Development of Geopolymer from Pond Ash-Thermal Power Plant Waste E-Book

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DEVELOPMENT OF GEOPOLYMER FROM POND ASH-THERMAL POWERPLANT WASTE Explains how geopolymer technologies using industrial waste obtained from thermal power plants become cementitious materials in construction sectors for civil engineers. Utilization of waste materials has become a global challenge since they endanger our environment. In this book, the authors demonstrate how to utilize fly ash/pond ash (waste materials from thermal power plants) to produce a novel material called 'Geopolymer' (GP). Red mud, slags, etc., are mixed with fly ash to produce GP with enhanced strength. As shown in a few European countries, GP can replace cement, and some permanent structures constructed with GP are now appearing in a few advanced countries. GP, and geopolymer concrete, is considered suitable for the construction of roads, buildings, etc., and will eventually, fully or partially, replace cement. The book highlights the mechanism of the formation of GP from pond ash. Properties of structures made with GP concrete are found to be comparable to those made with cement concrete. Systematic investigations are presented to understand the chemistry of GP formation with pond ash materials. Performances of these materials above ambient temperature, as well as with different environmental conditions, are also evaluated. Audience The book will be used by civil engineers in the construction and ceramic industries, as well as the industrial waste sector. Researchers in materials science, structural and civil engineering, environmental science, and ceramic engineering, will also benefit. Additionally, the book is suitable for graduate courses in civil engineering.

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Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Development of Geopolymer from Pond Ash-Thermal Power Plant Waste

Novel Constructional Materials for Civil Engineers

Edited by

Muktikanta PanigrahiRatan Indu Ganguly

and

Radha Raman Dash

This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-16652-7

Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson

This book is dedicated to Professor Basudam Adhikari, the former head of the Materials Science Centre of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kharagpur, West Bengal, India. On many occasions he extended his support and encouraged our work on new materials. Lab support was also provided to the authors, especially for characterization of materials.

Preface

The idea of this book originated with a book chapter published in 2014* that extensively reviewed the development of geopolymer from fly ash (FA). Simultaneously, in a program sponsored and financed by M/S, NALCO Company, work was going on in the production of ceramic wall tiles from fly ash obtained from thermal power stations. While working on the project, industry management discussed their bottom ash disposal problem, which they used to dump in adjoining ponds. Therefore, the authors examined the composition of bottom ash vis-a-vis pond ash. Since the main ingredients are silica and alumina, it was thought to use this material for making geopolymer.

Some experiments were performed to determine the feasibility of developing geopolymer from pond ash (PA). With encouraging experimental results, the authors submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Mines, Government of India. The project was sanctioned and work started in full swing, with reports periodically submitted to the Ministry of Mines, Government of India.

The authors observed that utilization of waste materials, such as pond ash, is a global challenge since it endangers the environment. Presently, R&D is being carried out to utilize these materials for producing value-added products. In the present investigation, an effort has been made to utilize fly ash/pond ash (waste materials from thermal power plants) for producing a novel material called geopolymer. Red mud, slags, etc., were mixed with fly ash to produce geopolymer with enhanced strength.

Geopolymer (GP) can replace cement, as shown by a few European countries, and some permanent structures constructed with GP are now appearing in a few advanced countries. Geopolymer and geopolymer concrete is thought to be suitable for construction of roads, buildings, etc., and will eventually fully or partially replace cement. Thus, it is no wonder why some scientists are trying to develop GP using waste materials.

This book highlights the formation mechanism of GP from pond ash. This will perhaps be the first attempt to use pond ash for developing GP.

The properties of structures made with GP concrete are found to be comparable with those made with cement concrete. Systematic investigations have been carried out in order to understand the chemistry or GP formation with pond ash materials. Performances of these materials above ambient temperature, as well as under different environments, are evaluated. Results indicate the possible replacement of cement with newly invented GP prepared from pond ash.

Muktikanta Panigrahi

Ratan Indu Ganguly

Radha Raman Dash

June 2022

Note

*

Pradeep Kumar Rana, Radha Raman Dash and Ratan Indu Ganguly, “Geopolymer from Industrial Wastes” in

Advanced Composites for Aerospace, Marine, and Land Applications

, Tomoko Sano, T.S. Srivatsan, and Michael W Peretti (eds.), TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2014.

