Crystal Growth Technology E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 602

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Semiconductors and dielectrics are two essential materials found in cell phones and computers, for example, and both are manufactured by growing crystals.
Edited by the organizers of the International Workshop on Crystal Growth Technology, this ready reference is essential reading for materials scientists, chemists, physicists, computer hardware manufacturers, engineers, and those working in the chemical and semiconductor industries. They have assembled an international team of experts who present the current challenges, latest methods and new applications for producing these materials necessary for the electronics industry using bulk crystal growth technology.
From the contents:
* General aspects of crystal growth technology
* Compound semiconductors
* Halides and oxides
* Crystal growth for sustaining energy
* Crystal machining

Leseprobe

Contents

Foreword

Preface

List of Contributors

Part I: Basic Concepts in Crystal Growth Technology

1: Thermodynamic Modeling of Crystal-Growth Processes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 General Approach of Thermodynamic Modeling

1.3 Crystal Growth in the System Si-C-O-Ar (Example 1)

1.4 Crystal Growth of Carbon-Doped GaAs (Example 2)

1.5 Summary and Conclusions

2: Modeling of Vapor-Phase Growth of SiC and AlN Bulk Crystals

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Model Description

2.3 Results and Discussions

2.4 Conclusions

3: Advanced Technologies of Crystal Growth from Melt Using Vibrational Influence

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Axial Vibrational Control in Crystal Growth

3.3 AVC-Assisted Czochralski Method

3.4 AVC-Assisted Bridgman Method

3.5 AVC-Assisted Floating Zone Method

3.6 Conclusions

Part II: Semiconductors

4: Numerical Analysis of Selected Processes in Directional Solidification of Silicon for Photovoltaics

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Directional Solidification Method

4.3 Crystallization Process

4.4 Impurity Incorporation in Crystals

4.5 Summary

5: Characterization and Control of Defects in VCz GaAs Crystals Grown without B2O3 Encapsulant

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Retrospection

5.3 Crystal Growth without B2O3 Encapsulant

5.4 Inclusions, Precipitates and Dislocations

5.5 Residual Impurities and Special Defect Studies

5.6 Electrical and Optical Properties in SI GaAs

5.7 Boron in SC GaAs

5.8 Outlook on TMF-VCz

5.9 Conclusions

6: The Growth of Semiconductor Crystals (Ge, GaAs) by the Combined Heater Magnet Technology

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Selected Fundamentals

6.3 TMF Generation in Heater-Magnet Modules

6.4 The HMM Design

6.5 Numerical Modeling

6.6 Dummy Measurements

6.7 Growth Results under TMF

6.8 Conclusions and Outlook

7: Manufacturing of Bulk AlN Substrates

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Modeling

7.3 Experiment

7.4 Results and Discussion

7.5 Conclusions

8: Interactions of Dislocations During Epitaxial Growth of SiC and GaN

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Classification, Nomenclature and Characterization of Dislocations in SiC and GaN

8.3 Conversion of Basal Plane Dislocations During SiC Epitaxy

8.4 Reduction of Dislocations During Homoepitaxy of GaN

8.5 Conclusions

9: Low-Temperature Growth of Ternary III-V Semiconductor Crystals from Antimonide-Based Quaternary Melts

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Crystal Growth from Quaternary Melts

9.3 Advantages of Quaternary Melts

9.4 Synthesis and Bulk Crystal Growth

9.5 Conclusion

10: Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) Growth Technology Using ACRT and LPE

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Bridgman/ACRT Growth of MCT

10.3 Liquid Phase Epitaxy of MCT

11: The Use of a Platinum Tube as an Ampoule Support in the Bridgman Growth of Bulk CZT Crystals

11.1 Introduction

11.2 The Importance of the Solid/Liquid Interface

11.3 Approaches for Crystal Growth Using Ampoule Support

11.4 Results and Discussions

11.5 Conclusions

Part III: Dielectrics

12: Modeling and Optimization of Oxide Crystal Growth

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Radiative Heat Transfer (RHT)

12.3 Numerical Model

12.4 Results and Discussion

12.5 Conclusions

13: Advanced Material Development for Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE)1)

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Production of Nd: phosphate Laser Glass and KDP Frequency-Conversion Crystals

