Digital Twin and Blockchain for Smart Cities E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1135

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

The book uniquely explores the fundamentals of blockchain and digital twin technologies and their uses in smart cities.

In the previous decade, many governments explored artificial intelligence, digital twin, and blockchain, and their roles in smart cities. This book discusses the convergence of two transformative technologies, digital twin and blockchain, to address urban challenges and propel the development of smarter, more sustainable cities. This convergence empowers cities to create real-time replicas of urban environments (digital twins) and secure, transparent data management (blockchain) to improve city planning, management, and civic services. In this application, the concept of a digital twin involves creating a virtual, data-driven replica of a city or specific urban systems, such as transportation, energy, or infrastructure. This digital twin mirrors the real world, gathering data from various sensors, IoT devices, and other sources to provide a holistic view of the city’s operations.

Furthermore, blockchain technology offers a decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger for securely storing and managing data. In the context of smart cities, blockchain can ensure data integrity, privacy, and transparency, enabling trust and collaboration among various stakeholders. This book covers many important topics, including real-time city modeling; data security and the trustworthy storage of sensitive urban data; transparent governance to facilitate accountable governance and decision-making processes in smart cities; improved city services; disaster resilience (by providing insights into vulnerabilities and efficient resource allocation during crises); sustainable urban planning that optimizes resource allocation, reduces energy consumption, and minimizes environmental impact, which fosters sustainable development; citizen engagement; and much more.

This book will not only provide information about more efficient, resilient, and sustainable urban environments, but it also empowers citizens to be active participants in shaping the future of their cities. By converging these technologies, cities can overcome existing challenges, encourage innovation, and create more livable, connected, and responsive urban spaces.

Audience
This book has a wide audience in computer science, artificial intelligence, and information technology as well as engineers in a variety of industrial manufacturing industries. It will also appeal to economists and government/city policymakers working on smart cities, the circular economy, clean tech investors, urban decision-makers, and environmental professionals.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Part 1: Basic Fundamentals

1 Introduction to Blockchain Technology for Smart Cities

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Smart City

1.3 Components of Smart City

1.4 Blockchain Technology

1.5 Components of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.6 Types of Blockchain Architectures in Smart Cities

1.7 Layers of Blockchain Architecture Used in Smart Cities

1.8 Implementation of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.9 Applications of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.10 Challenges in Implementing Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.11 Comparing the Existing Smart Cities With the Blockchain-Implemented Smart Cities

1.12 Future Scope of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.13 Conclusion

References

2 Blockchain Technology: Insight into Future

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Current Applications of Blockchain Technology

2.3 Benefits and Limitations of Blockchain

2.4 The Future of Blockchain Technology

2.5 Transition Toward Web 3

2.6 Blockchain Adoption: Case Studies and Lessons Learned

2.7 Challenges and Open Questions in Blockchain Adoption

2.8 Conclusions and Future Work

References

3 Safe and Reliable Smart City Design Based on Blockchain Technology

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Related Work

3.3 Blockchain Technology for Smart Cities

3.4 Methods

3.5 Conclusion

References

4 Blockchain and Digital Twin for Enhancing Personal Security in Modern Cities

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Digital Twin

4.3 Digital Twin and Metaverse

4.4 Blockchain Technology

4.5 Blockchain in Smart Cities

4.6 Smart Home Security

4.7 Challenges and Future Developments

4.8 Travel Security and Identity Verification

4.9 Secure Identity Management

4.10 Digital Twin Integration

4.11 Challenges and Future Considerations

4.12 Data Privacy and Control

4.13 Empowering Data Privacy with Blockchain

4.14 Digital Twins Is a Dynamic Approach to Data Control

4.15 Overcoming Challenges and Charting the Future

4.16 Conclusion

References

5 Integration of Digital Twin and Blockchain for Smart Cities

5.1 Introduction to Digital Twin and Blockchain

5.2 Smart Cities: Definition and Characteristics, Importance, and Key Components

5.3 Integration of Digital Twin and Blockchain Technology for a Smart Environment

5.4 Few Popular Case Studies for Smart Cities in This Smart Era

5.5 Issues and Challenges for Smart Cities

5.6 Future Trends and Developments/Potential Innovations for Smart Cities Using Emerging Technologies

5.7 Conclusion

References

Part 2: Methods and Applications

6 Optimized CNN Learning Model With Multi-Threading for Forgery Feature Detection in Real-Time Streaming Approaches

6.1 Importance

6.2 Prior Work

6.3 Proposed Method About CNN

6.4 Estimated Analysis of the Outcome

6.5 Conclusion

References

7 Enhancing Weather Data Forecasting: A Comprehensive Approach with Advanced Statistical Techniques for Accurate Modeling of Atmospheric Dynamics and Climate Pattern Adaptation

