofortification Approaches to Mitigate Heavy Metals Toxicity
15.7 Fe Alleviates the Toxicity of Heavy Metals
15.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Biofortification in Vegetables: Enhancing Nutritional Value for Improved Human Health
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Nutritional Challenges and Opportunities in Vegetables
16.3 Biofortification Techniques in Vegetable Crops
16.4 Nutritional Enhancement of Specific Vegetables Through Biofortification
16.5 Impact of Biofortified Vegetables on Human Health
16.6 Challenges and Future Directions
16.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Genetic Engineering for Crop Biofortification
17.1 Introduction to Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
17.2 Need for Biofortification
17.3 Biofortified Crops: An Overview
17.4 Genetic Modification Techniques
17.5 Regulatory and Ethical Considerations
17.6 Environmental Impact Assessment of GM Biofortified Crops
17.7 Ecological Disruption in the Context of GM Biofortified Crops
17.8 Impact on Nontarget Organisms
17.9 Soil and Water Quality
17.10 Strategies for Minimizing Negative Environmental Effects
17.11 Genetic Modifications and Agronomic Performance in Biofortified Crops
17.12 Multi-Biofortification Approaches
17.13 Targeted Nutrient Delivery
17.14 Integration with Traditional Breeding Programs
17.15 Global Perspectives on Biofortification
17.16 Regulatory Framework and Policy Implications
17.17 Technological Advancements and Innovations
17.18 Future Prospects and Research Directions
17.19 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Development of Biofortified Crops through Marker-Assisted Selection
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Importance of Biofortified Crops
18.3 Biofortification Types
18.4 Marker-assisted Breeding: An Overview
18.5 Development of Biofortified Crops through MAS
18.6 Vitamin A Biofortification Using MAS
18.7 MAS for Bioavailability Enhancement: Use of Solid Dispersion
18.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Agronomic Perspective of Improving Iodine Biofortification
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Essential Plant Growth Nutrients
19.3 The Use of Iodine
19.4 Biofortification of Crops
19.5 Biofortification Through Agronomic Techniques
19.6 Biofortification of Crops with Iodine
19.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Applications of Nanoparticles in Biofortification of Crops: Amplifying Nutritional Quality
20.1 Introduction to Biofortification
20.2 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticles
20.3 Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Uptake in Plants
20.4 Factors Influencing Nanoparticle Uptake in Crops
20.5 Role of Nanoparticles in Enhancing Nutrient Uptake
20.6 Techniques for Nanoparticle Application in Agriculture
20.7 Various Methods for Applying Nanoparticles to Crops
20.8 Challenges and Considerations in Nanoparticle Application on a Large Scale
20.9 Impact of Nanoparticles on Crop Nutritional Quality
20.10 Studies Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Nanoparticle-based Biofortification
20.11 Enhancement of Micronutrient Content in Crops and its Significance
20.12 Nanoparticles and Stress Tolerance in Plants
20.13 Regulatory and Ethical Considerations
20.14 Nanotechnology-based Agriculture Product
20.15 Future Directions and Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Zinc Biofortification in Rice – From Conventional Breeding to Biotechnological Approaches
21.1 Introduction
21.2 High-throughput Phenotyping and Exploring High Zn Donors
21.3 Association of Grain Zn with Yield and Quality Traits
21.4 Molecular Basis of Zn Uptake and Transport in Rice
21.5 Progress in Conventional Breeding
21.6 Prospect of Biotechnological Approaches for Development of High Zn Rice
21.7 Conclusion
Declaration and Competing Interest
Funding Statement
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 22: Modification in Conventional Methods and Modern Plant Breeding Techniques to Enhance Genetic Gain for Future Food Security
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Conventional Breeding Techniques for Self-pollinated Crops
22.3 Conventional Breeding Techniques for Cross-pollinated Crops
22.4 Modern Plant Breeding Technology
22.5 Genome Editing
22.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: Biofortification of Crops and Vegetables to Achieve Food Nutritional Security
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Sustainable Developmental Goal 2: Nutritional Food Security
23.3 Biofortification: Improving Nutritional Status in Edible Plant Parts
23.4 Approaches to Enhance the Nutritional Quality of Crops and Vegetables
23.5 Role of Soil Microflora for the Biofortification
23.6 Current Avenues in Biofortification
23.7 Potential Limitations and Challenges
References
Chapter 24: Genetic Diversity and Crop Genome-wide Association Studies to Identify Biofortified Traits for Micronutrients
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Genomic Biofortification Strategies
24.3 Capturing the Common Variation in Genome
24.4 Micronutrient Phenotyping
24.5 Genomic Traits Associated with Micronutrients
24.6 Population Structure
24.7 Marker Trait Analysis of Biofortified Traits
24.8 Result and Validation – Genome-wide Significance
24.9 Future Prospects
24.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25: Modification of Conventional Methods and Modern Plant Breeding Techniques to Enhance Genetic Gain for Future Food Security
25.1 Objective of Study
25.2 Introduction
25.3 Nonconventional Techniques in Crop Development
25.4 Nanobiotechnology
25.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Nanofertilizers for Growing Fortified Crops: A Need of the Day
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Why Nanofertilizers?
