Diabetes and the Eye: Latest Concepts and Practices E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Diabetes: Current and Future Developments
- Sprache: Englisch
Diabetes and the Eye familiarizes the reader with the relationship between diabetes mellitus and the visual system. It presents a discussion about the diabetes epidemic and the many ways the disease can cause vision loss, with several types of vision disorders covered in separate chapters. Information about new frontiers in the treatment of ophthalmic disorders is also presented to reflect the advances being made in the clinic.
Key features:
- presents detailed coverage of vision loss in diabetes in 12 organized and easy to read chapters
- includes a discussion on the diabetes epidemic
- covers a wide range of vision disorders, of different parts of the eye
- includes information on current practices in eye care and management for diabetic patients
- includes information about relevant diagnostic tools
This book serves as a useful handbook for medical students, residents in ophthalmology, community and academic ophthalmologists, as well as members of the internal medicine and family practice communities.
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Seitenzahl: 391
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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PREFACE
Diabetic eye disease is a heterogeneous group of disorders that affect the diabetic population and include diabetic retinopathy, cataract, macular edema, glaucoma, as well as other manifestations of the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. Among these manifestations, diabetic retinopathy and cataract are the most common cause of visual impairment and blindness. In fact people with diabetes are 25 times more likely to develop blindness compared to the general population, and diabetes is the most common cause of blindness among adults 20-74 years of age.
While diabetic retinopathy affects nearly 60% of patients with type 2 diabetes, in type 1 diabetes it is almost universal to develop diabetic retinopathy 15- 20 years after the diagnosis of diabetes is made.
With the rapid rise of obesity, diabetes has become the modern-day epidemic with its attendant complications including diabetic eye disease that leaves millions of people visually disabled, significantly decreasing the quality of life and markedly increasing the risk of injury.
In this volume on Diabetes and the Eye: Latest Concepts and Practices, we have assembled a group of renowned scholars with special expertise in diabetic eye disease, addressing a wide range of topics in a highly scientific, yet easy to read format that will benefit the generalist as well as the specialist and will appeal to the student, the graduate and the practicing physician who commonly encounter diabetic eye disorders, putting practical, yet cutting edge information at their fingertips.
Topics covered in this volume include the epidemiology and trends of the diabetes epidemic and diabetic eye disorders, the pathophysiologic mechanisms of diabetic eye disease and the various manifestations of diabetic complications in the eye. We highlight the latest research findings, the cutting edge diagnostic methods and the most recent developments in the management of retinopathy and other complications. We also discuss future directions and the latest developments in this exciting and rapidly developing field.
FOREWORD
Diabetes mellitus is certainly one of the most important public health problems of the 21st century. Its protean impacts on the eye are well known to all ophthalmologists, who deal with diabetic ocular complications virtually every day. Diabetic eye disease still accounts for much preventable blindness in working age adults, despite the many advances in understanding of pathophysiology and treatment over the last three decades. It is therefore a great pleasure for me to write a foreword to this comprehensive textbook on diabetes and the eye, edited by my colleagues, Douglas R. Lazzaro, and Samy I. McFarlane. Of interest to a wide audience, this book will enhance education of trainees in ophthalmology, and will serve as a definitive resource for practicing ophthalmologists and other physicians who manage diabetes for years to come. This text not only sheds light on the current state of our understanding of ocular manifestations of diabetes, but also looks towards the future when a better understand of the risk factors for diabetic eye disease and improved treatments will reduce the burden of this disease on our society, truly a noble goal. Happy reading!
List of Contributors
Diabetes Epidemic, Epidemiology, Statistics and Trends
Andrew M. Hendrick*Abstract
The incidence of diabetes mellitus is increasing worldwide. Over time, diabetes is associated with the development of diabetic retinopathy, a major cause of vision loss globally. Research has demonstrated factors associated with the onset and progression of the disease. Despite advancements in understanding the importance of optimizing care, the cases of vision loss due to diabetic retinopathy are also increasing. The epidemic of this systemic disease and the retinal manifestations will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic health condition defined by the presence of impaired glucose regulation leading to hyperglycemia. Normal blood sugar levels depend on the effective use of insulin, a peptide hormone responsible for triggering glucose uptake into cellular spaces (among many other critical metabolic effects). In people with diabetes mellitus, insulin is not used effectively; this is either due to underproduction as seen in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), or end-tissue resistance to the effects of insulin as seen in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Longstanding and/or poorly controlled elevated blood sugar levels are major determinants of complications from DM such as cardiovascular disease, nerve damage, renal disease, and eye disease including retinopathy [1].
