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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The book provides valuable insights into how modern production strategies can enhance quality, efficiency, and environmental sustainability, ultimately driving profit and competitive advantage in today’s high-tech industry.
Today, production strategies are influenced by quality, cost, delivery, innovation, and responsiveness. Firms have traditionally pursued these goals through the adoption of production practices, such as simultaneous engineering, increasing efficiency through the elimination of defects, setup reduction, and worker empowerment. However, recent developments in industry suggest that industry regulators and professional bodies must encourage innovation in a broad range of high-tech production facilities with the environment in mind. The success of the industry depends on production facilities and the competitive advantage that the industry gains due to better quality and reliability. This advantage leads to an increase in sales and the creation of a sound customer base for greater market share, which eventually leads to more profit, growth, and expansion. A firm’s processes must possess operating advantages in the form of competitive priorities to outperform its competitors, keeping in mind its influence on the environment. Digitization and Manufacturing Performance: An Environmental Perspective presents the expectations of industrialists, policymakers, and academics by evaluating the impact of production facilities.
Readers will find the book:
- Discusses emerging technologies and their role in environmental aspects in detail;
- Provides a comprehensive overview of the latest existing and emerging technologies and their environmental aspects;
- Justifies social, economic, and technical considerations of these technologies;
- Explores the relationship between advanced technologies and the environment through in-depth studies.
Audience
Researchers, scholars, faculty, professionals in research and development, and industrialists in the industrial, production, mechanical, and electronics sectors.
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Seitenzahl: 472
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Green Energy Technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Industrial Processes
1.3 Overview of Renewable Energy Technologies
1.4 Dedicated Energy Crops
1.5 Agricultural Crop Residue
1.6 Forestry Residues
1.7 Algae
1.8 Wood Processing Residues
1.9 Sorted Municipal Waste
1.10 Wet Waste
1.11 What is Solar PV?
1.12 Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
1.13 What is Waste to Energy?
1.14 Where are Nanomaterials Found?
References
2 Recent Advances in Green Energy Materials: A Review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Solar Energy Materials
2.3 Wind Energy Materials
2.4 Hydroelectric Energy Materials
2.5 Geothermal Energy Materials
2.6 Biomass Energy Materials
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Green Computing Technologies: Toward Sustainable Computing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Virtualization and Cloud Computing
3.3 Sustainable Computing Practices
3.4 Green Computing in Industry and Society
3.5 Challenges and Opportunities
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Application of Machine Learning Techniques for Environmental Monitoring and Conservation: A Review