26.3 Role of Different Nanofertilizers
26.4 Role of NFs of Major Nutrients to Enhance Crop Productivity
26.5 Nanofertilizers for Stress Management
26.6 Efficacy of Different Nanomaterial-based Nanofertilizers
26.7 Biofortification of Food Crops from Conventional to Modern Approaches
26.8 Nanonutrition for Biofortification in Crops
26.9 Benefits and Challenges of Nanofertilizer-based Crop Biofortification
26.10 Summary and Future Perspectives
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Salient features of biofortified crops.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The genetically modified rice variety known as Golden Rice appears golden in c...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Vital macro- and micronutrients needed for optimal human health.
Figure 3.2 Elimination of anti-nutrient substances from pulses and grains, which are esse...
Figure 3.3 Various approaches of crop biofortification.
Figure 3.4 Cereals are consumed all around the world because of their high protein level ...
Figure 3.5 The high protein level and vitamin richness of pearls make them a popular food...
Figure 3.6 Methods for biofortifying crops with agricultural plants. Utilizing techniques...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Advancing plant breeding efficiency through the multi-omics revolution.
Figure 5.2 Various breeding approaches in crops and their consequences.
Figure 5.3 CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) genes and their role in defense mechanisms.
Figure 5.4 Multi-omics platform and technologies.
Figure 5.5 A multi-omics approach implemented in the clinic for diagnostic/prognostic pur...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Application of nanoparticles in agriculture.
Figure 6.2 Strategies to improve micronutrient consumption in human diet.
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of agronomic biofortification through soil and foliar applic...
Figure 6.4 Genetic and conventional biofortification for the improvement of nutrients in ...
Figure 6.5 Schematic diagram mechanism of nanoparticle uptake, translocation, and accumul...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Germination cycle of monocotyledon seed.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Role of Se in plant physiology
Figure 8.2 Classification of plants based on Se accumulation.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Differential role of Li in plant growth and development.
Figure 9.2 Examination of biofortification approaches for enhancing lithium levels in cro...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Importance of agricultural diversification.
Figure 10.2 Challenges in achieving zero hunger.
Figure 10.3 Essential principles of agricultural diversification.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Genes involved in Zn transporters and function in wheat.
Figure 11.2 Genes involved in Zn transporters and function in rice.
Figure 11.3 Genes involved in Zn transporters and function in maize.
Figure 11.4 Genes involved in Zn transporters and function in barely.
Figure 11.5 Zn biofortification approaches.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Approaches of biofortification.
Figure 12.2 Influence of PGPR-inoculation on shoot Fe content in maize. Source: Adapted fr...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Insights into the functions of magnesium (Mg) in plants. (a) The function of m...
Figure 14.2 A schematic illustration from Chen et al. (2018) showing how magnesium is tran...
Figure 14.3 The relationship between low magnesium intake and several diseases is summariz...
Figure 14.4 Current status of magnesium in cereal grains (Haytowitz et al. 2019).
Figure 14.5 Various techniques for crop biofortification. These can be broadly categorized...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Possible uses of heavy metals in industries.
Figure 15.2 Fe-fortified varieties year by year.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Multidimensional effects of bioremediation in vegetables and its positive effe...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Different approaches for production of biofortified crops.
Figure 17.2 The prevalence of undernourishment (in percentage) in Global South.
Figure 17.3 Comparison of classical breeding with transformative technologies involved in ...
Figure 17.4 Ecological disruption governed by genetically modified biofortified crop.
Figure 17.5 Ecological disruption of soil microflora induced by genetically modified biofo...
Figure 17.6 Steps to minimize negative influence of environment posed by biofortified crop...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Unlocking the power of biofortified crops for a better future: addressing maln...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Potential role of Iodine for improving different tissues of the plants.
Figure 19.2 The methods for agronomic biofortification of plants.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Biofortification of plants and their applications.
Figure 20.2 Traditional approaches to biofortification and consequences.
Figure 20.3 Nanotechnology and their applications.
Figure 20.4 Process of different nanoparticles uptake, accumulation, and translocation in ...
Figure 20.5 Different techniques for nanoparticle application in agriculture.
Figure 20.6 Role of nanoparticles in enhancing plant resilience to environmental stressors...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Benefit of zinc-biofortified seeds in plants and the negative effects of zinc ...
Figure 21.2 Candidate genes involved in uptake, transport, and grain loading of Zn in rice...
Figure 21.3 Schematic breeding strategies for development of Zn-dense rice varieties in ri...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Modern plant breeding techniques such as marker-assisted selection, high-throu...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Schematic diagram showing multifaceted approaches to target and enhance biofor...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 A plot illustrating the decay of linkage disequilibrium (LD) derived from the ...
Figure 24.2 STRUCTURE software sample illustrates the population genetic structure using f...
Figure 24.3 Manhattan Plots and QQ plots are generated using R software with GWAS summary ...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Conventional breeding methods for crop improvement.
Figure 25.2 The process of hybridization for crop improvement.
Figure 25.3 Post and pre-breeding methods for crop improvement.
Figure 25.4 Biotechnological tools for plant breeding
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Multidimensional roles on nanotechnology-based nanofertilizers.
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Advantages, disadvantages, and factors affecting the agronomic biofortificatio...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Regulatory elements used in transgenic rice production.