1Historical Development of Construction Materials – From Stone Age to Modern Age

Ashis Kumar Samal1, Muktikanta Panigrahi2*, Ratan Indu Ganguly3 and Radha Raman Dash4

1Department of Civil Engineering, Gandhi Institute of Engineering and Technology University, Gunupur, India

2PG Department Materials Science, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Keonjhar Campus, Odisha, India

3Department of Metallurgical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Raurkela, Odisha, India

4CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India

Abstract

In this chapter, the history of construction and the synthesis, spectroscopic characteristics, thermal and mechanical behavior of construction materials, such as their compressive strength, and the durability of industrial waste are presented. Because of their potential application in construction sectors, the mechanical and corrosion properties of the materials are studied in detail. In addition to ancient construction materials, different industrial waste, such as fly ash, pond ash, bottom ash, various slags, and geopolymers are also discussed.

Keywords: Ancient construction materials, thermal power plant wastes, non-ferrous and ferrous industry waste geopolymer, physico-mechanical properties, geopolymer synthesis, geopolymer properties-mechanical and corrosion

1.1 Introduction

The history of construction is connected with many other fields of structural engineering. An investigation into how builders lived and their activities has been recorded, which allows us to analyze constructed buildings and other structures, the tools used to construct them, and different uses of building materials. The history of building has evolved over time, along with the key principles of durability of the materials used, increasing the height and span of structures, degree of control exercised over the interior environment, and finally the energy available for the construction process [1, 2].

1.2 Chronological Development of Construction

1.2.1 Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age is also known as the New Stone Age, the time period from roughly 9000 BC to 5000 BC. The tools used at that time were made from natural materials such as bone, hides, stone, wood, grasses, and animal fibers. People used tools, such as axes, choppers, adzes, and celts, to cut by hand. Also, to scrape, chop such as with a flake tool, pound, pierce, roll, pull and leaver. Building materials included bones such as mammoth ribs, hides, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, clay, lime plaster, and more. Neolithic tools used in the reconstruction of a pithouse-type dwelling made with mammoth bones are shown in Figure 1.1. Dwellings at the time, such as caves and rock shelters, were very simple, and resembled tents like the Inuit’s tupiq and huts sometimes built as pithouses. These constructed structures are found in the stone-built Neolithic settlement of Skara Brae in Scotland and in Europe’s Neolithic village. In the Neolithic period, mold-made mud bricks were first used for the structures found in Jericho [3–5].

Figure 1.1 Reconstruction of a pit-house type of dwelling made with mammoth bones (a) and Neolithic tools (b) [1].

Neolithic architecture ranges from the tent to the megalith, i.e., arrangement of large stones. Temples, tombs, and dwellings were rock-cut architecture. The most remarkable Neolithic structure, i.e., iconic megalith, in Western Europe is Stonehenge.

1.2.2 Copper Age and Bronze Age

Copper started being used prior to 5,000 BC, and bronze around 3,100 BC. Copper and bronze were used to make tools such as axes and chisels, and were also used in the cutting edge tools of the time [1]. Figure 1.2 shows a bronze saw developed during this period that was found at the archaeological site of Akrotiri that can be seen in the Museum of Prehistoric Thera in Santorini, Greece.

In the Bronze Age, the corbelled arch came into use (beehive tombs). Prior to the wheel, heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers.

The Egyptians began building stone temples using the post and lintel construction method. The Greeks and Romans used similar techniques [1].

1.2.3 Iron Age and Steel Age

The Iron Age is a cultural period from about 1200 BC to 50 BC. During this period, iron was widely used to make tools and weapons. After 300 BC, steel was produced by mixing carbon and iron, ushering in the Steel Age. Steel can be hardened and tempered producing a sharp, durable cutting edge. A new woodworking tool allowed by the use of steel is the hand-plane [1].

Figure 1.2 A bronze saw from the archaeological site of Akrotiri on display at the Museum of Prehistoric Thera in Santorini, Greece.

1.2.4 Ancient Mesopotamia

Evidence survives of the large-scale buildings built by the ancient Mesopotamians. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations. The major technical achievements of Mesopotamian construction are great cities such as Uruk and Ur. Out of these, the Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period. Another fine construction is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. The chief building material was the mud-brick prepared by wooden molds with varied size, including rectangular and square-sized bricks. By 3500 BC, fired bricks and stone were used for preparing pavement. The later Mesopotamians, particularly in Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork of a high quality for decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings [6].