13.3 Yb:S-FAP Crystals

13.4 YCOB Crystals

13.5 Advanced Material Concepts for Power-Plant Designs

13.6 Summary

14: Magneto-Optic Garnet Sensor Films: Preparation, Characterization, Application

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Bi-Substituted Garnets

14.3 LPE Deposition and Topological Film Properties

14.4 Magnetic and Magneto-Optic Film Properties

14.5 Applications

14.6 Conclusions

15: Growth Technology and Laser Properties of Yb-Doped Sesquioxides

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Structure and Physical Properties

15.3 Crystal Growth

15.4 Spectroscopic Characterization

15.5 Laser Experiments

15.6 Summary and Outlook

16: Continuous Growth of Alkali-Halides: Physics and Technology

16.1 Modern Requirements to Large Alkali-Halide Crystals

16.2 Conditions of Steady-State Crystallization in Conventional Melt-Growth Methods and in Their Modifications

16.3 Macrodefect Formation in AHC

16.4 Dynamics of Thermal Conditions during Continuous Growth

16.5 Advanced Growth-Control Algorithms

16.6 Summary

17: Trends in Scintillation Crystals

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Novel Scintillation Materials

17.3 Scintillation Detectors for Image Visualization and Growth Techniques for Scintillation Crystals

17.4 High Spatial Resolution Scintillation Detectors

17.5 Conclusions

Part IV: Crystal Machining

18: Crystal Machining Using Atmospheric Pressure Plasma

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Plasma Chemical Vaporization Machining (PCVM)

18.3 Numerically Controlled Sacrificial Oxidation [14]

18.4 Conclusions

Index

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© 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

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ISBN: 978-3-527-32593-1

Foreword

This volume deals with the technologies of the fabrication of important semiconducting and dielectric crystals, with their characterization, and with the machining of these bulk crystals. Thus, it will be of interest to all scientists, engineers and students who are engaged in this wide field of crystal technology. The largest fraction of industrial crystals consists of semiconductors such as silicon, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, germanium, cadmium telluride and its solid solutions, and group-III nitrides. Another large fraction of dielectric crystals includes optical and scintillation crystals and crystals for the watch and jewelry industries.

The requirements with respect to structural perfection, homogeneity and yield are ever increasing, so that the crystal-producing industries are interested in the optimum method to fabricate quasiperfect crystals economically. For a specific crystal there are perhaps only one or two optimum growth methods, when taking into account all relevant factors like thermodynamics, amortization of equipment, building and infrastructure, labor and material costs, consumption of energy and cooling water, and increasingly important ecological aspects. Thereby, the advantages and problems of batch processes should be compared with a quasicontinuous Czochralski (CCZ) process, an example of which is discussed in this book. Also, the many growth parameters have to be optimized and often compromised, like the temperature gradient at the growth interface, which should be low for high structural perfection and homogeneity, but as high as possible to remove the latent heat and to achieve economic high growth rates.

Another growth parameter is convection that was long regarded as harmful by causing inhomogeneities (striations). Thus, great efforts were spent to reduce convection by microgravity (Skylab, Spacelab, etc.) or by damping magnetic fields. But then it was theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that forced convection of nearly isothermal melt fractions does not cause striations. Now, forced convection has become more widespread as it has the additional advantage to reduce the diffusion boundary layer in front of the growing crystal and thus increases the stable growth rate of inclusion- free crystals. Even alternating flow directions and flow velocities like reciprocal stirring in growth from aqueous solutions, or accelerated crucible rotation (ACRT) or the small mixed-melt volume in the CCZ process in growth from high-temperature melts can be optimized to yield striation-free crystals. In this connection it will be interesting to see whether vibrations or magnetic stirring, as proposed in this volume, will find wide application, despite some obvious problems.

Modeling of crystal growth processes has become increasingly important as-with progress in computers and software-it is approaching realistic time, dimension and energy scaling, including complex convection regimes for industrial crystal fabrication. Five reviews in the book deal with numerical process simulation, which will thus assist with establishing the optimum growth method and the optimum growth parameters.