The two major subdivisions of diabetes mellitus have several distinguishing characteristics. T1DM results from an auto-immune attack of the insulin-producing pancreatic islet cells, typically during childhood. The onset of T1DM can be dramatic with diabetic ketoacidosis but can be more insidious, characterized by poor growth. T1DM requires insulin injections as the fulcrum of
therapy to normalize blood sugar levels and are required for survival. In contrast, T2DM results from dysfunction of insulin response, such that circulating glucose levels remain elevated [2]. It is often unclear when T2DM onset begins and symptoms can be poorly recognized for years in some cases. Although previous nomenclature described T2DM as adult-onset, children are increasingly affected [3]. Therapies are directed at lifestyle improvement, weight and dietary manage-ment, along with medicines taken both orally and injectable insulin [2].
Our world is in the midst of a diabetes mellitus epidemic with rising rates of people affected across the globe. Factors driving the increase include population aging, economic development, increased urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, and increased consumption of unhealthy foods [2]. Diabetes is a major driver of healthcare costs, morbidity and mortality worldwide [2]. The risk of developing complications is tied directly to the adequacy of medical management. Managing the disease and associated health-related consequences, such as blinding complications of retinopathy, is becoming increasingly important as all societies struggle with this burden. This chapter will discuss the epidemiology of diabetes mellitus, with a focus on diabetic retinopathy (DR) and the implications for vision loss.
Epidemiology of Diabetes Mellitus
T1DM accounts for nearly 10% of DM cases and the incidence has slightly increased over time, with considerable variation by region and sampling technique [3]. Data from US based studies indicate the incidence of T1DM increased from 14.8/100,000 (95% CI 14.0 – 15.6) from 1978-1988 to 23.9/100,000 (95% CI 22.2-25.6) from 2002-2004 and was noted to increase in both Hispanic and non-Hispanic youth [4]. The prevalence of T1DM for adults in the US is estimated to be 0.55% (95% CI 0.46-0.66) [5].
90% of all people with DM have T2DM, also known as adult-onset diabetes. As a result, global estimates of diabetes are predominantly reflective of change due to T2DM. T2DM is increasingly more common - likely due to the strong association with obesity, population aging, inactive lifestyle and poor dietary habits [6]. Fig. (1) demonstrates a graphical estimate of worldwide numbers of people with diabetes over since 2000. These estimates represent a compilation of best-available data sources, but high-quality data are not universally available. In 2015, the International Diabetes Federation estimated that the worldwide burden of diabetes mellitus (DM) affected 415 million people and would increase to 642 million globally by the year 2040 [2]. Current estimates demonstrate a global prevalence of ~9% of all adults with only half of individuals being formally diagnosed with DM [2]. The International Diabetes Federation predicts that low- and middle-income countries will be disproportionately affected by this epidemic and are expected to have the greatest increase in prevalence [2]. This is critical because of the magnitude of impact: Approximately 75% of all individuals with T2DM live in low- and middle-income countries [2].
Fig. (1)) Estimated number of people with diabetes over time worldwide (in millions) [2].The fallout from chronic hyperglycemia on the human body is accumulative over time. Morbidity and disability that arises from serious complications of diabetes include cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, neuropathy, limb amputation, and retinopathy. These complications, in turn, lead to an increased demand for medical care, reduce the quality of life, and place stress on families including financial burden. Altogether, diabetes-related care incurs an estimated $673 billion (12%) of global healthcare expenditure and 8% of all-cause mortality [7]. The presence of T2DM increases the risk of heart attack comparable to the risk attributable to having had a prior heart attack [8]. Actual risk varies by study, but the prevalence of coronary heart disease in T2DM is around 21% (ranges between 12-32%) [8]. Similarly, stroke risk is also increased nearly three-fold in people with diabetes compared to those without [8]. Interestingly, the presence of diabetic retinopathy serves as an independent risk factor predicting a higher likelihood of systemic comorbidities such as both stroke and heart disease [9-11]. Furthermore, T2DM is a leading cause of renal failure and lower limb amputation [12, 13]. It is estimated that T2DM accounts for estimated up to 21-54% of all cases of end-stage renal disease [12, 14], and the prevalence of end-stage renal disease is 10-fold greater in people with diabetes compared to those without [7]. Similarly, lower limb amputations are estimated 10 to 20 times more likely in people with diabetes compared to those without [13].