1.2.5 Ancient Egypt

The Egyptian pharaohs built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of their ancient buildings. In ancient Egypt, adobe (i.e., sunbaked mud brick) was used for constructing ancillary buildings and normal houses. The characteristics of mud-brick, which allows rain to drain quickly away, are ideal for the hot, dry climate of Egypt. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor), is constructed by mud brick. Also, extensive storehouses are built with mud-brick. The grandest buildings, such as the pyramids (Figure 1.3) and temples are constructed in stone, which are massive masonry blocks.

Figure 1.3 (a) Great Pyramid of Giza and (b) the Menkaure Pyramid [1].

The Egyptians did their work using relatively primitive techniques. They transported massive stones for long distances by rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of workers. They invented the ramp, lever, lathe, oven, ship, paper, irrigation system, window, awning, door, glass, a form of plaster of Paris, the bath, lock, shadoof, weaving, a standardized measurement system, geometry, silo, a method of drilling stone, saw, steam power, proportional scale drawings, enameling, veneer, plywood, rope truss, and more. They also knew how to lift stones to great heights and erect obelisks. Most theories center on the use of ramps. Imhotep, who lived circa 2650– 2600 BC, is acknowledged as the first recorded architect and engineer.

1.2.6 Ancient Greece and Rome

The ancient Greeks tended to build most of their common buildings with mud bricks. Some of their most dramatic structures are the Greek temples [7]. Figure 1.4 shows various masonry techniques used in ancient Greece and Rome.

Figure 1.4 Various masonry techniques of ancient Greece and Rome [1].

They used many advances in technology, i.e., plumbing, spiral staircase, central heating, urban planning, the water wheel, crane, etc. The oldest construction drawing is in the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. The spans are very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans, it is not known whether the Greeks or Romans invented the truss. Prior to 650 B.C.E., the famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, and after this date, stone was used to build temples [8]. Fired clays were used for decorations. Next, fired bricks with lime mortar started being employed. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles that mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts.

Because the process used by later cultures of constructing a limited number of buildings using thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores was a slow, expensive and laborious process, the Greeks used large cut blocks joined with metal cramps. Building structures were mostly a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches. Also, they constructed some groin vaults, arch bridges, and made the Lighthouse of Alexandria with the Egyptians (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), which was the first high rise. Their surveying skills enabled them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon [9].

The structure of buildings made by the Romans, such as the Pantheon in Rome, are very well preserved. The great Roman development in building materials is Roman cement, which is a hydraulic lime mortar which would harden under water. It is a strong material used for bulk walling. It was also the Romans who developed the treadwheel crane shown in Figure 1.5. They are used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and also filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete. Later, they used wooden shuttering, which was removed for the concrete to cure. A temple is made of Roman concrete in the 1st century BC is the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy. The concrete was made from rubble and mortar. It was cheap because of the low production cost. They used it to make arches, barrel vaults and domes, spans. They also developed systems of hollow pots to make domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. The Romans also made bronze roof tiles [10] and during the Iron Age in Germany (1st to 3rd century AD) they developed the hand plane shown in Figure 1.6.

The Romans used lead as a roof covering material. They also used glass in construction; colored glass for mosaics and clear glass for windows [9]. The Romans also invented central heating with a hypocaust system that circulated the exhaust of a wood or coal fire.

Figure 1.5 Roman treadwheel crane at Bonn, Germany [1].

Figure 1.6 Roman hand plane developed during the Iron Age in Germany (1st to 3rd century AD) [1].

Most construction was done by slaves or free men. The use of slave labor definitely cut costs, which was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The construction of very large structures could only be undertaken with vast numbers of workers.

The Romans invented the waterwheel, sawmill, and arch. After 100 CE, they also used glass for architectural purposes. Also, they used double glazing, which acted as insulated glazing. Moreover, they made roads such as corduroy roads and paved roads, sometimes supported on raft or pile foundations and bridges. The Romans also developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights (up to 100 tonnes) to great heights. Trajan’s column in Rome contains some of the largest stones. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in ancient architectural records. Roman building inventiveness extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheaters. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable. However, very little evidence has survived concerning the form of their timber roof structures. Possibly, the triangulated roof trusses built by Romans did not exceed a span of 30 meters.