Also, in the production of epitaxial layers (epilayers) and multilayers one would expect an optimum growth method although epitaxy from the vapor phase (like metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)) has become dominating, whereas liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) is losing its dominating role. Since in LPE the free-energy difference between the mobile species and the solid is by several orders of magnitude lower than in epitaxy from the vapor phase, the corresponding low supersaturation in LPE allows a real layer-by-layer (Frank-Van der Merwe) growth mode. Thus, the fabrication of structurally quite perfect layers with extremely flat surfaces is possible in homoepitaxy and in heteroepitaxy when the misfit between substrate and layer is low. These advantages are exploited in LPE production of CdHgTe (CMT) and of magnetic garnet films as outlined in this book; LPE of GaN is also now in development.

Characterization of industrial crystals, layers and surfaces is well established and required to achieve optimum performance and yield. However, characterization is not often done for crystals used in solid-state physics research. Sufficient characterization is defined as analysis of all those structural and chemical aspects of the sample that have or may have an influence on the specific measurement, because all crystals are different with respect to defects, impurities and inhomogeneities. Especially in physical measurements of high- temperature superconductors this was neglected so that many measurements are not reproducible.

Optimization is required for all aspects of crystal technology, also for crystal machining. Optimized sawing of crystals increases the yield of crystal and wafers and reduces the lapping and polishing/etching efforts. The development of novel crystal machining processes is essential and is covered in this volume.

Crystal technology has been and continues to be a key element in the development of micro- and optoelectronics and thus of computers, communications, and widespread electronics. With the forthcoming energy crisis, and the related climate-CO2 problem, advances in crystal technology will become even more important and an essential factor for the future of mankind. Contributions of crystal technology will be crucial for saving energy, in energy transport, in renewable energy, and possibly also for the future hope of inertial fusion energy; the required crystal development of which is discussed in this book. Enormous amounts of energy can be saved with improved wide-bandgap devices based on GaN and SiC to be applied in all kinds of illumination (LEDs) and in high-power/high-temperature electronics. In renewable energy, photovoltaic cells based on III-V compounds with high efficiency (ε > 35%) using concentrated sunlight will compete with the presently preferred silicon-based solar cells with a maximum ε of only 18%, thus requiring large panel surface areas. High-temperature superconductivity (HTSC) could have an enormous role in energy saving and storage, in electric power transmission and in renewable energy, if its complex crystal- and material-technology problems could be solved, a chance missed in the hectic 20 years after the discovery of HTSC that were dominated by nonreproducible HTSC physics.

Despite its importance crystal technology is faced with the problem that no targeted education exists of crystal-technology scientists and engineers. So far, crystalproducing companies have had to hire chemists, material scientists, or physicists and provide them with extended education and training. One would wish that soon some technical universities would establish a multidisciplinary curriculum followed by special courses of all aspects of crystal technology and practical training in companies in order to produce crystal-technology scientists and engineers. This book will assist students and lecturers in this task, besides being useful for the exchange of experiences of current crystal-growth experts.

Hans J. Scheel

Beatenberg, Switzerland, February 2010

Preface

This book deals with the technologies of crystal growth, crystal characterization and crystal machining. As such it will be of interest to all scientists, engineers and students who are engaged in this wide field of technology. High -quality crystals form the basis of many industries, including telecommunications, information technology, energy technology (both energy saving and renewable energy), lasers, and a wide variety of detectors of various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Of the approximately 30 000 tons of bulk crystals produced annually the largest fraction consists of semiconductors such as silicon, gallium arsenide, indium phosphides, germanium, group-III nitrides, cadmium telluride and cadmium mercury telluride. Other large fractions include optical and scintillator crystals and crystals for the laser, watch and jewellery industries.

For most applications these crystals must be machined, i.e. sliced, lapped, polished, etched or surface treated in various ways. These processes are critical to the economic use of these crystals as they are a strong driver of yields of usable material. Improvements are always sought in these various areas for a particular crystal.

This book contains 18 selected reviews from the "Fourth International Workshop on Crystal Growth Technology" organized in Beatenberg, Switzerland by Hans Scheel between 18-25 May, 2008. The first in the series "First International School on Crystal Growth Technology" was also in Beatenberg between 5-14, September 1998, the second in the series was held between August 24-29, 2000 in Mount Zao Resort, Japan and the third was held in Beatenberg, Switzerland between 10-18 September, 2005. The first workshop generated a book of 29 selected reviews that was published in 2003 by Wiley, UK entitled "Crystal Growth Technology" edited by Hans J. Scheel and Tsuguo Fukuda, while the third generated a book of 19 selected reviews that was published in 2008 by Wiley -VCH, Germany entitled "Crystal Growth Technology" edited by Hans J. Scheel and Peter Capper.