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Machine Learning Techniques
4.3 Applications of Machine Learning in Environmental Aspect
4.4 Natural Resource Management and Conservation
4.5 Biodiversity Conservation
4.6 Waste Management and Recycling
4.7 Challenges and Opportunities
4.8 Opportunities for the Advancement of Machine Learning in Environmental Aspect
4.9 Ethics, Transparency, and Fairness in Machine Learning for Environmental Aspect
4.10 Real-World Applications of Machine Learning in Environmental Aspect
4.11 Case Studies
4.12 Success Stories and Best Practices
4.13 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
5 Green Engineering in IoT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 IoT Data Types
5.3 What is Green IoT?
5.4 Benefits of Adopting Green IoT
5.5 Green IoT Components
5.6 Recommendations for Raising Awareness and Future Research Directions
References
6 Green Engineering in Product Development
6.1 Introduction and Meaning
6.2 Principles of Green Engineering
6.3 Benefits of Green Engineering
6.4 Promoting Green Engineering Through Green Chemistry
6.5 Sustainability and Green Engineering Innovations That Might Just Change the World
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Green Policies in Education: Fostering Environmental Stewardship and Sustainable Practices
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theoretical Framework
7.3 Policy Development and Implementation
7.4 Curriculum Integration and Pedagogy
7.5 Infrastructure and Facilities
7.6 Student Engagement and Participation
7.7 Collaboration and Partnerships
7.8 Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting
7.9 Challenges and Future Directions
7.10 Conclusion
References
8 Green Engineering in Automobile Sector
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Green Engineering in Automobile Design
8.3 Conclusion
References
9 Towards Sustainable Manufacturing: Integrating Digital Technologies on the Green Path
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing with Internet of Things (IoT)
9.3 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing with Artificial Intelligence
9.4 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing with Digital Twins
9.5 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing with Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)
9.6 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing with Augmented Reality (AR)
9.7 Green Path for Sustainable Manufacturing
9.8 Introduction to Green Manufacturing
9.9 Future Trends in Sustainable Manufacturing
9.10 Emerging Digital Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing
9.11 New Trends in Green Manufacturing Practices
9.12 Future Directions for Sustainable Manufacturing
9.13 Conclusion
9.14 Future Scope
References
10 Smart Manufacturing for a Sustainable Future: A Review
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Smart Manufacturing for Green Future
10.3 Green Supply Chain Management
10.4 Waste Reduction
10.5 Renewable Energy Integration
10.6 Green Product Design
10.7 Circular Economy
10.8 Water Conservation
10.9 Green Data Centers
10.10 Conclusion
References
11 Smart Manufacturing for a Greener Future
11.1 Introduction and Meaning
11.2 Historical Background of Manufacturing
11.3 Characteristics and Challenges of Smart Manufacturing Systems
11.4 Enabling Mechanisms Toward Smart Manufacturing for Greener Future
11.5 Supporting Tool/Methods Toward Smart Manufacturing for Greener Future
11.6 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Energy consumption for different wireless technologies for IoT appli...
Table 5.2 Recommendations for raising awareness [7].
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Schematic of USA nested renewable fuels categories under the renewa...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 IoT applications [7].
Figure 5.2 Green IoT enablers [8, 10].
Figure 5.3 Green IoT applications [8, 11].
Figure 5.4 Green IoT components [15].
Figure 5.5 Energy-efficient WSN techniques [4].
Figure 5.6 Energy-efficient M2M techniques [4].
Figure 5.7 Actions to reduce e-waste [22].
Figure 5.8 Green data center techniques [24].
Figure 5.9 Applications of RFID tag [28].
Figure 5.10 Potential future directions for green IoT [4].
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 A schematic of smart manufacturing components.
Figure 11.2 Framework of smart manufacturing for greener future.
Figure 11.3 Industrial revolutions.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Digitization and Manufacturing Performance
An Environmental Perspective
Edited by
Chandan Deep Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Talwinder Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, Indiaand
Davinder Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, IndiaThis edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-19776-7
Front cover images courtesy of Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Currently, most production strategies are shaped by factors such as quality, cost, delivery, innovation, and responsiveness. Traditionally, firms have pursued these objectives by adopting production practices such as simultaneous engineering, increasing efficiency through defect elimination, setup reduction, and worker empowerment. Recent developments in the industry indicate another path to achieving production excellence: industry regulators and professional bodies should foster innovation across a broad spectrum of high-tech production facilities with environmental considerations in mind.
The industry’s success hinges on the capabilities of production facilities and the competitive advantage gained through superior quality and reliability. This advantage translates into increased sales and developing a robust customer base, leading to greater market share and, ultimately, enhanced profitability, growth, and expansion. A firm’s processes must exhibit competitive priorities that provide operational advantages to outperform competitors. These advantages are assessed, evaluated, and measured across parameters such as cost, quality, time, design, and flexibility. This book aims to meet the expectations of industrialists, policymakers, and academicians by evaluating the impact of production facilities, which are critical to the industry’s success.
The manufacturing industry forms the material foundation and the backbone of a country’s national economy, reflecting its comprehensive national strength. However, the growth in mechanical manufacturing has escalated the strain on global energy resources, producing wastewater, waste gas, and residues that significantly impact the environment. This is detrimental to the sustainable development of our ecological systems. Economic gains are no longer the sole objective of the manufacturing sector. Emphasizing ecological protection and the scientific utilization of resources now stand as critical goals.
In response, fostering the development of green manufacturing is crucial for the sustainable progress of the industry. The current manufacturing landscape still lacks adequate integration of intelligent technologies and sustainable green engineering practices, which are essential for maintaining a clean and superior production environment. This book introduces enabling mechanisms to assess the “greenness” of intelligent techniques employed in modern organizations. It also advocates for alternative renewable energy sources, zero-emission and zero-waste manufacturing facilities, alongside promoting green standards and awareness. It is anticipated that green engineering will emerge as a vital manufacturing standard that addresses the multifaceted issues of environmental, employee, and economic development globally.