1.2.7 Ancient China

China is a cultural hearth area of eastern Asia, and many building methods evolved from China. The famous Great Wall of China provides an example of their construction methods. Constructed between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC, it was built with rammed earth, stones, and wood; and later bricks and tiles with lime mortar. They used wooden gates for blocking passageways. The oldest archaeological examples of mortise and woodworking joints, dating back to about 5000 BC, are found in China. The Yingzao Fashi is the oldest technical manual on Chinese architecture. Since the Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years, many of the ancient buildings built using these methods and materials were still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples were usually made with wooden timber frames on an earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating back to 782 AD. Since the temple builders regularly reconstructed the wooden temples, some parts are of different ages. Generally, traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses. The Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It was built with yellow fired bricks and clay mortar, and has twelve sides and fifteen levels of roofs. Built in 595–605 AD, the Anji Bridge is the world’s oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. It was built with sandstone and joined with dovetail, iron joints. Most of the Great Wall restored sections were built with bricks and cut stone blocks/slabs. If bricks and blocks were not available, the builders used local materials such as tamped earth, uncut stones, wood, and even reeds. Wood was used for forts as an auxiliary material.

In mountain areas, workers excavated stone to build the Great Wall. Using the mountains as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available.

On the plains, workers rammed compact layers of local soil (sand, loess, etc.) into the Great Wall. Jiayuguan’s Great Wall section in west China was mainly built with dusty loess soil.

Sand was used as a fill material between reed and willow layers. In desert areas, builders made use of reeds and willow. Jade Gate Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was constructed with 20-cm layers of sand and reed at an impressive 9 meters high.

Bricks with lime mortar were mostly used to build the Ming Dynasty Great Wall. Workers built brick and cement factories using local materials near the wall.

1.2.8 The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages of Europe is the period that extends from the 5th to 15th centuries AD that falls between the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance. It is divided into Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque periods.

In the Middle Ages, the Europeans used some Roman techniques to construct the fortifications, castles and cathedrals. These techniques, including iron ring-beams, appear to have been used in the Palatine Chapel at Aachen in 800 AD, where it is believed builders from the Longobard kingdom in northern Italy contributed to the work [10]. The 9th century saw a revival of stone buildings and the Romanesque style of architecture began in the late 11th century. Also of note are the famous stave churches found in Scandinavia [11]. In the 13th century, Villard de Honnecourt recorded details of buildings of the Gothic era. Some of his drawings have survived, including one of the flying buttresses of Rheims Cathedral at Reims, ca. AD 1320–1335, shown in Figure 1.7.

Most buildings in Northern Europe were built of timber until about 1000 AD, whereas adobe remained predominant in Southern Europe. Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy from 600–1000 AD. The skill of brick-making had largely disappeared along with that for burning tiles. Roofs were mainly thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large communal hall. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The Cistercians may have been responsible for introducing brick-making technology to different areas—from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland—leading to Brick Gothic. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period. Everywhere else, buildings were typically in timber or stone. Medieval stone walls were built using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill with weak lime mortars. Due to the poor hardening behavior of these mortars, the settlement of the rubble filling was cause for concern, and continues to be a major problem. Workers transported large stones on ox-drawn sledges to construct churches, as depicted in a sculpture from the 10th century Korogho church in Georgia shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.7 Villard de Honnecourt’s drawing of the flying buttresses of Reims Cathedral, ca. AD 1320–1335 [1].

There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman’s livelihood. Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full size on tracing floors, some of which survive.

Figure 1.8 Workers transport a large stone on an ox-drawn sledge for the construction of a church. A sculpture from the 10th century Korogho church in Georgia [1].

At this time, buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done by laborers paid by the day and skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. It is unclear whether there were women members in the guilds that monopolized a particular trade in a particular area. A built town was very small and was dominated by the homes of a small number of rich nobles or merchants and by cathedrals/ churches.

In the period of 600–1100 AD, Romanesque buildings were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecture developed in the twelfth century had vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were built using the trial-and-error method. The pile driver was invented around 1500.

In the Middle Ages, the scale of fortifications and castle building was impressive. The outstanding buildings of the period, such as Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral, King’s College Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris, were Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass.