Table 2.2 The composition of multiple micronutrient supplements for pregnant women, lact...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Outlining the current challenges faced in the adoption of omics technologies t...
Table 4.2 Recent advancements in the adoption of omics technologies to enhance biofortif...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Transgenic biofortified crops to increased micronutrients.
Table 6.2 Different concentrations of nanoparticles for micronutrient enrichment and the...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Summary of various studies on Se biofortification in wheat crop.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Different identified resources of lithium entry in the ecosystem.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 The description of key role for global strategic framework.
Table 10.2 Support Mechanisms and Incentives for Farmers to Diversify Agriculture.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Influence of Fe and Zn application on maize grains.
Table 12.2 Efficient biofortified genotypes used in the world.
Table 12.3 Impact of innovative bio-inoculants on plant growth parameters of maize.
Table 12.4 Microorganisms with potential for wheat biofortification with micronutrients.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 The amount of selenium found in horticulture crops (Wen 2021).
Table 13.2 The accumulation of selenium in the edible sections of leafy vegetables in con...
Table 13.3 Major impacts of selenium supplementation on green leafy vegetables.
Table 13.4 Relationship between the concentration and chemical type of selenium given to ...
Table 13.5 Major impacts of selenium applications on different fruit crops.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 World cereal production (in million tons).
Table 14.2 Nutritive content of major cereals.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Anthropogenic activities to accelerate heavy metals in soil and environment.
Table 15.2 Impact of heavy metals on crop plants.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Effects of biofortification of iron, iodine, selenium, protein, vitamin D, and...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Overview of different biofortification efforts targeting specific nutrients, a...
Table 17.2 Overview of the different aspects of genetic engineering techniques in crop bi...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Biofortification strategies for staple crops.
Table 18.2 Biofortification strategies for horticultural crops.
Table 18.3 A snapshot of various biofortification strategies applied to different crops t...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 The daily dietary intake requirement of different age groups.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Zn biofortified rice varieties released in target countries.
Table 21.2 QTLs identified for grain Zn content in different mapping population of rice.
Table 21.3 Candidate genes used for development of transgenic Zn-rich rice.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 The list of interspecific hybridization in which embryos deteriorate at an ear...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Biofortification of crops and vegetables with minerals by soil and foliar appl...
Table 23.2 Vitamin biofortification in crops via transgenic approaches.
Table 23.3 Transgenic crops for metabolites biofortification.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Biofortification of crops and vegetables with minerals by soil and foliar ...
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Effect of different nanofertilizers on growth, yield, and mineral nutrients of...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
List of Contributors
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Crop Biofortification
Biotechnological Approaches for Achieving Nutritional Security Under Changing Climate
Edited by
Adnan Noor Shah
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Punjab
Pakistan
Sajid Fiaz
The University of Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Aslam
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Javed Iqbal
Bacha Khan University
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistan
Abdul Qayyum
The University of Haripur
Haripur
Pakistan
This edition first published 2025
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List of Contributors
Muhammad Aaqil
College of Food Science and Technology
Yunnan Agricultural University
Kunming
China
Banzeer Ahsan Abbasi
Department of Botany
Rawalpindi Women University
Rawalpindi
Pakistan
FNU Abdullah
Department of Soil and Crop Sciences
Texas A&M University
Texas
USA
Muhammad Adnan
Department of Agriculture
University of Swabi
Anbar
Pakistan
Kafeel Ahmad
Department of Botany
University of Sargodha
Sargodha
Pakistan
Mushtaq Ahmad
Horticultural Research Institute
National Agricultural Research Center
Islamabad
Pakistan
Shakeel Ahmad
Institute of Agronomy
Bahauddin Zakariya University
Multan
Pakistan
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Zeeshan Ahmed
Xinjiang Institute of Ecology & Geography
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Urumqi
China
Cele National Station of Observation and Research for Desert-Grassland Ecosystems
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Urumqi
China
College of Life Science
Shenyang Normal University
Shenyang
China
Ahmad Ali
Center for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity
University of Swat
Charbagh
Pakistan
Ayesha Ali
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Basharat Ali
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Pakistan
Muqarrab Ali
Department of Climate Change
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Ruqayya Ali
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Umed Ali
Department of Agriculture
Mir Chakar-Khan Rind University
Sibi
Pakistan
Muaz Ameen
Department of Botany
University of Agriculture Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Aqsa Anjum
Department of English Literature and Applied Linguistics
Government Post Graduate College
Timergara
Pakistan
Shakeel Ahmad Anjum
Department of Agronomy
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Sumera Anwar
Department of Botany
Government College Women University Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Uneebullah Arif
Department of Forestry and Range Management
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Uzma Arif
Horticultural Research Institute
National Agricultural Research Center
Islamabad
Pakistan
Yunus Emre Arvas
Van Yuzuncu Yil University
Faculty of Science
Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics
Tusba-Van
Turkey
Karadeniz Technical University
Faculty of Science
Department of Biology
Ortahisar- Trabzon
Turkey
Muhammad Ashraf
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
The University of Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Umair Ashraf
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Dilawar Aslam
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Muhammad Aslam
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Areeba Azhar
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Hafeezullah Babar
Soil Fertility Research Institute
Agriculture Research Center
Tandojam
Pakistan
Mohammad Safdar Baloch
Department of Agronomy
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Ghazala Batool
Departmemt of Bioinformatics
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Mohamed Behnassi
Economic Social & Environmental Council (ESEC- Rabat);
Ministry of Higher Education
Scientific Research and Innovation
Morocco
Mahpara Khatoon Bhutto
Department of Agronomy
Sindh Agriculture University
Tandojam
Pakistan
Marya Bibi
Department of Agronomy
Horticulture & Plant Science
South Dakota State University
Brookings
USA
Yamin Bibi
Department of Agronomy
Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani University
Salar Bagh
Afghanistan
Noman Ali Buttar
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Pakistan
Shah Fahad
Department of Agronomy
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistan
Areej Fatima
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Sajid Fiaz
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
The University of Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Adeel Ghafar
Department of Botany
Government College University Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Muhammad Salman Hameed
National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide
International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensor Technology and Health
Central China Normal University
Wuhan
China
Pat (J S) Heslop Harrison
Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization/Guangdong Provincial Key
Laboratory of Applied Botany
South China Botanical Garden
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou
China
Department of Genetics and Genome Biology
University of Leicester
Institute for Environmental Futures
Leicester
United Kingdom
South China National Botanical Garden
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou
China
Wiwiek Harsonowati
Research Center for Horticulture
National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)
Cibinong
Indonesia
Shah Hassan
Department of Agricultural Extension Education & Communication
The University of Agriculture
Peshawar
Pakistan
Waseem Hassan
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Muhammad Baqir Hussain
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
MNS University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Saddam Hussain
Department of Agronomy
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Sajjad Hyder
Department of Botany
GC Women University
Sialkot
Pakistan
Shumaila Ijaz
School of Biomedical Engineering
Shenzhen University Medical School
Shenzhen University
Shenzhen
China
Muhammad Imran
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Javed Iqbal
Department of Botany
Bacha Khan University
Charsadda
Pakistan
Rashid Iqbal
Department of Agronomy
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
Bahawalpur
Pakistan
Maham Ishfaq
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
The University of Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Shoaib Ismail
Department of Agronomy
MNS University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Institute of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science
Kiel University
Kiel
Germany
Ghulam Hussain Jatoi
Department of Plant Pathology
Faculty of Crop Protection
Sindh Agriculture University
Tandojam
Pakistan
Maria Javaid
Department of Botany
University of Peshawar
Peshawar
Pakistan
Maryam Javid
Department of Botany
University of Peshawar
Peshawar
Pakistan
Nitish Joshi
Department of Agronomy
Horticulture & Plant Science
South Dakota State University
Brookings
USA
Sobia Kanwal
Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences
Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad
Pakistan
Azizullah Khalili
Department of Agronomy
The University of Haripur
Haripur
Pakistan
Department of Agronomy
Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani University
Salar Bagh
Afghanistan
Asghar Ali Khan
Department of Agronomy
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Bilal Ahmad Khan
College of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of the Punjab
Lahore
Pakistan
Imran Khan
Department of Forestry and Range Management
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Center for Life Science Ventures
Cornell University
Ithaca
USA
Mehnoob Ullah Khan
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Nasir Rasheed Khan
Department of Agronomy
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistan
Qudrat Ullah Khan
Department of Soil Science
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Usama Ahmad Khan
Department of Botany
Ghazi University
Dera Ghazi Khan
Pakistan
Zafar Iqbal Khan
Department of Botany
University of Sargodha
Sargodha
Pakistan
Maqsood Ahmed Khaskheli
Department of Plant Pathology
College of Agriculture
Guizhou University
Guiyang
China
Waseem Ahmed Khattak
Department of Plant Sciences
Quaid-I-Azam University
Islamabad
Pakistan
Shiza Ayaz Khilji
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Munazza Kiran
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Lin Li
School of Breeding and Multiplication
Sanya Institute of Breeding and Multiplication
Hainan University
Sanya
China
Ahmad Mahmood
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Athar Mahmood
Department of Agronomy
University of Agriculture Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Sammina Mahmood
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Tariq Mahmood
Department of Plant Sciences
Faculty of Biological Sciences
Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad
Pakistan
Muhammad Majeed
Department of Botany
University of Gujrat
Gujrat
Pakistan
Konain Zahra Maqbool
Department of Botany
University of Baltistan
Skardu
Pakistan
Sadaf Mehfooz
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Iqra Mukhtar
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Mamoona Munir
Department of Botany
Rawalpindi Women University
Rawalpindi
Pakistan
Ghulam Murtaza
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering
Kunming University of Science and Technology
Kunming
China
Maqzia Mushtaq
Principal Pharmacist
Shifa International Hospital Ltd.