Part 1 covers general aspects of crystal-growth technology, including thermodynamics, modelling of vapor growth, and the influence of vibration on growth. Part 2 discusses the growth of several compound semiconductors in more detail. These include gallium arsenide, aluminum nitride, silicon carbide, III-V ternaries, cadmium mercury telluride and cadmium zinc telluride. Part 3 covers the growth and applications of a range of dielectric crystals, including oxides and sesquioxides, halides, and garnets for a wide range of applications. The final section of the book, Part 4, contains just one chapter on the current situation in crystal machining using plasmas.

The editors would like to thank all the contributors for their valuable reviews and the sponsors of IWCGT-4. Furthermore, the editors gratefully acknowledge the patience and hard work of the following at Wiley-VCH: Eva-Stina Riihiäki, Martin Graf, Maike Petersen and Hans-Jochen Schmitt.

The editors hope that the book will contribute to the scientific development of crystal-growth technologies and the education of future generations of crystal-growth engineers and scientists.

Peter Capper and Peter Rudolph

Southampton, UK and Berlin, Germany

List of Contributors

Oleg V. Avdeev

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

C.P.J. Barty

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

A.J. Bayramian

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Patrick Berwian

Fraunhofer Institute of Integrated Systems and Device Technology (IISB) Department of Crystal Growth Schottkystraße 10 91058 Erlangen Germany

Eberhard Buhrig

Freiberger Compound Materials GmbH Crystal Growth and Basic Research Am Junger Löwe Schacht 5 Freiberg 09599 Germany Institut für NE - Metallurgie und Reinststoffe TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Straße 34 Freiberg 09599 Germany

J.A. Caird

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Peter Capper

Selex Galileo Infrared Ltd 1st Avenue, Millbrook Industrial Estate Southampton SO15 0LG UK

V. Carcelén

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Laboratorio de Crecimiento de Cristales, Dpto. Física de Materiales Facultad de Ciencias Madrid 28049 Spain

B.H.T. Chai

Crystal Photonics, Inc. 5525 Sanford Lane Sanford, FL 32773 USA

Tatiana Yu. Chemekova

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

Matthias Czupalla

Leibniz Institute for Crystal Growth (IKZ) Max - Born - Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Svetlana E. Demina

STR Group Ltd. Engels av. 27, P.O. Box 89 194156, St.-Petersburg Russia

Ernesto Diéguez

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Laboratorio de Crecimiento de Cristales, Dpto. Física de Materiales Facultad de Ciencias Madrid 28049 Spain Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Crystal Growth Laboratory (CGL) Materials Physics Department. Madrid 28049 Spain

Partha.S. Dutta

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Department of Electrical, Computer, and Systems Engineering Troy, NY 12180 USA

C.A. Ebbers

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Y. Fei

Crystal Photonics, Inc. 5525 Sanford Lane Sanford, FL 32773 USA

Christiane Frank - Rotsch

Leibniz Institute for Crystal Growth (IKZ) Max - Born - Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Jochen Friedrich

Fraunhofer Institute of Integrated Systems and Device Technology (IISB) Department of Crystal Growth Schottkystraße 10 91058 Erlangen Germany

Alexander V. Gektin

Institute of Scintillation Materials Department of Crystal Growth Technology 60 Lenin Ave 61001 Kharkov Ukraine

Peter Görnert

Innovent e.V. Pruessingstraße 27B 07745 Jena Germany

Heikki Helava

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

G. Huber

University of Hamburg Institute of Laser-Physics Luruper Chaussee 149 22761 Hamburg Germany

Manfred Jurisch

Institut für NE-Metallurgie und Reinststoffe TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Straße 34 Freiberg 09599 Germany

Koichi Kakimoto

Kyushu University Research Institute for Applied Mechanics 6-1, Kasuga - Koen Kasuga 816-8580 Japan

Vladimir V. Kalaev

STR Group Ltd. Engels av. 27, P.O. Box 89 194156, St.-Petersburg Russia

Birgit Kallinger

Fraunhofer Institute of Integrated Systems and Device Technology (IISB) Department of Crystal Growth Schottkystraße 10 91058 Erlangen Germany