1.2.9 The Renaissance

In Italy, the invention of moveable type and the printing press during the Renaissance changed the character of building. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. In the Middle Ages, buildings were designed by those who built them. The master mason and master carpenters learned their skills by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and the rule of thumb, which is to determine the sizes of building elements. However, Vitruvius describes the education of the perfect architect in detail. They must be skilled in all the subjects of arts and sciences disciplines. Filippo Brunelleschi was the first Renaissance style architect. He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying the ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

In this period, the major breakthroughs were related to the technology of conversion. In western Europe, water mills were used to saw timber and convert it into planks. Bricks were also used in huge quantities. In Italy, brick makers organized into associations. They used kilns mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and the easy availability of firewood materials. Brick makers were paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result, legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes. Each town kept measures against which bricks were to be compared. There was an increasing demand for ironwork to be used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts. Screw-threaded bolts and nuts made during this period could, for example, be observed in the clocks of this period. However, since making them was labor-intensive, they could not be used in big structures. Roofing was usually terracotta roof tiles. The Italians followed Roman precedents. In northern Europe, people used plain tiles and stone remained the material of choice for prestige buildings. A church in Kizhi, Russia, listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site building constructed entirely out of wood using the log building technique is shown in Figure 1.9.

During the Renaissance, the rebirth of classical culture was reflected by architects, drastically transforming building design. Prior to this, architecture was viewed as a technical art that required an artisan. The change in architecture and the architect are key to understanding the changes in the design process. The Renaissance architect was often an artist, i.e., a painter or sculptor, who had to provide detailed drawings to the craftsmen. This process involved he ability to make the drawing and the intellectual capacity to invent the design. The architect was only infrequently involved in particularly difficult technical problems since the technical part of architecture was mainly left up to the craftsmen. This changed how buildings were designed. Whereas the Medieval craftsmen were inclined to approach a problem with a technical solution, the Renaissance architects started with an idea and then searched around for a way of making it work. This led to extraordinary progress in engineering.

Figure 1.9 Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this church in Kizhi, Russia, is constructed entirely out of wood using the log building technique [1].

Labor in the Renaissance was the same as in the Middle Ages. Buildings were constructed by paid workers. Unskilled workers were taken on as day laborers and paid accordingly. Apprentices studied under the guidance of a master artist or parents of apprentices signed a contract with the master that set out the terms of the training. Crafts and professions were governed by guilds holding a monopoly on a particular trade in a particular area. Towns were very small by modern standards and were dominated by the homes of a small number of rich nobles or merchants and by cathedrals and churches.

The return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. Since the builders did not use concrete, comparable vaults and domes had to be recreated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, in which Brunelleschi managed to invent a way of building a huge dome without formwork by using the weight and placement of bricks to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way in which the dome was constructed is still a subject of debate today. In an attempt to deal with hoop stresses, the double-skinned dome is linked by ribs and has a series of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals.

Figure 1.10 The structure of the dome of the Florence cathedral showing the double-skin structure [1].

Figure 1.11 Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Tower of Babel, illustrating construction techniques of the 16th century [1].

Completed in 1446, the size of Brunelleschi’s dome was surpassed by that of St Peter’s, which was built using flying scaffolding that is supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells. The double-skin structure of Brunelleschi’s dome of Florence cathedral is shown in Figure 1.10.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder illustrated the construction techniques of the 16th century in the painting shown in Figure 1.11.

1.2.10 The Seventeenth Century

The seventeenth century saw the emergence of modern science. Major breakthroughs in building construction towards the end of the century engendered the use of experimental science by architects and engineers in their buildings. However, in the seventeenth century, architects and engineers still strongly relied on experience, rule of thumb and scale models.

In this period, Iron was progressively used in structures. For example, iron rods were used to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral. Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores held together with lime mortar; and experimental use of lime with other materials was used to provide a hydraulic mortar. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged brickwork was used in ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss used by Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren was also introduced to England in this period.

In this period, the construction method remained largely medieval even after the discovery of experimental science. Even though flying scaffolds were used in St. Paul’s Cathedral, England, and in the dome of St. Peters, Rome, the same type of timber scaffolding used for centuries was employed. The use of cranes and scaffolding mainly depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed lifting loads large loads, and long ramps were used to drag loads up to the upper parts of buildings.