Many industries still rely on conventional maintenance approaches, like breakdown maintenance, which do not align with sustainability performance indicators, thus operating at low efficiency. This book highlights the importance of Maintenance 4.0 techniques, which integrate sustainable key performance indicators (KPIs) in the maintenance decision-making process to optimize organizational and field service maintenance.
The need for this book arose from the recognition that green engineering, as a comprehensive approach, has not been sufficiently addressed. This study aims to explore and define the parameters contributing to the success of the manufacturing industry through green engineering initiatives. Adopting green engineering during the product development phase is crucial to minimize the industrial impact on the environment.
The book proposes different tools and techniques for sustainable product development, creating a new framework for Green Product Development (GPD) that can be readily implemented within organizations. In recent years, the automobile sector has taken significant steps toward reducing carbon emissions through new technologies that enhance fuel efficiency, explore alternative fuels, and develop zero-emission vehicles. For the automotive industry, sustainability is increasingly crucial to meet both regulatory and consumer demands. This book also explores various sustainable technologies specifically for the automobile sector, including gasoline-electric hybrid, electric, zero-emission hydrogen fuel cell, solar, and e-bio fuel cell vehicles. Green engineering has become an essential strategic tool for automobile companies to cultivate an environmentally conscious brand image and differentiate themselves from competitors in the market.
We want to express our deepest appreciation to all the contributors who have dedicated their time and efforts to making this book a success. Additionally, we extend our deepest thanks for the suggestions, help, and support from Martin Scrivener and the team at Scrivener Publishing.
The Editors
March 2025
1Green Energy Technologies
Chandan Deep Singh
Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Abstract
Green energy is that which comes from natural sources, such as the sun. Clean energy are those types which do not release pollutants into the air, and renewable energy comes from sources that are constantly being replenished, such as hydro power, wind power or solar energy. Clean energy technologies are renewable, less environmentally invasive ways of powering the global community. Some of the most common examples of clean energy sources include solar, wind, water, geothermal, bioenergy, natural gas, and nuclear power. The key with these energy resources are that they do not harm the environment through factor, such as releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Keywords: Green energy technologies, materials, biomass, electric power, hydro, solar, wind, geothermal
1.1 Introduction
As a source of energy, green energy often comes from renewable energy technologies such as solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectric power. Each of these technologies works in different ways, whether that is by taking power from the sun, as with solar panels, or using wind turbines or the flow of water to generate energy.
In order to be deemed green energy, a resource cannot produce pollution, such as is found with fossil fuels. This means that not all sources used by the renewable energy industry are green. For example, power generation that burns organic material from sustainable forests may be renewable, but it is not necessarily green, due to the CO2 produced by the burning process itself.
Green energy sources are usually naturally replenished, as opposed to fossil fuel sources like natural gas or coal, which can take millions of years to develop. Green sources also often avoid mining or drilling operations that can be damaging to eco-systems.
Types
The main sources are wind energy, solar power and hydroelectric power (including tidal energy, which uses ocean energy from the tides in the sea). Solar and wind power are able to be produced on a small scale at people’s homes or alternatively, they can be generated on a larger, industrial scale.
The six most common forms are as follows:
Solar Power
This common type of renewable energy is usually produced using photovoltaic cells that capture sunlight and turn it into electricity. Solar power is also used to heat buildings and for hot water as well as for cooking and lighting. Solar power has now become affordable enough to be used for domestic purposes including garden lighting, although it is also used on a larger scale to power entire neighbourhoods.
Wind Power
Particularly suited to offshore and higher altitude sites, wind energy uses the power of the flow of air around the world to push turbines that then generate electricity.
Hydropower
Also known as hydroelectric power, this type of green energy uses the flow of water in rivers, streams, dams or elsewhere to produce electricity. Hydropower can even work on a small scale using the flow of water through pipes in the home or can come from evaporation, rainfall or the tides in the oceans.