Islamabad
Pakistan
Muhammad Amjad Nadim
Department of Agronomy
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Fahim Nawaz
Research School of Biology
The Australian National University
Canberra
Australia
Muhammad Nawaz
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Pakistan
Muhammad Amjed Nawaz
National Research Tomsk State University
Tomsk
Russia
Taufiq Nawaz
Department of Biology/Microbiology
South Dakota State University
Brookings
USA
Dillon Nelson
Department of Biology/Microbiology
South Dakota State University
Brookings
USA
Yasir Niaz
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Pakistan
Ijaz Rasool Noorka
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
University of Sargodha
Sargodha
Pakistan
Zahra Noreen
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Qurban Ali Panhwar
Soil and Environmental Sciences Division
Nuclear Institute of Agriculture
Tandojam
Pakistan
Abdul Qayyum
Department of Agronomy
The University of Haripur
Haripur
Pakistan
Muhammad Tamoor Qureshi
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
University of Sargodha
Sargodha
Pakistan
Praviinkumar R
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding
Faculty of Agriculture
Annamalai University
Chidambaram
India
Arslan Rafique
Department of Botany
University of Gujrat
Gujrat
Pakistan
Tanzeel Ur Rahman
Department of Hotel Management & Tourism
University of Swabi
Anbar
Pakistan
Ambrin Rajput
Soil Fertility Research Institute
Agriculture Research Center
Tandojam
Pakistan
Swaiba Rani
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Madiha Rashid
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Nadia Riaz
Department of Botany
Lahore College for Women University
Lahore
Pakistan
Sundas Riaz
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Umair Riaz
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Muhammad Rizwan
School of Energy Science and Engineering
Central South University
Changsha
China
Nabeel Rizwan
Department of Soil Science
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Umar Khitab Saddozai
Department of Agronomy
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Anam Saleem
Department of Biosciences
COMSATS University
Islamabad
Pakistan
Rukhsar Saleem
Department of Agronomy
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Shobana Sampath
Department of Biotechnology
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai
India
Saira Sattar
Horticultural Research Institute
National Agricultural Research Center
Islamabad
Pakistan
Obaid Ullah Sayal
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Fahad Shafiq
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Adnan Noor Shah
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Pakistan
Aqeela Shaheen
Department of Chemistry
Government Sadiq College Women University
Bahawalpur
Pakistan
Muhammad Naveed Shahid
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Faisal Shahzad
Department of Entomology
Gomal University
Dera Ismail Khan
Pakistan
Tahmina Shar
Agriculture Research Center
Tandojam
Pakistan
Muhammad Asif Shehzad
Institute of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture
Multan
Pakistan
Minahil Sheikh
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Hassan Sher
Center for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity
University of Swat
Charbagh
Pakistan
Kadambot H. M. Siddique
The UWA Institute of Agriculture
The University of Western Australia
Crawley
Australia
Razia Sultana
Wheat Research Institute
Ayub Agricultral Research Institute
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Mehwish Tabassum
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Swapan K. Tripathy
Department of Agricultural Biotechnology
College of Agriculture
Bhubaneswar
India
Aasma Tufail
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Ikram Ullah
College of Horticulture
Northwest A&F University
Yangling
China
Zahid Ullah
Center for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity
University of Swat
Charbagh
Pakistan
Zakir Ullah
Department of Plant Sciences
Faculty of Biological Sciences
Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad
Pakistan
Muhammad Usman
School of Agriculture and Biology
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Minhang
China
Department of Botany
Government College University
Lahore
Pakistan
Zunaira Yaqoob
Department of Botany
Government College University Lahore
Lahore
Pakistan
Tabassum Yaseen
Department of Botany
Bacha Khan University
Charsadda
Pakistan
Afifa Younas
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Iqra Yousaf
Department of Botany
Division of Science and Technology
University of Education
Lahore
Pakistan
Muhammad Zahid
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Preface
In this current era of rapid climate change and increasing food insecurity, challenges in ensuring food and nutritional insecurity have become a research hotspot. World population is expected to surpass 9 billion by 2050 with the increasing global climate change. Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in the developing countries, pose significant health risks, affecting the growth and development of millions of people around the world. Approximately 2 billion people suffer from one or more micronutrient malnutrition. World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations reported that 149 million children under 5 years are stunted, 47 million are wasted, and 462 million are underweight. Under such circumstances, strategies such as crop biofortification hold potential to enhance the nutritional quality of staple crops. Biofortification is the combination of different processes by which the nutrient density of food crops is increased through traditional and/or modern plant breeding approaches, improved agronomic practices and/or modern biotechnological techniques without compromising any characteristic favorable to consumers and farming community.
As we navigate through complexities of the food production system under the climate change scenario, this book aims to provide comprehensive understanding about the role of biofortification to achieve nutritional security. In this book, we invited leading researchers, academicians and policymakers to document various approaches: biofortification of food grains, the Golden Rice project, traditional and novel plant breeding approaches, integration of OMICs based technologies, nanotechnology, the global action plan to achieve zero hunger, biofortification of macro- and micronutrients, genetic engineering and marker-assisted selection for biofortification, exploration of genetic diversity and nanofertilizers to mitigate the deficiency of nutrients from crops essential to food security. By exploring the science behind biofortification and its application in diverse agricultural context, we illustrated the pathways to achieve nutritional security. Also, we highlighted the climate change impact on the global food production system, especially the concept of climate smart agriculture through exploring innovative solutions by using cutting-edge technologies to ensure healthier life for everyone and sustainable crop production. The documented knowledge will not only serve as a precious resource for devising precise plant breeding efforts but also help us devise policies and technologies to enrich essential vitamins, minerals and to develop crop resilience to stress conditions posed by climate change.