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Research Methodology

7.3 Experimental Results

7.4 Discussion of Results and Recommendations

7.5 Conclusion

Data Availability

Conflicts of Interest

Funding

Authors’ Contributions

References

8 Blockchain-Based Secure Digital Twin Framework for Smart Healthy City

8.1 Introduction

8.3 Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities

8.4 Secure Digital Twin Framework

8.5 Case Studies and Applications

8.6 Challenges and Future Directions

8.7 Conclusion

References

9 Blockchain and Digital Twin for Smart Grid

9.1 Smart Grid: Definition, Components, and Benefits

9.2 Digital Twin Technology in Smart Grids/Energy Systems: Definition and Principles and Applications

9.3 Blockchain Technology in Smart Grids/Energy Sector: Introduction, Key Features, and Components

9.4 Integration of Digital Twin and Blockchain for a Sustainable Future Using Smart Grid-Based Energy

9.5 Smart Contracts for Energy Transactions: Overview, Benefits, and Challenges

9.6 Issues and Challenges Toward Using Blockchain and Digital Twin in Smart Grid

9.7 Real-World Applications of Blockchain-Based Smart Grids and Digital Twin-Based Smart Grids

9.8 Future Trends/Innovations Toward Blockchain and Digital Twin-Based Smart Grids for Next Generation

9.9 Conclusion

References

10 Blockchain, AI, and IoT for Smart Road Traffic Management System

10.1 Introduction to Blockchain, AI, and IoT: Definition, Types, Working Principles, Algorithms, and Protocols

10.2 Smart Road Traffic Management

10.3 Role of Emerging Technologies in Traffic Management in Today’s Era

10.4 Integration of Blockchain, AI, and IoT in Smart Traffic Management

10.5 Implementation Issues and Challenges Toward Implementing Blockchain, AI, and IoT in Smart Traffic Management

10.6 Future Opportunities with Emerging Technologies for Smart Traffic Solutions

10.7 Conclusion

References

11 Blockchain for Safety of Internet of Vehicles in Smart Transportation

11.1 Introduction to Blockchain and Internet of Vehicles

11.2 Opportunities and Challenges in Internet of Vehicle Safety

11.3 Role of Blockchain Technology in Internet of Vehicles Safety

11.4 Integration of Blockchain with Other Emerging Technology in ITS for Improving Safety

11.5 Implementation Framework, Available Tools, Algorithms, Simulation Tools for Blockchain in IoV Safety

11.6 Open Issues and Challenges in Implementation of Blockchain for IoV in Intelligent Transportation

11.7 Future Opportunities Toward Using Blockchain for IoV in Intelligent Transportation

11.8 Conclusion

References

12 Blockchain-Enabled Internet of Things (IoTs) Platforms for Vehicle Sensing and Transportation Monitoring

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Internet of Things Technologies in Transportation and Low-Carbon Products

12.3 Blockchain-Based Distributed Internet of Things Vehicular Network (B-DRIVE)

12.4 Architecture Design of Blockchain-Based Distributed Internet of Things Vehicular Network (B-Drive)

12.5 Blockchain-Based Distributed Internet of Things Vehicular Network Blockchain Types

12.6 Applications of Blockchain-Based Distributed Internet of Things Vehicular Network Blockchain Types

12.7 Attacks and Limitations in Blockchain-Based Distributed Internet of Things Vehicular Network Blockchain Types

12.8 Limitations and Recommendations of Blockchain-Based System for Internet of Things

12.9 Future Work on Blockchain with Other Secured Components

12.10 Biometric-Blockchain-Based Future Vehicles

12.11 Conclusion

References

13 An Innovative Water Control System Based on Blockchain Technologies

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Related Work in Blockchain-Based Water Management Systems

13.3 Navigating Regulatory Terrain

13.4 Decentralized and Transparent Approach to Water Management

13.5 Blockchain Philosophy

13.6 Conventional Regulatory Frameworks’ Obstacles to Blockchain Technology Adaptation

13.7 Development of Water Separation Certificates Based on the Blockchain

13.8 Conclusion

References

14 Digital Twin Consensus for Blockchain-Enabled Intelligent Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Understanding Digital Twins and Intelligent Transportation Systems

14.3 Blockchain Technology in Intelligent Transport Systems

14.4 Consensus Mechanisms for Digital Twins in Transportation Systems

14.5 Implementation Challenges and Solutions

14.6 Case Studies and Use Cases

14.7 Future Directions and Research Opportunities

14.8 Conclusion

References

15 Analysis of Block Chain Based Technologies Employed in Inter-EV and Grid-EV Energy Trade

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Literature Survey

15.3 Methodologies

15.4 Results

15.5 Conclusion

References

16 Blockchain for Enhancing Security and Privacy in the Smart Healthcare

16.1 Introduction to Blockchain, Security, Privacy, and Smart Healthcare: Types, Methods, Scope for Future

16.2 Popular Challenges in Current Healthcare’s Security and Privacy

16.3 Need for Secure and Private Healthcare Systems

16.4 Integration of Blockchain for Improving Security and Privacy in Smart Healthcare

16.5 Regulatory Compliance and Legal Issues Toward Implementing Blockchain in Smart Healthcare

16.6 Open Issues and Challenges of Using Blockchain in Healthcare

16.7 Future Research Opportunities Toward Using Blockchain in Smart Healthcare

16.8 Conclusion

References

Part 3: Issues and Challenges

17 Internet of Things for Smart Home: A Survey

17.1 Introduction to IoT Fundamentals and Smart Home

17.2 IoT Applications in Smart Homes

17.3 IoT Devices and Sensors

17.4 Communication Protocols in Smart Homes

17.5 Data Management and Analytics for IoT in Smart Homes

17.6 Challenges and Future Trends/Innovation Toward Using IoT for Smart Home

17.7 Conclusion

References

18 Deep Learning-Based Traffic Sign Detection and Recognition for Autonomous Vehicles

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Objectives of Traffic Sign Detection and Recognition

18.3 Diversity in Traffic Sign Designs Across Different Regions and Countries

18.4 Limitations of Traditional Computer Vision Techniques

18.5 System Architecture and Implementation

18.6 Challenges Faced in Traffic Sign Detection and Recognition

18.7 YOLOv9: A Significant Advance in Object Detection Technology

18.8 Datasets and Preprocessing Techniques

18.9 Enhancing Model Robustness in YOLOv9-Based Traffic Sign Detection Through Preprocessing Techniques

18.10 Real World Applications of Traffic Sign Detection and Technology

18.11 Results and Performance

18.12 Conclusion

18.13 Future Perspectives

References

19 Role of Emerging Technologies in Smart Grids and Power Systems

19.1 Introduction to Smart Grids and Power Systems

19.2 Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Power Systems

19.3 Internet of Things (IoT) in Power Systems

19.4 Data Collection and Management in Smart Grids

19.5 Machine Learning and Deep Learning Applications in Power Systems

19.6 IoT Applications in Power Systems

19.7 Integration of Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and IoT for Smart Grids/Power Systems

19.8 Security and Privacy Issues in Smart Grids and IoT-Based Power Systems

19.9 Future Research Opportunities Smart Grids and IoT-Based Power Systems for Next Generation Society

19.10 Conclusion

References

20 Blockchain-Enabled Smart Healthcare Applications in 6G Networks

20.1 Introduction to Blockchain Technology, Smart Healthcare and Communication Technology

20.2 Background Work for Blockchain Technology, Smart Healthcare and Communication Technology

20.3 Blockchain Technology in Healthcare: Overview, Services, and Use Cases

20.4 6G Networks for Smart Healthcare: Introduction, Key Features, and Advancements