1.2.11 The Eighteenth Century

In the eighteenth century, architects and engineers became more and more professionalized. Increasingly sophisticated experimental science and mathematical methods were used in buildings. At the same time, the industrial revolution contributed to the size of cites, and the pace and quantity of construction gradually increased. In this period, the main breakthroughs were the use of cast iron and wrought iron. Iron columns were used in Wren’s designs for the House of Commons and several churches in London. These columns also supported the galleries. In the second half of the eighteenth century, the cost of iron production was reduced, allowing its use in the construction of major pieces of iron engineering.

The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale is a particularly good example of major iron pieces. Large-scale mill construction needed fire-proof buildings; therefore, cast iron was progressively used for columns and beams. An early example of wrought-iron used in construction is the roof of the Louvre in Paris.

Even though steel was used in the manufacture of different tools in this period, it could not be made in the quantities needed for building; therefore, brick production progressively increased. Although bricks were used to build many buildings in Europe, they were often coated in lime render or patterned to look like stone. Brick production changed little. Bricks were molded by hand and fired in kilns, which was no different from the production method in previous centuries. Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as artificial stone in the UK.

1.2.12 The Nineteenth Century

The manifestation of the industrial revolution took place in the nineteenth century in new transportation installations, such as railways, canals and macadam roads, which required a large financial investment. New construction devices, such as steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical surveying, came into being. The technological advancements of the steam engine combined with the circular saw and machine cut nails led to the use of balloon framing. Due to the progressive use of these new technologies, traditional timber framing was reduced [12]. An example of the construction that took place during this time is the Woolworth Building, which is shown under construction in 1912 in Figure 1.12.

Mass production of steel was feasible in the mid-19th century and was used in I-beams and reinforced concrete. Also, glass panes went into mass production, and went from being a luxury product to being available to everyone. Other improvements of the time included plumbing that provided common access to drinking water and sewage collection; and application of building codes, particularly for fire safety.

Figure 1.12 Woolworth Building under construction in 1912 [1].

1.2.13 The Twentieth Century

In the early 20th century, the elevators and cranes of the second industrial revolution made high rise buildings and skyscrapers possible. Heavy equipment and power tools reduced the need for manpower. Additionally, the new technologies of prefabrication and computer-aided design emerged. Trade unions formed to protect the health and well-being of construction workers by enforcing occupational safety. To this end, the use of protective equipment, such as hard hats and earmuffs, were essential at most construction sites. In the 20th century, governmental construction projects were used as part of macroeconomic stimulation policies. For economy of scale, infrastructure was planned for entire suburbs, towns and cities, and constructed within the same project. At the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development started to become more important construction issues. By the end of the twentieth century, steel and concrete construction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation [13–19].

1.3 Different Types of Ash Used in Construction

Ash/ashes is the solid remnants of fires. Specifically, it refers to all non-aqueous, non-gaseous residues. After chemical analysis of the mineral and metal content of chemical samples, ash is the non-gaseous, non-liquid residue after complete combustion. It usually contains an amount of combustible organic or other oxidizable residues. There are various types of ashes in our environment, as shown in Figure 1.13 and described below.

Figure 1.13 Different type of solid ashes.

1.3.1 Wood Ash

Wood ash is one of the ashes in the ash family. It is the powdery residue remaining after the combustion of wood. Gardeners usually use it as a good source of potash to ameliorate soil. There have been many reports on the chemical composition of wood ash, according to which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the chief constituent at temperatures below 750 °C [20]. At temperatures above 750 °C, calcium oxide (CaO) is the major constituent [21]. Other constituents in wood ash are Fe, Si, Al, Mn, As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, and V.

1.3.2 Rice Husk Ash

Rice hulls are the hard protective coverings of grains of rice. They are used in various applications such as building material, fertilizer, insulation material, or fuel. Rice hulls are part of the chaff of rice. The hull is hard to eat or swallow. It is mostly indigestible to humans due to its enriched fiber components. The residue after combustion of rice hulls is called rice husk ash (RHA).

The ash is a potential source of reactive amorphous silica. It has a variety of applications in materials science. Mostly, RHA is used in the production of Portland cement [22], which is finer than cement. Silica is the basic component of sand. That is why RHA is used with cement for plastering and concreting. It offers compactness in concrete. Also, the ash is a very good thermal insulation material. Because of its fineness, it is a very good candidate for sealing fine cracks in civil structures. Rice husk ash has long been used in ceramic glazes in rice growing regions of China and Japan [23]. Because of its 95% silica content, it is an easy way of introducing the necessary silica into the glaze.

1.3.3 Cigar Ash