Frank M. Kiessling

Leibniz-Institut für Kristallzüchtung Max-Born-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Frank - Michael Kiessling

Leibniz Institute for Crystal Growth (IKZ) Max-Born-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Jürgen Korb

Institut für NE-Metallurgie und Reinststoffe TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Straße 34 Freiberg 09599 Germany

Alexander T. Kuliev

STR Group Ltd. Engels av. 27, P.O. Box 89 194156, St.-Petersburg Russia

Morris Lindner

Innovent e.V. Pruessingstraße 27B 07745 Jena Germany

Andreas Lorenz

Innovent e.V. Pruessingstraße 27B 07745 Jena Germany

Bernd Lux

Leibniz Institute for Crystal Growth (IKZ) Max-Born-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Yuri N. Makarov

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

Kirill M. Mazaev

STR Group Ltd. Engels av. 27, P.O. Box 89 194156, St.-Petersburg Russia

Elke Meissner

Fraunhofer Institute of Integrated Systems and Device Technology (IISB) Department of Crystal Growth Schottkystraße 10 91058 Erlangen Germany

J.A. Menapace

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Evgenii N. Mokhov

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

Sergei S. Nagalyuk

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

Olf Pätzold

Institut für NE-Metallurgie und Reinststoffe TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Straße 34 Freiberg 09599 Germany

Klaus Petermann

University of Hamburg Institute of Laser-Physics Luruper Chaussee 149 22761 Hamburg Germany

R. Peters

University of Hamburg Institute of Laser-Physics Luruper Chaussee 149 22761 Hamburg Germany

C. Porter

Northrop Grumman/Synoptics 1201 Continental Blvd. Charlotte, NC 28273 USA

Mark G. Ramm

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA

M.A. Randles

Northrop Grumman/Synoptics 1201 Continental Blvd. Charlotte, NC 28273 USA

Hendryk Richert

Innovent e.V. Pruessingstraße 27B 07745 Jena Germany

G.T. Rogowski

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Peter Rudolph

Leibniz Institute for Crystal Growth (IKZ) Max-Born-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany

Yasuhisa Sano

Osaka University Graduate School of Engineering Department of Precision Science and Technology 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita Osaka 565-0871 Japan

Kathleen Schaffers

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Alexander S. Segal

Nitride Crystals Inc. 10404 Patterson Ave., S. 108 Richmond, VA 23238 USA STR Group Ltd P.O. Box 89 194156, St. Petersburg Russia

Oleg Sidletskiy

Institute for Scintillation Materials Department of Crystal Growth Technology NAS of Ukraine, 60 Lenin Ave. 61001 Kharkiv Ukraine

T.F. Soules

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

C.A. Stolz

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

S.B. Sutton

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

Roman A. Talalaev

STR Group Ltd P.O. Box 89 194156, St. Petersburg Russia

J.B. Tassano

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

P.A. Thelin

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory PO Box 808 Livermore, CA 94551 USA

N. Vijayan

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Laboratorio de Crecimiento de Cristales, Dpto. Física de Materiales Facultad de Ciencias Madrid 28049 Spain National Physical Laboratory New Delhi 110 012 India

Andrey N. Vorob'ev

STR Group Ltd P.O. Box 89 194156, St. Petersburg Russia

Eugene V. Yakovlev

STR Group Ltd P.O. Box 89 194156, St. Petersburg Russia

Kazuya Yamamura

Osaka University Graduate School of Engineering Research Center for Ultra-Precision Science and Technology 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita Osaka 565-0871 Japan

Kazuto Yamauchi

Osaka University Graduate School of Engineering Department of Precision Science and Technology 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita Osaka 565-0871 Japan Osaka University Graduate School of Engineering Research Center for Ultra-Precision Science and Technology 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita Osaka 565-0871 Japan

Evgeny V. Zharikov

D. Mendeleyev University of Chemical Technology of Russia Miusskaya Sq., 9 Moscow, 125047 Russia General Physics Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences Vavilov St., 38 Moscow, 119991 Russia

Alexander I. Zhmakin

Russian Academy of Sciences A.F. Ioffe Physical Technical Institute Polytechnicheskaya 26 194021, St. Petersburg Russia

Part I

Basic Concepts in Crystal Growth Technology