Epidemiology of Diabetic Retinopathy
Ocular complications of diabetes include a spectrum of pathologies that range from refractive error and increased risk of cataract formation to cranial nerve palsies and blindness from diabetic retinopathy (DR) [15]. DR results from damage to the retinal neurons and microvasculature that occurs more commonly in individuals with longstanding DM [16]. Retinopathy is the most serious ocular complication of diabetes and is a leading cause of significant vision loss globally [17]. Importantly, most DR is largely preventable [18] and affects working age adults [19]. As a result, screening and treatment of DR contributes to taking otherwise productive individuals from the workplace, creating economic burden and impacting quality of life. Both the onset and progression of DR is mitigated with blood glucose control [20] and blood pressure management [1]. Other factors commonly associated with DR progression include the socioeconomic status of the individual, degree of dietary compliance, level of physical activity, and geographic location [10].
Earliest estimates on the epidemiology of DR came from the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy (WESDR). The WESDR was a population-based study conducted on a predominantly Caucasian cohort with both T1DM and T2DM in the 1980’s. In this study, which has now accrued decades of follow up, it became possible to understand the increased risk of diabetic retinopathy progression over time [16, 21]. At 4 years, 10 year, and 14 years, the cumulative incidence of DR in people with T1DM was 59%, 89%, and 96%, respectively. After 25 years, 97% of people with type 1 DM had DR, 43% of them PDR, and 29% had DME [22, 23]. People with T2DM have an estimated cumulative incidence of DR that is lower than people with T1DM, but due to the greater prevalence, the impact in the overall population is greater. Studies in the UK report the 4-year cumulative incidence of DR at 26% [24], 6 years at 38-41% [1, 25], and 66% at 10 years [26]. Similar results are seen in US based studies with reports of the 4-year cumulative incidence of DR at 22-34% [27, 28] and 72% at 14 years [29]. In contrast, a study based in urban China demonstrated a higher 5 year cumulative incidence of DR at 46.9%, which was attributed to a longer disease duration in their cohort [30].
At the time of WESDR, it was not yet established that euglycemia was critical for risk factor modification in preventing retinopathy progression [1, 31]. Despite advances in pharmacotherapy and knowledge regarding the importance of lifestyle, glycemic control and comorbidity management, data from the WESDR remains pertinent, as it demonstrates the natural history of diabetic retinopathy is to progress through advancing severity stages. More recent studies indicate declining rates of DR, PDR, and DME in patients with T1DM, which is likely significantly improved by advancements in systemic management [25, 32].
The prevalence of DR is widely varied due to variations in timing and characteristics of the snapshot of the defined population [19]. A multitude of studies examining diverse populations report wide variations in prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and are summarized in (Fig. 2). Global estimates indicate over one third of people with DM have DR, and that one third of those have visually threatening diabetic retinopathy (VTDR) [33]. VTDR represents a higher risk category of ‘severe NPDR’ or worse and includes all eyes with DME. This study further concluded that the global prevalence of PDR is 7.5%, and DME is 6.8% [33]. Prevalence of any DR and PDR was higher in people with T1DM, compared to individuals with type 2 diabetes (77.3 vs. 25.2% for any DR, 32.4 vs. 3.0% for PDR) [33].
Fig. (2)) The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy varies depending on the population characteristics and sampling techniques employed [34-42].The epidemiology of DME is of great interest due to its impact on quality of vision, but difficult to compare due to variations in definition of the disease. Studies vary with use of clinical examination, fundus photography and optical coherence tomography based definitions [43]; in addition, variations in subject selection and population characteristics make cross study comparisons less robust in their validity. WESDR reported the 14 year cumulative incidence of DME in people with T1DM was 26.1%, which increased to 29% by 25 years of follow up [22, 44]. Among population-based studies of DME, the prevalence of DME in people with T1DM ranges between 4.2 and 7.9% [33]. In people with T2DM, prevalence of DME is reported between 1.4 and 12.8% [33].
Racial and ethnic impact on the epidemiology of DR is of great interest because of the wide differences in the reported rates of DR prevalence and the implications for environmental versus genetic influence. From the US, the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) was a cross sectional study from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention from 1988-1994 to determine if racial and or ethnic differences modulated the risk of developing DR. This study demonstrated that Mexican-American participants had higher rates of DR compared to non-Hispanic white participants (33.4% vs 18.2%) [45]. In general, trends are seen in most studies such that Western societies have higher prevalence of DR than Eastern societies [19]. Of great concern is the impact that Westernization has on development of DM and DR. As evidenced in the Singapore Indian Eye Study, increased industrialization and urbanization in an Asian country was associated with rates of DR in Asian eyes that are similar to rates reported in Western populations [46]. Interestingly, in the same study, three major ethnic groups in Singapore had differing prevalence of DR. The Malays and Indians have a higher prevalence of DR (33.4% in Malays, 33.0% in Indians) compared to the Chinese (25.4%). Urban and rural differences in DR prevalence also indicate an important impact of the environment on health outcomes [47, 48].