20.5 Integration of Blockchain and 6G in Healthcare

20.6 Open Issues and Important Challenges Towards Using of Blockchain and 6G in Smart Healthcare

20.7 Future Trends and Opportunities Towards Blockchain-Enabled 6G Healthcare

20.8 Conclusion

References

Part 4: Future Opportunities

21 Wireless Sensor Networks: An Introduction

21.1 Introduction to WSNs

21.2 Basic Components of WSNs: Sensor Nodes, Communication Modules, etc.

21.3 Network Architecture in WSNs

21.4 Open Issues and Challenges in WSNs

21.5 Emerging and Possible Applications of WSNs

21.6 Advancements in WSNs for Next Generation Society

21.7 Future Trends, Research, and Innovations Toward WSNs

21.8 Conclusion

References

22 Future Professions in Agriculture, Medicine, Education, Fitness, R&D, Transport, and Communication

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Harvesting Insights: Data Science Revolutionizing Agriculture

22.3 The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Medicine

22.4 Artificial Intelligence in Education

22.5 AI in Transportation

22.6 Conclusion

References

23 Blockchain–Artificial Intelligence-Based Secured Solutions for Smart Environment

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Blockchain–Artificial Intelligence-Based Secured Solutions for Digital Forensics

23.3 Internet of Things - Blockchain Experiment in General

23.4 Open Issues Toward Blockchain–Artificial Intelligence-Based Secured Solutions for Smart Environment

23.5 Important Challenges Toward Blockchain–Artificial Intelligence-Based Secured Solutions for Smart Environment

23.6 Future Work Toward Blockchain–Artificial Intelligence-Based Secured Solutions for Smart Environment

23.7 Conclusion

References

24 Smart Hospital in Smart Cities

24.1 Introduction to Smart Hospitals, Importance in Healthcare

24.2 Benefits of Smart Hospitals in this Modern/Digital Era

24.3 Role of Emerging Technologies in Smart Hospitals

24.4 Telemedicine and Remote Monitoring

24.5 Exiting Wearable Health Devices

24.6 Popular Issues, and Challenges Toward Smart Healthcare and Smart Hospitals

24.7 Components of a Successful, Cost-Effective Smart Hospitals

24.8 Real-World Smart Hospital Initiatives in This Smart Era

24.9 Future Trends/Innovations/Research Opportunities Toward Smart Hospitals in this Modern Era

24.10 The Path to Healthcare 5.0

24.11 Patient-Centric Healthcare Models with Emerging Technology in Near Future

24.12 Conclusion

References

25 Digital Twin for Smart City Resilience and Solutions

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Smart Cities Built by Digital Twins

25.3 Digital Twin Solutions

25.4 Development of Necessary Layers for the Digital Twin of a Smart City

25.5 Construction of an Urban Intelligence Platform

25.6 Technology Enablers Used in Smart City Construction and their Core Characteristics and Potential Benefits

25.7 Conclusion

25.8 Economic and Social Implications

References

26 IoT-Based Autonomous Vehicle System for Maintaining Driving Safety and Comfortability Based on Machine Learning Techniques

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Related Work

26.3 Problem Methodology and System Architecture

26.4 Proposed MLAV System

26.5 Results and Discussion

26.6 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Issues and challenges toward digital twin and blockchain.

Table 5.2 Issue and challenges for smart cities.

Table 5.3 Implications for future smart city initiatives.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Comprehensive overview of these transformative technologies.

Table 10.2 Key challenges in traffic management and need for smart solutions.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Key challenges associated with integrating blockchain into...

Table 11.2 Key challenges of security, privacy, and scalability issues into...

Table 11.3 Opportunities in the integration of blockchain in smart vehicles.

Table 11.4 Challenges in the integration of blockchain in smart vehicles.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Adoption of blockchain technology in various ITS applications

Table 14.2 Suitability and limitations of traditional...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Classes and data samples.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Key aspects of IoT security and privacy in power systems.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Evolution of mobile communication from 1G to the upcoming 6G...

Table 20.2 Evolution of healthcare from 1.0 to 5.0.

Table 20.3 Key technical and research challenges.

Table 20.4 Security, privacy, and legal issues in blockchain-enabled healthcare.

Table 20.5 Key infrastructure requirements for a modern generation in blockc...

Table 20.6 Anticipated trends and opportunities in blockchain-enabled 6G hea...

Chapter 26

Table 26.1 Performance comparison of ISDT and computer vision-based algorithm...

Table 26.2 Performance comparison of different classifiers.

List of Figures

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Blockchain structure.

Figure 1.2 Blockchain component.

Figure 1.3 Blockchain types.

Figure 1.4 Layers of blockchain.

Figure 1.5 Application of smart cities.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Timeline of blockchain technology.

Figure 2.2 Blockchain market size.

Figure 2.3 Number of blockchain wallet.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Blockchain can be used as part of a smart city’s infrastructure.

Figure 3.2 Blockchain technology and its potential uses.

Figure 3.3 Application of blockchain in a smart city.

Figure 3.4 Use of blockchain for providing security in a smart city.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.2.1 Cloud computing using digital twin.

Figure 4.2.2 Impacts of 5G technology.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 The proposed optimized model.

Figure 6.2 Overall summary of the survey methods.

Figure 6.3 CNN learning model with multi-threading process.

Figure 6.4 Median filtering.

Figure 6.5 Modular median filtering.

Figure 6.6 Detection of forgery image from streaming video with CNN using a mo...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Proposed architecture for weather data forecasting.

Figure 7.2 Sample input dataset weather forecasting.

Figure 7.3 Actual vs. predicted temperature for the proposed system.

Figure 7.4 Residuals vs. temperature for the proposed system.

Figure 7.5 Model loss between accuracy vs. precision for the proposed system.

Figure 7.6 Model accuracy between training time vs. epoch.

Figure 7.7 Model accuracy between actual vs. predicted vs. precision vs. train...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Integration of blockchain, AI, and IoT in smart traffic management...

Figure 10.2 Key challenges of blockchain, AI, and IoT in smart traffic managem...

Figure 10.3 Future opportunities with emerging technologies for smart traffic...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Key components of smart transportation.

Figure 11.2 Applications of blockchain in smart transportation.

Figure 11.3 Key approaches in optimizing transportation networks.

Figure 11.4 Key approaches in optimizing transportation networks.

Figure 11.5 Key approaches in optimizing transportation networks.

Figure 11.6 Key approaches in optimizing transportation networks.

Figure 11.7 Key measures to enhance the security of IoV.

Figure 11.8 Key strategies for ensuring privacy in the context of drivers and ...