Exactly how “green” the following three types of green energy are is dependent on how they are created.
Geothermal Energy
This type of green power uses thermal energy that has been stored just under the earth’s crust. While this resource requires drilling to access, thereby calling the environmental impact into question, it is a huge resource once tapped into. Geothermal energy has been used for bathing in hot springs for thousands of years and this same resource can be used for steam to turn turbines and generate electricity. The energy stored under the United States alone is enough to produce 10 times as much electricity as coal currently can. While some nations, such as Iceland, have easy-to-access geothermal resources, it is a resource that is reliant on location for ease of use, and to be fully “green” the drilling procedures need to be closely monitored.
Biomass
This renewable resource also needs to be carefully managed in order to be truly labelled as a “green energy” source. Biomass power plants use wood waste, sawdust and combustible organic agricultural waste to create energy. While the burning of these materials releases greenhouse gas these emissions are still far lower than those from petroleum-based fuels.
Biofuels
Rather than burning biomass as mentioned above, these organic materials can be transformed into fuel such as ethanol and biodiesel. Having supplied just 2.7% of the world’s fuel for transport in 2010, the biofuels are estimated to have the capacity to meet over 25% of global transportation fuel demand by 2050.
Green energy is important for the environment as it replaces the negative effects of fossil fuels with more environmentally-friendly alternatives. Derived from natural resources, green energy is also often renewable and clean, meaning that they emit no or few greenhouse gases and are often readily available.
Even when the full life cycle of a green energy source is taken into consideration, they release far less greenhouse gases than fossil fuels, as well as few or low levels of air pollutants. This is not just good for the planet but is also better for the health of people and animals that have to breathe the air.
Green energy can also lead to stable energy prices as these sources are often produced locally and are not as affected by geopolitical crisis, price spikes or supply chain disruptions. The economic benefits also include job creation in building the facilities that often serve the communities where the workers are employed.
Renewable energy saw the creation of 11 million jobs worldwide in 2018, with this number set to grow as we strive to meet targets such as net zero.
Due to the local nature of energy production through sources like solar and wind power, the energy infrastructure is more flexible and less dependent on centralized sources that can lead to disruption as well as being less resilient to weather related climate change.
Green energy also represents a low cost solution for the energy needs of many parts of the world. This will only improve as costs continue to fall, further increasing the accessibility of green energy, especially in the developing world.
Examples
There are plenty of examples of green energy in use today, from energy production through to thermal heating for buildings, off-highway and transport. Many industries are investigating green solutions and here are a few examples:
Heating and Cooling in Buildings
Green energy solutions are being used for buildings ranging from large office blocks to people’s homes. These include solar water heaters, biomass fuelled boilers and direct heat from geothermal, as well as cooling systems powered by renewable sources.
1.2 Industrial Processes
Renewable heat for industrial processes can be run using biomass or renewable electricity. Hydrogen is now a large provider of renewable energy for the cement, iron, steel and chemical industries.
Transport
Sustainable biofuels and renewable electricity are growing in use for transportation across multiple industry sectors. Automotive is an obvious example as electrification advances to replace fossil fuels, but aerospace and construction are other areas that are actively investigating electrification.
Can it replace fossil fuels?
Green energy has the capacity to replace fossil fuels in the future, however it may require varied production from different means to achieve this. Geothermal, for example, is particularly effective in places where this resource is easy to tap into, while wind energy or solar power may be better suited to other geographic locations.
However, by bringing together multiple green energy sources to meet our needs, and with the advancements that are being made with regards to production and development of these resources, there is every reason to believe that fossil fuels could be phased out.
We are still some years away from this happening, but the fact remains that this is necessary to reduce climate change, improve the environment and move to a more sustainable future.
Can it be economically viable?
Understanding the economic viability of green energy requires a comparison with fossil fuels. The fact is that as easily-reached fossil resources begin to run out, the cost of this type of energy will only increase with scarcity.
At the same time as fossil fuels become more expensive, the cost of greener energy sources is falling. Other factors also work in favour of green energy, such as the ability to produce relatively inexpensive localized energy solutions, such as solar farms. The interest, investment and development of green energy solutions is bringing costs down as we continue to build up our knowledge and are able to build on past breakthroughs.