In this book, we delve into the latest research and breakthroughs in biofortification. We believe this book will be of interest to agronomists, plant breeders, molecular biologists, researchers, and postdoctoral fellows working in related disciplines for developing nutritious and climate-resilient crops.
Adnan Noor Shah, PhD
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Punjab, Pakistan
Sajid Fiaz, PhD
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
Muhammad Aslam, PhD
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan
Javed Iqbal, PhD
Department of Botany, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Abdul Qayyum, PhD
Department of Agronomy, The University of Haripur, Pakistan
Chapter 1Biofortification of Food Grains in Relation to Food Security
Ijaz Rasool Noorka1*, Muhammad Tamoor Qureshi1, Zafar Iqbal Khan2, Kadambot H. M. Siddique3 and Pat (J S) Heslop Harrison4,5,6
1 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Sargodha, Pakistan
2 Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Pakistan
3 The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
4 Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
5 Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Institute for Environmental Futures, Leicester, United Kingdom
6 South China National Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Micronutrient Malnutrition
The current consumer interest in a healthy diet has forced the development of “super-foods” categorized by health benefiting properties and high nutrition. Undernourishment is determined by the sufficiency of energy intake and it is defined as taking less than required amount of any nutrient of energy (Khush et al. 2012). Micronutrient deficiencies and/or undernourishment hinder development of crops and human beings (Bailey, West, and Black 2015). There are multiple sources of essential mineral nutrients, among which plants are the best source of essential mineral nutrients and are vital to humans for their well-being. Some plants are rich in some minerals and deficient in others; however, no single plant contains all the essential elements important for human health (Hopkins and Hüner 2004). So, it can be concluded that plants are the best source of nutrients for human diet but unfortunately, most of the major crops lack some essential micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins.
Human beings and mammals require more than 25 mineral nutrients, while only 17 have been reported to be essential to plant metabolism for survival, development, and growth (Bouis and Welch 2010). Essential elements are divided into three categories as per their requirement for general growth and development: (1) essential elements that are required by plants and/or animals in small concentrations (micronutrients), (2) those that are required in large amounts (macronutrients), and (3) those required in trace amounts (Hirschi 2009). The term trace elements refer to the elements present in very low concentrations, generally micrograms per kilogram, but which nevertheless remain essential for the proper functioning of the body’s various physiological systems (Schulze, Beck, and Hohenstein 2004). O’Dell and Sunde (1997) reported that trace elements are required by adults in the amount of 1 and 100 mg day−1. Essential micronutrients such as foliates, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc, iron, cobalt, chromium, molybdenum, and vitamins are essential as nutrients for humans and are organic compounds (Bender 2009).
Micronutrient malnutrition is defined as the presence of a limited number of micronutrients that hampers the normal functioning of the body, and mineral deficiency is termed as “hidden hunger” being a major concern worldwide, especially in developing countries (Mayer, Pfeiffer, and Beyer 2008). Micronutrient malnutrition affects more than 50% of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries. Malnutrition leads to an obvious increase in mortality and morbidity, poor growth and psychomotor growth in children, declines their academic performance, reduces immunity, leads to infertility, fatigue, irritability, weakness, reduces work efficiency of labors, results in loss of hair, muscle wasting, and stagnation of efforts. National gentrification reduces the lifespan and lifestyle of affected people (Stein 2010). Micronutrients are essential to human life in trace quantities for development, improved nutrition, and growth of physiological and biological functions (Gibson 2007). The health and nutritional status of an individual influence the bioavailability of micronutrients found in foods intended for accumulation in the human body as well as their age, sex, race, genotype, ethnicity, and physiological state. Micronutrient malnutrition is caused by insufficient intake of nutrient-rich food, nutrition loss due to poor diet, diseases, infection, and blood loss due to injuries and during menstruation cycle of women. It is a major worldwide threat to human health in the developing countries particularly after COVID-19, as it became evident that micronutrients play a significant role in providing resistance to respiratory infection (Calder 2020). The cause of this condition is the intake characterized by poor quality of diet of staple foods, low consumption of fish, animal products, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and these types of foods contain a large quantity of essential minerals and vitamins (Bouis, Boy-Gallego, and Meenakshi 2012a).
It is estimated that a large number of people in the developing countries suffer from micronutrient deficiencies and most undernourished people are poor; they cannot afford high-quality food, meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, and fruits, foods rich in micronutrients and some countries cannot grow these quality foods themselves because of limited resources (Bouis, Boy-Gallego, and Meenakshi 2012b). Major population in the developing countries are uniquely at a risk of poor growth and development, decreased skills and ability, disease, spontaneous death due to a diet insufficient to meet their needs and is poor in essential nutrients especially in South and Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America. For micronutrient-deficient population, cereal-based food is the only source of their everyday diet in a large fraction but unfortunately characteristically deficient in essential nutrients (Cakmak et al. 2010).
Micronutrient malnutrition is a major problem to well-being of humans especially in countries with limited resources (Pfeiffer and McClafferty 2007). For humans, rice, wheat, and corn are major staple food around the world, which are significant sources of calories contributing 23%, 17%, and 10% of total calories intake by humans but they lack sufficient amounts of minerals (iron, zinc, and selenium) and vitamins (A, E, and C) and folate (White and Brown 2010).