Figure 11.9 Key strategies to achieve improved traffic flow and safety.

Figure 11.10 Key security threats and vulnerabilities in IoV safety.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Key aspects and benefits of blockchain-enabled IoT platforms in ve...

Figure 12.2 Key applications and benefits of IoT in transportation and low-car...

Figure 12.3 Key features and benefits of B-DRIVE.

Figure 12.4 Blockchain-based distributed internet of things vehicular network ...

Figure 12.5 Potential areas of exploration on blockchain with other secured co...

Figure 12.6 Key aspects of biometric blockchain-based future vehicles.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Water supply industries in Yanbu.

Figure 13.2 Water resource system.

Figure 13.3 Blockchain-based water resource management framework.

Figure 13.4 Water management development system.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Blockchain application in ITS.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 System model (privacy preserving charging).

Figure 15.2 Energy trading architecture based on blockchain.

Figure 15.3 Energy trading process.

Figure 15.4 Peer-to-peer decentralized trading model.

Figure 15.5 System model (MEC-assisted billing).

Figure 15.6 Decentralized network architecture in V2G.

Figure 15.7 V2G network.

Figure 15.8 MEC assisted data billing.

Figure 15.9 Fog computing-based privacy preserving technique.

Figure 15.10 Auctioning mechanism.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Key components and concepts of IoT systems.

Figure 17.2 Key components and concepts of IoT systems.

Figure 17.3 Key issues and challenges associated with IoT devices.

Figure 17.4 The evolution of smart home technology.

Figure 17.5 An overview of common sensors in smart homes.

Figure 17.6 An overview of common smoke and carbon monoxide detectors.

Figure 17.7 An overview of common actuators used in smart homes.

Figure 17.8 Commonly used IoT middleware and communication frameworks in smart...

Figure 17.9 An overview of data management in the context of smart homes.

Figure 17.10 An overview of analytics in the context of smart homes.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Training graphs based on parameters of the model. Source: How...

Figure 18.2 Related network architectures and methods. Source: YOLOv9: A...

Figure 18.3 Performance comparison of YOLOv9. Source: YOLOv9: Learning...

Figure 18.4 Predicted traffic signs using YOLOv9.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Challenges in traditional power systems.

Figure 19.2 Key characteristics of smart grids.

Figure 19.3 Key concepts of IoT.

Figure 19.4 Key concepts of ML.

Figure 19.5 Key concepts of deep learning.

Figure 19.6 Key concepts of deep learning.

Figure 19.7 Applications of ML and DL in power systems [18].

Figure 19.8 IoT applications in power systems [19].

Figure 19.9 Emerging technologies in power systems and smart grids.

1

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Integration of blockchain, smart healthcare, and communication tec...

Figure 20.2 Key challenges toward communication technologies in current smart...

Figure 20.3 Key opportunities toward communication technologies in current sma...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Key enabling technologies of industry 5.0 [10].

Figure 23.2 Blockchain–artificial intelligence-based secured solutions for dig...

Figure 23.3 Blockchain–artificial intelligence based secured solutions for sof...

Figure 23.4 Blockchain–artificial intelligence-based secured solutions for cyb...

Figure 23.5 Blockchain–artificial intelligence-based secured solutions to Indu...

Figure 23.6 Blockchain voting systems architectural overview [21].

Figure 23.7 Artificial Intelligence-based secured solutions for smart environm...

Figure 23.8 Securing smart environments using blockchain and artificial intell...

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 Digital twin of manufacturing benefits.

Figure 25.2 Structure of model smart building.

Figure 25.3 Mirror view of the human heart.

Figure 25.4 Digital twin solutions.

Figure 25.5 The necessary layers for creating a digital twin smart city.

Figure 25.6 Flowchart for generating urban intelligence platform.

Figure 25.7 Technology enablers of smart city digital twin.

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 Proposed system architecture.

Figure 26.2 Real time road condition dataset (a)-(d) original input from datas...

Figure 26.3 Traffic condition from dataset (a) original image with traffic (b)...

Figure 26.4 Performance comparison of ISDT and computer vision base algorithm ...

Figure 26.5 Shows accuracy and precession contrast of planned and obtainable c...

Figure 26.6 Sensitivity and specificity contrast of planned and obtainable cla...

Figure 26.7 F-measure and recall contrast of planned and obtainable classifiers...

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Digital Twin and Blockchain for Smart Cities

Edited by

Amit Kumar Tyagi

Department of Fashion Technology, National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi, India

This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Preface

In the previous decade, many governments explored artificial intelligence, digital twin, and blockchain, and their roles in smart cities. This book discusses the convergence of two transformative technologies, digital twin and blockchain, to address urban challenges and propel the development of smarter, more sustainable cities. This convergence empowers cities to create real-time replicas of urban environments (digital twins) and secure, transparent data management (blockchain) to improve city planning, management, and civic services. In this application, the concept of a digital twin involves creating a virtual, data-driven replica of a city or specific urban systems, such as transportation, energy, or infrastructure. This digital twin mirrors the real world, gathering data from various sensors, IoT devices, and other sources to provide a holistic view of the city’s operations.

Furthermore, blockchain technology offers a decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger for securely storing and managing data. In the context of smart cities, blockchain can ensure data integrity, privacy, and transparency, enabling trust and collaboration among various stakeholders. This book covers many important topics, including: real-time city modeling; data security and the trustworthy storage of sensitive urban data; transparent governance to facilitate accountable governance and decision-making processes in smart cities; improved city services; disaster resilience (by providing insights into vulnerabilities and efficient resource allocation during crises); sustainable urban planning that optimizes resource allocation, reduces energy consumption, and minimizes environmental impact, which fosters sustainable development; citizen engagement; and much more.

This book will not only provide information about more efficient, resilient, and sustainable urban environments but also empowers citizens to be active participants in shaping the future of their cities. By converging these technologies, cities can overcome existing challenges, encourage innovation, and create more livable, connected, and responsive urban spaces.

We hope that this book will help future researchers to find reliable and efficient solutions for the next generation of society. Our deepest thanks go out to Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their assistance and the publication of this book.

Amit Kumar Tyagi

Part 1BASIC FUNDAMENTALS

1Introduction to Blockchain Technology for Smart Cities

Roopa Devi E.M.*, Shanthakumari R., Vinothkumar S. and Balasurya K.R.

Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the integration of blockchain technology in the context of smart cities. As urban environments become increasingly complex and interconnected, the need for efficient and secure data management systems becomes paramount. Blockchain, a decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger technology, offers a promising solution that helps solve the issues with data integrity, transparency, and security that smart cities face. The introduction delves into the fundamental concepts of blockchain technology, elucidating its decentralized nature, consensus mechanisms, and cryptographic principles. The potential benefits of adopting blockchain in smart city initiatives, include enhanced trust, reduced fraud, and increased efficiency in data transactions. Moreover, it explores real-world applications of blockchain in smart cities, ranging from secure data sharing among municipal entities to the implementation of decentralized energy grids and intelligent transportation systems. The discussion also touches upon the challenges and considerations associated with the implementation of blockchain in smart city projects addressing issues, such as scalability, interoperability, and regulatory frameworks, and highlighting the transformative features of blockchain technology in determining the future landscape of smart cities, fostering innovation, and creating more resilient and sustainable urban ecosystems.

Keywords: Decentralization, Internet of Things, cryptocurrency, data analytics, distributed ledger, blockchain, smartgrid, immutability

1.1 Introduction

The advent of smart city initiatives has ushered in an era where urban landscapes are becoming increasingly connected and data dependent. Strong and secure data management systems are in high demand as cities work to improve sustainability, efficiency, and general quality of life for their citizens. In response to these challenges, blockchain technology has emerged as a promising solution offering decentralized, transparent, and tamper-resistant capabilities.

Technology that can scale with the increasing digitalization of our world while maintaining the essential security, trust, and responsibility. Blockchain is thought to be one of those technologies. For instance, blockchain is most commonly associated with Bitcoin, but newer advancements have begun to investigate its potential applications in finance, shipping, and contract security.

According to Tapscott D. and Tapscott A. [2], there is a chance that the blockchain revolution may redefine trust in local and digital communities. Penzes [3] believes that the basic idea that can allow BIM and blockchain technology to work together is that they both have the capacity to act as a single source of truth.

By adopting smart city strategies and utilizing the city’s 3D representation and analytic skills to reflect and characterize the existing state of affairs and create a future vision using BIM (Building Information Modeling) and GIS (Geographic Information System), El-Hallaq et al.[1] hope to promote sustainable urban development.

According to Pieroni et al.[4], the hardest obstacle to overcome is still integrating various IT systems and technologies in order to create smart city services and apps. It aims to look at the smart environment pillar in the context of smart cities, namely, the part about putting in place a smart energy system for residents in metropolitan areas. The suggested approach is novel in that it leverages blockchain technology to provide grid integration, information exchange, and energy buy/sell transactions between private citizens and energy providers over the blockchain granting ledger.

This chapter explores the incorporation of blockchain technology in the framework of smart cities aiming to provide a foundational understanding of its principles and the potential it holds for urban development. By examining the fundamental aspects of blockchain, discussing real-world applications, and addressing associated challenges, we delve into the transformative impact this technology can have on shaping the future of smart cities. As urban environments continue to evolve, the adoption of blockchain stands poised to redefine the way cities manage and secure their data fostering innovation and resilience in the process.

1.2 Smart City

A smart city is an urban setting that makes use of cutting-edge technologies and data-driven solutions to increase overall efficiency, maximize resource usage, and improve the quality of life for its citizens. At its core, a smart city integrates information and communication technologies (ICT) with physical infrastructure to create a connected, responsive, and sustainable urban ecosystem.

In a smart city, various components, such as transportation, energy, healthcare, public services, and more, are interconnected through a robust network of sensors, devices, and data analytics platforms. These technologies make it possible to gather and analyze data in real time, which gives city managers the information they need to improve public services, make wise decisions, and successfully handle urban difficulties.

Key features of a smart city include the deployment of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices, smart grids, intelligent transportation systems, and digital platforms that facilitate citizen engagement. For example, smart transportation systems optimize traffic flow, lessen congestion, and improve public transit through the use of sensors and data analytics. Similarly, resource efficiency and sustainability are promoted by smart energy grids, which use technology to track and control energy use.

A key component of smart cities is citizen involvement, where citizens may actively participate in their city’s decision-making processes, access information, and offer feedback using digital platforms. Privacy and security considerations are crucial in the growth of smart cities to ensure the responsible handling of sensitive data.

As urbanization continues to rise, the idea of smart cities represents a visionary approach to addressing the complexities of a modern urban life. Smart cities seek to enhance the general well-being of its residents while promoting creativity and adaptability in the face of changing difficulties by utilizing technology to build more intelligent, efficient, and sustainable urban environments.

In actuality, the primary objective of every city’s evolutionary process is to increase both the quality of life (QoL) and the quality of services (QoS) [4]. These days, the term “smart city” refers to the focus that many cities across the world have on cutting-edge technologies while simultaneously trying to cut expenses, make the most use of available resources, and progress the value of life in urban areas [5].

1.3 Components of Smart City

1.3.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Infrastructure

This infrastructure includes high-speed internet connectivity, fiber-optic networks, wireless communication systems, data centers, and cloud-computing facilities. These components form the backbone for collecting, processing, and sharing data across various city systems. The ICT infrastructure also facilitates the incorporation of IoT devices and intelligent technologies.

1.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Urban infrastructure incorporates IoT devices and sensors to gather up-to-the-minute data on diverse factors, including traffic patterns, air quality, energy usage, waste management, and infrastructure utilization. These devices enable the creation of a data-driven and responsive city environment leading to better resource allocation and enhanced service delivery.

1.3.3 Smart Mobility

Smart mobility encompasses a range of advanced transportation solutions, including intelligent traffic management systems, real-time public transport information, smart parking solutions, bike-sharing systems, pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, and the promotion of electric and autonomous vehicles. These initiatives strive to diminish traffic congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance the overall efficiency of transportation systems.

1.3.4 Energy

Smart cities prioritize energy efficiency, renewable energy integration, smart grid technologies, and the implementation of energy management systems. This includes initiatives, such as LED street lighting, energy-efficient buildings, smart metering, and the deployment of renewable energy sources, all of which contribute to the reduction of energy consumption and environmental impact.