As a result, green energy can not only become economically viable but also the preferred option.
Which type is the most efficient?
Efficiency in green energy is slightly dependent on location as, if you have the right conditions, such as frequent and strong sunlight, it is easy to create a fast and efficient energy solution.
However, to truly compare different energy types it is necessary to analyze the full life cycle of an energy source. This includes assessing the energy used to create the green energy resource, working out how much energy can be translated into electricity and any environmental clearing that was required to create the energy solution. Of course, environmental damage would prevent a source truly being “green,” but when all of these factors are combined it creates what is known as a “Levelised Energy Cost” (LEC).
Currently, wind farms are seen as the most efficient source of green energy as it requires less refining and processing than the production of, for example, solar panels. Advances in composites technology and testing has helped improve the life-span and therefore the LEC of wind turbines. However, the same can be said of solar panels, which are also seeing a great deal of development.
Green energy solutions also have the benefit of not needing much additional energy expenditure after they have been built, since they tend to use a readily renewable source of power, such as the wind. In fact, the total efficiency of usable energy for coal is just 29% of its original energy value, while wind power offers a 1164% return on its original energy input.
Renewable energy sources are currently ranked as follows in efficiency (although this may change as developments continue):
Wind Power
Geothermal
Hydropower
Nuclear
Solar Power
How can it help the environment?
Green energy provides real benefits for the environment since the power comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind and water. Constantly replenished, these energy sources are the direct opposite of the unsustainable, carbon emitting fossil fuels that have powered us for over a century.
Creating energy with a zero carbon footprint is a great stride to a more environmentally friendly future. If we can use it to meet our power, industrial and transportation needs, we will be able to greatly reduce our impact on the environment.
Green energy vs clean energy vs renewable energy—What is the difference?
As we touched upon earlier, there is a difference between green, clean, and renewable energy. This is slightly confused by people often using these terms interchangeably, but while a resource can be all of these things at once, it may also be, for example, renewable but not green or clean (such as with some forms of biomass energy).
Green energy is that which comes from natural sources, such as the sun. Clean energy are those types which do not release pollutants into the air, and renewable energy comes from sources that are constantly being replenished, such as hydropower, wind power or solar energy.
Renewable energy is often seen as being the same, but there is still some debate around this. For example, can a hydroelectric dam which may divert waterways and impact the local environment really be called “green”?
However, a source such as wind power is renewable, green and clean— since it comes from an environmentally-friendly, self-replenishing and non-polluting source [1].
The role of renewables in sustainable development
Renewable energy has an important role to play in meeting future energy needs in both rural and urban areas. The development and utilization of renewable energy should be given a high priority, especially in the light of increased awareness of the adverse environmental impacts of fossil-based generation. The need for sustainable energy development is increasing rapidly in the world. Widespread use of renewable energy is important for achieving sustainability in the energy sectors in both developing and industrialized countries.
Renewable energy resources and technologies are a key component of sustainable development for three main reasons:
They generally cause less environmental impact than other energy sources. The variety of renewable energy resources provides a flexible array of options for their use.
They cannot be depleted. If used carefully in appropriate applications, renewable energy resources can provide a reliable and sustainable supply of energy almost indefinitely. In contrast, fossil fuel and uranium resources are diminished by extraction and consumption.
They favor system decentralization and local solutions that are somewhat independent of the national network, thus enhancing the flexibility of the system and providing economic benefits to small isolated populations. Also, the small scale of the equipment often reduces the time required from initial design to operation, providing greater adaptability in responding to unpredictable growth and/or changes in energy demand.
Environment and renewable energy technologies
Renewable energy technologies” is an umbrella term that stands for energy production using a renewable energy source like solar, wind, water (hydro and tidal), biomass (biofuels and wastes), and geothermal heat.
This module provides an outline and brief description, including fundamentals, of the different renewable energy technologies, wind, solar, bioenergy, hydro and geothermal energy. It provides a general overview of the technologies and their applications. Electricity generation from wave and tidal energy is not discussed.