Genetics also contribute to susceptibility of DR onset and severity. Analysis of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) indicates that glycemic control, as was reflected by hemoglobin A1c levels, was beneficial in reducing the incidence of DR [31]. It also showed a significant association for an inheritable tendency to developing advanced severity of DR in families with both type 1 and T2DM, independent of shared risk factors [49]. Similar findings were demonstrated in a study that included Mexican Americans with both T1DM and T2DM and severe DR [50-53]. A meta-analysis confirming the presence of variations in a gene that affects the aldose reductase pathway (AKR1B1) was found to be significantly associated with DR onset in T1DM, regardless of ethnicity [54]. Other genes of interest include the adipose most abundant gene transcript-1 (apM-1) which encodes for adiponectin [55], vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene polymorphisms [56-59], The overall importance of genetics in determinants of diabetes related complications is an ongoing area of investigation.
Screening of Diabetic Retinopathy
Due to the asymptomatic nature of DR, individuals with diabetes should be properly screened for signs of DR and the progressive stages of DR. At a minimum, screening guidelines suggest a dilated fundus examination on an annual basis for T2DM and T1DM, beginning 5 years after diagnosis [18]. People with evident DR need more frequent follow up to determine if treatment may become indicated, thereby requiring more exams as disease severity worsens. Screening for and timely treatment of DR reduces the likelihood of developing severe vision loss by up to 94% and are also highly cost-effective [60].
Studies suggest that there is poor adherence to recommended guidelines such that an estimated nearly half of people with diabetes do not routinely receive an eye exam [61]. Screening can alternatively be considered remotely using telemedicine in some systems. Telemedicine involves the use of remote interpretation of point of care fundus photography. While remote screening does not fully replace a comprehensive eye exam, it improves access to individuals who have limited access to ophthalmic care, such as in resource poor or geographically remote locations. Research has consistently validated telemedicine-based screening efforts as both effective and cost-effective tools with substantial cost savings to healthcare systems [62].
CONCLUSION
Overall, type 1 diabetes represents a minority of cases of diabetes mellitus with indications that the disease is becoming slightly more common over time. Although people with T1DM have higher rates of ocular complications than people with T2DM, incident retinopathy has reduced with improved control of systemic management. In contrast, type 2 diabetes is much more prevalent, and the prevalence is increasing over time worldwide with substantial regional variation. Similar increasing trends are noted when examining the epidemiology of diabetic retinopathy.
Detecting, diagnosing, and managing diabetes mellitus and the associated retinopathy is an increasingly important societal burden of great public health importance that current projections indicate will only worsen without change. The increased potential for death and disability, due to associations of DR with stroke, heart attack, amputation and kidney failure, supports a multifaceted approach to management and treatment. Glycemic control is fundamental to optimizing the health-related morbidity in the diabetic patient, but the duration disease over time remains an important driver of complications. Racial, ethnic, genetic and environmental influences are increasingly understood as contributors of disease status. Screening programs are critical to detect disease and provide framework to connect the patient to treatment when indicated.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
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Cost Eff Resour Alloc 2020; 18: 16.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12962-020-00211-1] [PMID: 32280309]Recent Developments in Diabetes Evaluation and Management: Implications for the Practicing Clinicians
Anna Y. Groysman,Lina Soni,Samara Skwiersky,Samy I. McFarlane*Abstract
Diabetes is a major public health problem affecting millions of people around the globe. In the United States alone, over 7.5 million have type 2 diabetes and an alarming 78 million adults have prediabetes and remain largely undiagnosed. This epidemic was ushered in by the ongoing epidemic of obesity and is caused in-part by sedentary life style and aging population. In this chapter we discuss the diabetes epidemic highlighting the major risk factor of diabetes, particularly type 2. We also discuss the complications of diabetes including microvascular complications as well as macrovascular disease including coronary heart disease and stroke, the major cause of morbidity and mortality in the diabetic population. Finally, we present the major therapeutic advances in diabetes including modern pharmacologic agents and their potential effects on cardiovascular risk. We also outline the recent technological advances in diabetes management including closed loop systems, artificial pancreas, stem cell therapy among other ongoing research bound to prevent and/or alleviate the effects of this ongoing epidemic.
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus is a progressively debilitating condition resulting in vascular complications, including cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular disease. This disease, together with microvascular diseases, including retinopathy, nephropathy, and peripheral neuropathy, lead to devastating complications and increased mortality. Although adults are generally afflicted with this condition, rising numbers of children, teenagers, and adolescents are also affected [1].
Driven mainly by a continuous rise in type 2 diabetes, the global epidemic of diabetes, according to data from the World Health Organization, reached over 422 million adults worldwide in 2014, exceeding the previous forecast of 439 million worldwide by 2030 [2].