1.3.5 Environmental Sustainability

Environmental components of smart cities involve initiatives for monitoring and improving air and water quality, waste management, urban green spaces, sustainable urban planning, and resilience to climate change. This includes the implementation of smart waste management systems, green infrastructure, and initiatives to minimize the environmental impact of urban activities.

1.3.6 Public Safety and Security

Smart city initiatives for public safety encompass sophisticated surveillance systems, effective emergency response coordination, intelligent lighting, and the application of data analytics to elevate security measures and enhance preparedness for emergencies. These technologies help in quick and effective responses to security threats and emergencies, ensuring the safety of citizens and infrastructure.

1.3.7 E-Governance and Citizen Services

Digital platforms in e-governance, citizen engagement, and service delivery are vital for promoting citizen participation, transparency, and providing access to government services. These platforms include online portals, mobile applications, digital service centers, and electronic voting systems, all of which aim to improve the delivery of government services and foster active citizen engagement.

1.3.8 Health and Well-Being

Smart cities incorporate health-related components, such as telemedicine services, wearable health monitoring devices, smart healthcare facilities, and initiatives for promoting active living and community well-being. These initiatives aim to enhance access to healthcare services, monitor public health trends, and promote healthy lifestyles among residents.

1.3.9 Education and Skill Development

Smart cities focus on providing access to digital education, e-learning platforms, skill development programs, and facilities for lifelong learning. These initiatives are aimed at empowering citizens, enhancing their employability, and promoting a culture of continuous learning and skill development.

1.3.10 Economic Development and Innovation

Initiatives to promote entrepreneurship, innovation hubs, digital business ecosystems, and technology clusters are essential for driving economic growth and fostering a culture of innovation within smart cities. These initiatives support the creation of a vibrant and sustainable business environment leading to job creation and economic prosperity.

1.3.11 Urban Planning and Infrastructure

To create future-ready and sustainable urban settings, it is essential to construct sustainable and smart infrastructure, such as smart buildings, mixed-use developments, effective water and waste management systems, and the incorporation of technology into urban planning procedures.

1.3.12 Data Analytics and Decision Support Systems

The use of advanced analytics and decision support systems to process and interpret large volumes of data is crucial for deriving insights for informed decision making in areas, such as urban development, resource allocation, and policy formulation. These technologies support data-driven decision making, operational efficiency, and overall urban service quality improvement for city authorities.

These components collectively form an interconnected ecosystem that leverages technology, data, and innovation to create sustainable, inclusive, and efficient urban environments within smart cities. Each component plays a critical role in addressing the complex challenges faced by modern cities while striving to progress the quality of life for residents.

1.4 Blockchain Technology

Blockchain is a distributed ledger system that operates on a decentralized network of computers to securely record and validate transactions. It operates on the principles of transparency, immutability, and decentralization making it an innovative solution for secure and tamper-resistant data management. The integrity of the whole ledger is ensured by the fact that each block in the chain has a timestamped record of transactions and that once added, it cannot be altered.

In the context of smart cities, blockchain plays a pivotal role in addressing various challenges related to data management, security, and efficiency. One of its key contributions is enhancing data integrity. With the increasing reliance on interconnected devices and systems in smart cities, ensuring the trustworthiness of data becomes paramount. Blockchain provides a decentralized and secure platform for recording and validating transactions reducing the risk of data manipulation or fraud.

Another important area where blockchain shines is security. Figure 1.1 show how the blocks have arranged in blockchain technology. Since blockchain is decentralized, there are no single points of failure, which makes it safe from hackers and unauthorized access. Smart cities often involve sensitive information, such as personal data in citizen identity systems or critical data in energy grids. Blockchain’s cryptographic principles and consensus mechanisms ensure that data remain confidential and secure.

Figure 1.1 Blockchain structure.

Efficiency gains in transactions and data sharing are also noteworthy. Blockchain reduces the latency and expense associated with conventional centralized systems by doing away with middlemen and offering a transparent, decentralized platform. This efficiency is particularly valuable in smart city applications like intelligent transportation systems, where real-time data sharing is crucial for optimizing traffic flow and reducing congestion.

Furthermore, blockchain promotes interoperability among diverse systems and devices in a smart city ecosystem. It establishes a common and secure protocol for communication and data exchange facilitating seamless integration of various services and technologies.

1.5 Components of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.5.1 Decentralized Ledger

The decentralized ledger is the foundational aspect of blockchain technology. It is a decentralized database that safeguards a continually expanding collection of records, referred to as blocks, protecting them from unauthorized alterations and revisions. In the context of smart cities, a decentralized ledger can store a wide range of information, such as property ownership records, utility usage data, public transportation logs, and more. By using distributed ledger technology, smart cities can ensure the integrity and transparency of critical data while reducing the risk of data manipulation and enhancing trust among stakeholders.

1.5.2 Smart Contracts

Smart contracts are automated contracts where the terms of the agreement between parties are encoded into software, allowing for self-execution of the contract. In the context of smart cities, smart contracts can automate and enforce agreements related to various services and activities. For instance, these contracts can automate payments for services like energy consumption, waste management, or public transportation streamlining procedures and diminishing the need for manual intervention.

1.5.3 Identity

Blockchain technology can be employed for secure and decentralized identity management enhancing privacy and security for residents in smart cities. By utilizing decentralized identity solutions, residents can control and share their identity data with government agencies, service providers, and other entities as necessary, Simultaneously, these contracts enable individuals to retain control over their personal information and mitigate the risks associated with identity theft and fraud.

1.5.4 Data Security and Integrity

By utilizing cryptographic principles and consensus algorithms, blockchain safeguards the security and integrity of the data stored within the network. In smart cities, this capability is crucial for protecting sensitive citizen data, government operations, and critical infrastructure information from unauthorized access, tampering, or cyber attacks.

1.5.5 Interoperability

Smart cities typically encompass diverse systems and technologies from different vendors and service providers. Blockchain technology can facilitate interoperability by serving as a standardized and secure platform for data exchange and collaboration among various entities within the city ecosystem. This interoperability can improve the seamless integration of applications, data, and services, ultimately enhancing the overall efficiency of city operations.

1.5.6 Supply Chain

The unalterable and transparent record of blockchain can be applied to monitor and follow the flow of goods, materials, and services within the supply chain of a smart city. By adopting blockchain in supply chain management, smart cities can improve transparency, accountability, and efficiency throughout the supply chain, addressing challenges, such as counterfeit products, unauthorized alterations, and inefficiencies.