The use of this technology is less relevant for developing countries as mostly these technologies are still at the prototype stage. While these technologies are not fully proven yet, promising research and development is being conducted. The module also reviews the costs of the different technologies and discusses common technical and non-technical barriers and issues limiting the wide spread use/dissemination of renewable energy in developing countries. The information in this module is of general interest to explain the basics of renewable energy technologies, to understand their strengths and weaknesses and hence to have a better grasp of the benefits available from, and the barriers faced by, these technologies.
1.3 Overview of Renewable Energy Technologies
One of the first aspects to consider is the cost of renewable energy technologies. However, this is not an easy question to answer because, as with many energy technologies, many factors affect cost and different sources of information use different criteria for estimating cost. In many cases, the environmental benefits of renewable energy technologies are difficult to take into account in terms of cost savings through less pollution and less damage to the environment. When trying to calculate the cost of these technologies is often best to take a life cycle cost approach, as these technologies often have high up-front capital costs but very low operation and maintenance costs. And of course, there is usually no fuel cost.
1. Wind energy: A wind turbine produces power by converting the force of the wind (kinetic energy) acting on the rotor blades (rotational energy) into torque (turning force or mechanical energy). This rotational energy is used either within a generator to produce electricity or, perhaps less commonly, it is used directly for driving equipment such as milling machines or water pumps (often via conversion to linear motion for piston pumps). Wind power by its nature is variable (or intermittent), therefore some form of storage or back-up is inevitably involved. This may be through: (a) connection to an electricity grid system, which may be on a large or small (mini-grid) scale; incorporating other electricity producing energy systems (from conventional generating stations through diesel generators to other renewable energy systems).
Wind turbines generating electricity
Several turbine types exist but presently the most common configuration has become the horizontal axis three bladed turbine. The rotor may be positioned up or downwind (although the former is probably the most common). Modern wind turbines vary in size with two market ranges: small units rated at just a few hundred watts up to 50-80 kW in capacity, used mainly for rural and stand-alone power systems; and large units, from 150 kW up to 5 MW in capacity, used for large-scale, grid-connected systems.
Grid-connected wind turbines
Grid-connected wind turbines are certainly having a considerable impact in developed countries and in some developing countries, namely Argentina, China and India. This is mainly through large-scale installations either on land (on-shore) or in the sea on the continental shelf (off-shore). In addition, in developed countries, more smaller machines are now being grid-connected. These are usually installed to supply power to a private owner already connected to the electricity grid but who wishes to supply at least some of their own power. This principle can be used in developing countries to contribute to a more decentralized grid network and/or to support a weak grid [2].
Stand-alone wind turbines
The most common type of stand-alone small wind electric system involves the use of a wind generator to maintain an adequate level of charge in an electrical storage battery. The battery in turn can provide electricity on demand for electrical applications such as lights, radios, refrigeration, telecommunications, etc., irrespective of whether or not the wind is blowing. A controller is also used to ensure that the batteries are not damaged by overcharging (when surplus energy is dissipated through a dump load) or excessive discharge, usually by sensing low voltage. Loads connected to the battery can either be DC or AC (via an inverter). Small wind battery charging systems are most commonly rated at between 25 and 100 W for a 10m/s wind speed, and are quite small with a rotor diameter of 50 cm to 1 m. These systems are suitable for remote settlements in developing countries. Larger stand-alone systems, incorporating larger wind electricity generators and correspondingly larger battery banks (at an increased cost) are also available, these may include other renewable energy technologies, such as PV, as well as diesel generators to ensure that the batteries are always charged and that power availability is high. Less common is the stand-alone system which does not incorporate a battery back. This involves the use of a wind turbine with, at least, a diesel generator, which will automatically supply power when required. This has the advantage of not requiring a battery bank but the required control systems are complex.
Wind turbines for water pumping
The most common type of a mechanical wind turbine is the wind pump which uses the wind’s kinetic energy to lift water. Wind pumps are typically used for water supply (livestock or human settlements), small-scale irrigation or pumping seawater for sea salt production. Here we look at the two main uses which are irrigation and water supply. There are two distinct categories of wind pump, because the technical, operational and economic requirements are generally different for these two end uses. That is not to say that a water supply wind pump cannot be used for irrigation (they quite often are) but irrigation designs are generally unsuitable for water supply duties.