Micronutrient malnutrition is very common in areas where the soil has low bioavailability of plant micronutrients. The relationship between the soil and food crops’ nutritional status and human health is elucidated by the fact that food products of agricultural origin constitute the main source of human nutrition. The dynamic role of micronutrients is not only for human health but are also important for plant growth and development. In crop sciences, the enormous importance of micronutrients is inevitable since plants are basically dependent on nutrients as they have a profound impact on a range of plant activities. In soil, micronutrients are abundant; however, plants generally require them in trace amounts. Therefore, trace elements such as B, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn are considered micronutrients that plants acquire in trace amounts but play a projecting role in plant growth and development (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Salient features of biofortified crops.
In plants, micronutrients play a major role in morphological, psychological, and biochemical functions including the metabolism of plants, reproductive growth, photosynthesis chlorophyll synthesis, activation of enzymes, defense mechanism of plants, and seed development. So, availability of trace elements promotes health morphological, psychological, biochemical, and metabolic functions in plant, which untimely improves plants growth and development and their absence promotes abnormality in plants. Lintschinger, Fuchs, and Moser (1997) reported that antinutritional components including phytic acid, tannic acid, and other components such as indigestible dietary fibers are the major factors causing low absorption of trace elements in crop plants. However, hydrolysis of these components during the germination process increases the absorption rate of minerals and trace elements (Huertas et al. 2022). Therefore, antinutritional factors must be minimized to counter the negative interference with the nutrient availability (Díaz-Gómez et al. 2017).
Direct and indirect roles of environmental factors have been reported for micronutrient deficiencies, which is threatening to human health. Soil factors, including pH, humidity, soil type, temperature, high level of CO2, flooding, high rain, and harmful effects of micronutrients affect the bioavailability of micronutrients and lead to micronutrient deficiency in plants (Neenu and Ramesh 2020). Micronutrient deficiency is a universal phenomenon that exists particularly in soils with anaerobic conditions and soil types ranging from neutral to alkaline in arid regions (Liu et al. 2014). Concentrations of micronutrients in soil vary depending upon various factors such as soil type, soil testing procedure, and soil pH. Some plants can modify the rhizosphere by secreting H+ ions or organic acids that enhance the bioavailability and accumulation of micronutrients (Giri et al. 2017).
1.1.2 Role of Micronutrients in Humans
For human health, 22 mineral elements are essential (White and Broadley 2009). More than half of the human population is afflicted with the deficiency in iron, zinc, selenium, vitamin A, and folate. The human body cannot synthesize micronutrients, so they should be consumed through diet (Graham, Welch, and Bouis 2001).
1.1.2.1 Iron
Iron (Fe) is significant to growth of plants and humans, so it is considered one of the most critical micronutrients. Fe is the fourth most copious element in the earth crust (Zuo and Zhang 2011). Among the 10 most dominant causes of death, Fe ranks fifth and Zn is ranked sixth in the underdeveloped countries, and half of the world population is affected by insufficiencies in both Fe and Zn (Khush et al. 2012) where poor household and kindergarten children are severely affected due to the high demand for Fe. For plant development and growth, Fe is the most restrictive nutrient. Due to its physicochemical characteristics, Fe plays a key role in redox reactions and several enzymatic activities and acts as a cofactor in the human body (Sheftel, Mason, and Ponka 2012). Insufficient supply of iron may cause restricted mental growth, immune activation, disability, and diseases such as anemia, which rarely cause death (Miller 2013).
1.1.2.2 Zinc
Zinc is an essential micronutrient for both humans and plants because it is a cofactor in more than 300 enzymatic reactions, structural constituent of protein, gene expression regulation, and many biochemical pathways (White and Broadley 2009). Zn deficiency is the most ubiquitous problem in crops. Billions of people in developing countries are at high risk due to high occurrence of zinc insufficiency (Maret and Sandstead 2006). Zn deficiency causes severe immune dysfunctions, stunted and restricted growth, and diarrheal diseases (Hunt 2005); insufficient protein intake (Alloway 2009) is reported to be the cause of Zn insufficiency (Prasad 2013). So, the role of Zn in body function is important, and its deficiency leads to severe consequences. In plants, Zn plays a key role in the photosynthesis process, which is severely affected by Zn deficiency because activity of Rubisco is reduced, and ultimately photosynthesis rate is decreased. Impaired nitrogen metabolism, prolonged growth period, reduced flowering and fruit development, and decreased quality and yield are due to Zn insufficiency (Das and Green 2013).
1.1.2.3 Selenium
Selenium (Se) at very low concentrations has a significant role in humans, plants, and animals. Plants are considered to be a direct dietary source of Se. Se is an important factor in the development of the painful disease Kashin–Beck disease, which significantly affects the human health and ability to work especially in women and children (Yang, Chen, and Feng 2007). Prolonged deficiency of Se affects the cardiovascular system in humans, affects fertility in men, and decreases immunity (Malagoli, Schiavon, and Dall’Acqua 2015). In plants, Se at low concentrations creates resistance by acting as an antioxidant and a pro-oxidant against biotic and abiotic stress, such as extreme temperature, cold, salinity, drought, extreme light, and especially against heavy metals’ toxicity, thus improving the plant growth, development, and yield (Feng, Wei, and Tu 2013).