1.5.7 Payment and Transactions

Blockchain-based payment systems can streamline financial transactions within smart cities enabling secure and efficient micropayments for services, such as parking, public transportation, and energy usage. By leveraging blockchain for payments, smart cities can reduce transaction costs and enhance the speed and security of financial interactions contributing to a seamless and convenient experience for residents and businesses.

1.5.8 Decentralized Energy Grids

Blockchain technologies can enable the making of decentralized energy grids within smart cities facilitating peer-to-peer energy trading and the efficient distribution of renewable energy. By employing blockchain in energy management, smart cities can promote the adoption of renewable energy sources, optimize energy distribution, and empower residents to participate in energy trading, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and resilient urban infrastructure.

1.5.9 Citizen Engagement and Governance

Utilizing blockchain can establish secure and reliable voting systems and governance frameworks promoting increased citizen engagement and participation in decision-making processes within smart cities. Through the implementation of blockchain in governance, smart cities can create transparent and tamper-resistant mechanisms for citizen voting, consultation, and feedback, thereby fostering enhanced trust and accountability in civic processes.

1.5.10 Data Analytics and Visualization

The integration of blockchain technology with sophisticated data analytics and visualization toolscan offer city administrators and stakeholders immediate and actionable insights into urban and citizen behavior. Figure 1.2 gives various components of blockchain. Through the amalgamation of blockchain and data analytics, smart cities can acquire valuable information on aspects like traffic flow, energy usage, waste management, and public safety. This facilitates informed decision making and proactive urban planning.

Figure 1.2 Blockchain component.

1.6 Types of Blockchain Architectures in Smart Cities

1.6.1 Public Blockchain

Public blockchains are open and decentralized, allowing anyone to join the network, participate in the consensus process, and access the data recorded on the blockchain [7]. Some key characteristics and use cases of public blockchains in smart cities include:

Transparency and Immutability:

Public blockchains provide transparency by allowing anyone to view the data stored on the blockchain. This transparency can be leveraged in smart city applications for public utility management, land registry, and public infrastructure records ensuring trust and integrity.

Citizen Identity Management:

Public blockchains can be used for citizen identity verification enabling individuals to have secure and tamper-proof digital identities. This is particularly relevant for accessing government services, voting systems, and citizen participation in smart city initiatives.

Decentralized Governance:

Public blockchains offer decentralized governance models, which can be beneficial for smart city applications that require democratic decision making and community involvement in urban planning, resource allocation, or policy development.

1.6.2 Private Blockchain

Private blockchains are permissioned and are typically used within a closed ecosystem where trust and control among participants are essential. Key characteristics and use cases of private blockchains in smart cities include:

Data Privacy and Confidentiality:

Private blockchains enable smart cities to manage private and sensitive data related to citizens, businesses, and government operations while ensuring privacy and confidentiality. This could include healthcare records, financial transactions, and sensitive infrastructure management data.

Enterprise Collaboration:

In the context of smart cities, private blockchains facilitate collaboration among various city departments, agencies, and private sector partners for initiatives, such as supply chain management, private utility networks, and confidential transactions that require a controlled and secure environment.

Regulatory Compliance:

Private blockchains provide smart cities with the ability to comply with regulatory requirements and data protection laws while still leveraging the benefits of blockchain technology, such as auditability and data integrity.

1.6.3 Consortium Blockchain

Consortium blockchains are a hybrid of public and private blockchains, where a predefined set of participants control the consensus process. Figure 1.3 tell about the types of blockchain. The key characteristics and use cases of consortium blockchains in smart cities include:

Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration:

Consortium blockchains are suitable for smart city applications that involve collaboration among multiple stakeholders, including government entities, private organizations, and citizens. Use cases may include shared infrastructure management, multi-party contract execution, and public–private partnerships.

Interoperability and Standards:

Smart city ecosystems often require interoperability and standardization among diverse participants. Consortium blockchains enable stakeholders to define and enforce standards for data exchange, transaction validation, and governance processes while maintaining a degree of decentralization and trust.

Scalability and Performance:

Consortium blockchains can offer improved scalability and performance compared to public blockchains making them suitable for smart city applications that require high transaction throughput and real-time data processing, such as transportation systems, energy grids, and IoT networks.

Figure 1.3 Blockchain types.

1.7 Layers of Blockchain Architecture Used in Smart Cities

The implementation of blockchain technology in smart cities typically involves multiple layers of architecture to accommodate various functionalities and interactions. Below are the key layers of blockchain architecture commonly used in smart city applications:

1.7.1 Application Layer

This is the topmost layer of the blockchain architecture, where the smart city-specific applications and use cases are implemented. These applications could vary in nature and may include but are not limited to:

Citizen Services:

Applications for citizen identity management, access to government services, digital voting systems, and public welfare programs.

Infrastructure Management:

Applications for managing and optimizing public utilities, transportation systems, waste management, and energy grids.

Supply Chain and Logistics:

Applications for monitoring and optimizing supply chain operations, logistics, and inventory management across the city.

Public Records and Compliance:

Applications for maintaining public records, land registry, regulatory compliance, and smart contracts for public– private partnerships.

1.7.2 Smart Contract and Business Logic Layer

This layer is responsible for executing smart contracts and enforcing the business logic embedded in the smart city applications. It often includes functionalities related to:

Smart Contract Execution:

Execution and validation of self-executing agreements, digitally enforcing the terms of agreements between parties involved in various transactions and processes.

Business Rules and Logic:

Implementation of specific business rules, conditions, and logic for governing transactions, data access, and interactions within the smart city ecosystem. Smart contracts, deployed on the blockchain, ensure the automation and transparent execution of predefined business processes, offering trust and efficiency in smart city operations.

1.7.3 Data and Transaction Layer

At this layer, the blockchain platform handles the storage and validation of transactions and related data. It typically includes the following functionalities:

Transaction Validation:

Validation of transactions and consensus mechanisms ensuring the integrity and immutability of data stored on the blockchain.

Data Storage and Retrieval:

Storage of various types of data, including public records, citizen identities, transaction history, and IoT sensor data, in a secure and immutable manner.

Interoperability and Integration:

Integration with external data sources, IoT devices, and legacy systems allowing seamless data exchange and interoperability within the smart city infrastructure. This layer serves as the foundation for the secure and transparent storage and handling of data across the smart city ecosystem.

1.7.4 Network and Infrastructure Layer

This layer encompasses the underlying network infrastructure and protocols that facilitate communication and consensus among the participants in the blockchain network. Key components include:

Peer-to-Peer Network:

A decentralized network of nodes that communicate and maintain the distributed ledger ensuring redundancy and fault tolerance.

Consensus Mechanisms:

Protocols for achieving agreement on the state of the blockchain, such as Proof of Work, Proof of Stake, or Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), depending on the specific requirements of the smart city use cases.

Security and Privacy Protocols:

Implementation of encryption, access control, and privacy-preserving techniques to protect data and transactions from unauthorized access and tampering.

Figure 1.4 shows the different layers in the blockchain. This layer provides the infrastructure required for the secure and efficient operation of the blockchain network, supporting the execution of smart city applications and use cases.

Figure 1.4 Layers of blockchain.

Each of these layers collaborates to form a comprehensive blockchain architecture tailored to the specific needs of smart cities enabling transparent, secure, and interoperable operations across various sectors and stakeholders within the urban environment.

1.8 Implementation of Blockchain in Smart Cities

1.8.1 Citizen Identity and Access Management

Blockchain-based digital identities provide citizens with self-sovereign identity management enabling them to have control over their personal data while securely and seamlessly accessing government services, financial transactions, and participating in e-voting systems. This approach enhances data privacy and reduces the risk of identity theft by providing a tamper-proof, decentralized identity verification system.

1.8.2 Public Utility and Infrastructure Management

Blockchain can be leveraged to create transparent and auditable records for managing public utilities, such as energy grids, water supply networks, and waste management systems. Using smart contracts, automated billing and payment systems can be implemented to ensure efficient and fair resource allocation and utilization.

1.8.3 Transportation and Mobility Solutions

Integrating blockchain in transportation systems enables the creation of decentralized, secure, and transparent records for public transit, parking management, and ride-sharing services. This can lead to optimized routing, efficient payment processing, reduced fraud, and improved reliability for citizens using various mobility services.

1.8.4 Supply Chain Management and Logistics

Blockchain technology can enhance supply chain traceability and transparency in the context of smart cities, guaranteeing product authenticity, lowering counterfeiting, and permitting real-time tracking of items. This application can improve the overall resilience of urban supply chains, lower operating costs, and increase the efficiency of logistics.

1.8.5 Public Records and Compliance

Blockchain-based management of public records, land registries, and compliance processes ensures tamper-proof, immutable records that enhance trust among citizens and businesses. It simplifies regulatory compliance and reduces administrative overhead by streamlining processes related to permits, licenses, property ownership, and regulatory documentation.

1.8.6 Energy Trading and Renewable Energy Initiatives

Blockchain facilitates peer-to-peer energy trading and supports the integration of renewable energy sources into the grid. Through decentralized energy trading platforms, citizens and businesses can efficiently trade surplus energy, contribute to the stability of the grid, and promote sustainable energy practices, aligning with a city’s sustainability and environmental goals.

1.8.7 Smart Contracts for Public–Private Partnerships

Smart cities can utilize blockchain-based smart contracts to automate and streamline public–private partnerships ensuring transparency and efficiency in agreements and transactions. These self-executing contracts enable automated validation and execution of terms improving the overall governance and management of public infrastructure and services.

These detailed applications of blockchain technology in smart cities demonstrate how blockchain can address challenges, such as data security, privacy, transparency, efficiency, and collaborative governance, while also supporting sustainability and innovation within urban environments. By integrating blockchain into these use cases, smart cities can enhance their infrastructure, services, and governance models to create more resilient, sustainable, and citizen-centric urban environments.

1.9 Applications of Blockchain in Smart Cities

Building a smart city ecosystem using blockchain technology can offer numerous benefits for urban development and management. Blockchain’s secure, decentralized, and transparent nature makes it an ideal candidate for enhancing various aspects of smart city infrastructure. Here are some potential applications of blockchain technology in a smart city ecosystem [6].

1.9.1 Traffic Management

Blockchain technology can be leveraged to securely and transparently record and analyze traffic data, including vehicle movement patterns, congestion hotspots, and accident reports. Through blockchain-enabled traffic management, cities can optimize traffic flow, improve emergency response times, and implement dynamic road-pricing systems leading to reduced congestion and enhanced overall urban mobility.

1.9.2 Waste Management

By integrating blockchain into waste management processes, cities can establish a verifiable and immutable ledger for waste disposal and recycling activities. This can lead to increased transparency in waste collection, incentivize proper waste disposal practices through tokenized reward systems, optimize waste collection routes, and facilitate the traceability of recycled materials contributing to more sustainable and efficient waste management practices.

1.9.3 Energy Distribution

Blockchain technology can enable peer-to-peer energy trading and secure, transparent management of energy distribution within a smart city. Through blockchain-based energy distribution, residents can trade surplus energy, local energy producers can directly sell excess energy to consumers, and smart contracts can autonomously execute energy transactions, leading to more efficient and affordable energy usage, reduced reliance on central power grids, and greater overall energy sustainability.

1.9.4 Voting Systems

Implementing blockchain-based voting systems can revolutionize electoral processes by ensuring the security and integrity of voting records, enabling transparent and tamper-proof voting data, and facilitating increased voter trust through verifiable election results. Blockchain-enabled voting systems can enhance voter participation, improve election integrity, and streamline the process of tallying and verifying votes ultimately strengthening democratic governance in smart cities.

1.9.5 Interoperability

Blockchain technology can facilitate seamless interoperability and secure data sharing between diverse smart city systems and devices. By leveraging blockchain for interoperability, cities can establish a standardized, secure framework for integrating various urban technologies, enabling more effective resource allocation, enhancing cross-system compatibility, and promoting collaboration between different smart city solutions, leading to improved operational efficiency and enhanced urban development.

1.9.6 Public Health Management

Integrating blockchain into public health management enables the secure and confidential storage and sharing of individuals’ health records ensuring timely and accurate access to medical data during emergencies, enhancing the interoperability of healthcare systems, and strengthening the overall security and privacy of personal health information. Blockchain-enabled public health management systems can facilitate faster and more coordinated responses to public health crises, enhance the accuracy of medical records, and empower individuals to have greater control over their health data.

1.9.7 Property and Land Registry