1.1.2.4 Iodine
Iodine is a vital component of the human diet, and iodine deficiency poses a major health problem. The recommended daily intake of iodine is between 90 and 250 µm. Most inland soils are iodine deficient, and crop plants consist of inadequate amounts of iodine to fulfill the daily recommended intake (Gonzali, Kiferle, and Perata 2017). So insufficient intake of iodine is considered one of the leading causes of micronutrient malnutrition. In humans, low intake of I causes iodine deficiency disorders, which leads to goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) due to inadequate thyroid hormones secretion. Iodine insufficiency during pregnancy may impair the growth and neuro-development of offspring, which ultimately affects the quality of life and economic productivity of community (Vasiljev et al. 2022).
1.1.2.5 Vitamin A
Vitamins are a small group of organic compounds that are essentially required for humans. Vitamin A plays a key role in many functions of the human body including growth, development, vision, reproduction, and immune response. Insufficient intake of vitamin A is one of the major globe health risks affecting millions of people in the developing and underdeveloped countries. Vitamin A deficiency causes dry eye or xerophthalmia, night blindness, sight loss, limited growth, increased morality, and corneal ulceration (Dawson 2000) in very young children and women in later adulthood (Stevens et al. 2015). Maximizing the intake of vitamin A is the only way to overcome its deficiency.
1.1.2.6 Folates
Folates are a group of water-soluble vitamin B (vitamin B9) and are essential elements in the human diet. The recommended intake ranges from 400 to 600 μg (Rider et al. 2012). Insufficient intake of folates causes serious health issues and developmental disorders in humans such as anemia and birth defects like neural tube defects (Blancquaert et al. 2014); hence, folate deficiency is one of the major concerns particularly in children and women. Folates play a key role in amino acids, nucleotides biosynthesis and metabolism and regeneration of methionine by homocysteine because they act as donor and acceptor of C1 (Saini et al. 2016).
Naeem et al. (2021) reported that populations around the world are consuming inadequate lithium (Li) compared to daily recommended intake of 1.0 mg day−1. Li has become a beneficial element for human health and it is an effective psychopharmacological agent.
1.1.3 Interventions to Overcome Deficiencies
Hidden hunger and malnutrition of micronutrients have been a serious threat to human life, thereby forcing researchers to develop interventions. To curb hidden hunger and micronutrient malnutrition, four strategies have been devised: dietary diversification, supplementation of mineral elements, food strengthening with micronutrients or food fortification, and biofortification (White and Broadley 2009).
1.1.3.1 Dietary Diversification
Human body needs essential micronutrients for growth and development, and these nutrients are derived from multiple sources including fruits, vegetables, and meat. No single food is capable of fulfilling complete nutrient requirements of vitamins and minerals for humans so a balanced and rich diet is required for adequate intake of micronutrients, and this technique is called dietary diversification (Stein et al. 2005). Basically, dietary diversification is intake of multiple types of foods containing significant amounts of both micro- and macronutrients that are essentially required for human growth and development. It helps alleviate all types of insufficiencies and improve and boost the immune system and is being a culturally suitable and acceptable method. Dietary diversification encourages to consume adequate amount of oils, fats, and vitamins to overcome undernourishment (Mene-Saffrane and Pellaud 2017). Dietary diversification is very difficult to implement in the developing countries because it is difficult to change the dietary pattern and due to lack of nutritional knowledge, and anti-nutritional factors. The major drawback of this approach is it is expensive to purchase high-quality food from diverse sources so practical implementation for a large targeted population is difficult.
1.1.3.2 Supplementation
Micronutrient supplementation is a widely practiced intervention to overcome micronutrient malnutrition of single and multiple deficiencies where high concentrations of micronutrients are consumed orally in the form of capsules, tablets, and syrups particularly in the developing countries where malnutrition is a long-term issue (Allen et al. 2006). Supplementation is the best remedy to curb malnutrition for a large population because it provides the required amount of certain nutrients in absorbable condition. Micronutrient supplementation programs are in place to overcome zinc, iron, vitamin, and calcium deficiencies among the high-risk population. In the developing countries, vitamin supplements are commonly used to overcome hidden hunger. For instance, calcium supplementation during pregnancy reduces the risk of gestational hypertension, and it can be provided in the form of tablets. The best absorbable form of iron includes ferrous gluconate, sulfate, and fumarate, while zinc can be supplied in the form of acetate, sulfate, and gluconate to overcome insufficiency. Supplementation is a direct, short-term, rapid, and controllable technique to tackle malnutrition with acute deficiency in the developing countries. Compared to dietary diversification, supplementation is an effective, quick, and cost-effective approach. Supplementation programs require a well-established network system comprised of awareness, procurement, purchase, and distribution to reach and convince rural population of highly affected. Another major drawback of supplementation is malnutrition owing to reduced intake (Allen et al. 2006). Another disadvantage of direct supplementation is development of toxicity, allergy, and vomit, which has severe effects on health of targeted population.