Most water supply wind pumps must be ultra-reliable, to run unattended for most of the time (so they need automatic devices to prevent over-speeding in storms), and they also need the minimum of maintenance and attention and to be capable of pumping water generally from depths of 10 m to 100 m or more. A typical farm wind pump should run for over 20 years with maintenance only once every year, and without any major replacements; this is a very demanding technical requirement since typically such a wind pump must average over 80,000 operating hours before anything significant wears out; this is four to ten times the operating life of most small diesel engines or about 20 times the life of a small engine pump. Wind pumps to this standard therefore are usually industrially manufactured from steel components and drive piston pumps via reciprocating pump rods. Inevitably they are quite expensive in relation to their power output, because of the robust nature of their construction. But American, Australian and Argentine ranchers have found the price worth paying for wind pumps that run and run without demanding much attention to the extent they can almost be forgotten about for weeks at a time. This inherent reliability for long periods is their main advantage over practically any other form of pumping system. Irrigation duties on the other hand are seasonal (so the windmill may only be useful for a limited fraction of the year), they involve pumping much larger volumes of water through a low head, and the intrinsic value of the water is low when compared with drinking water. Therefore any wind pump developed for irrigation has to be as cheap as possible and this requirement tends to override most other considerations. Since irrigation generally involves the farmer and/or other workers being present, it is not so critical to have a machine capable of running unattended. Therefore windmills used for irrigation in the past tend to be indigenous designs that are often improvised or built by the farmer as a method of low-cost mechanization. Most farm wind pumps, even though still in commercial production, date back to the 1920s or earlier and are therefore heavy and expensive to manufacture, and difficult to install properly in remote areas. Recently, various efforts have been made to revise the traditional farm wind pump concept into a lighter and simpler modern form. Modern designs are fabricated from standard steel stock by small engineering companies and cost (and weigh) only about half as much as traditional American or Australian machines of similar capability. It is possible therefore that through developments of this kind, costs might be kept low enough to allow the marketing of all-steel-wind-pumps that are both durable, like the traditional designs, yet cheap enough to be economic for irrigation.
2. Solar energy: Solar energy technologies can be loosely divided into two categories: solar thermal systems and solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) systems. Photovoltaic (PV) systems Photovoltaic or PV devices convert sun light directly into electrical energy. The amount of energy that can be produced is directly dependent on the sunshine intensity. Thus, for example, PV devices are capable of producing electricity even in winter and even during cloudy weather albeit at a reduced rate. Natural cycles in the context of PV systems thus have three dimensions. As with many other renewable energy technologies, PV has a seasonal variation in potential electricity production with the peak in summer although in principle PV devices operating along the equator have an almost constant exploitable potential throughout the year. Secondly, electricity production varies on a diurnal basis from dawn to PV devices use the chemical-electrical interaction between light radiation and a semiconductor to obtain DC electricity. The base material used to make most types of solar cell is silicon (approx. 87%). The main technologies in use today are: Mono-crystalline silicon cells are made of silicon wavers cut from one homogenous crystal in which all silicon atoms are arranged in the same direction. These have a conversion efficiency of 12–15%. Poly-crystalline silicon cells are poured and are cheaper and simpler to make than mono crystalline silicon and the efficiency is lower than that of monocrystalline cells (conversion efficiency 11–14%).
3. Thin film solar cells are constructed by depositing extremely thin layer of photovoltaic materials on a low-cost backing such as glass, stainless steel or plastic (conversion efficiency 5–12%); Multiple junction cells use two or three layers of different materials in order to improve the efficiency of the module by trying to use a wider spectrum of radiation (conversion efficiency 20–30%). The building block of a PV system is a PV cell. Many PV cells are encapsulated together to form a PV panel or module. A PV array, which is the complete powergenerating unit, consists of any number of PV modules/panels. Depending on their application, the system will also require major components such as a battery bank and battery controller, DC-AC power inverter, auxiliary energy source etc. Individual PV cells typically have a capacity between 5 and 300 W but systems may have a total installed capacity ranging from 10 W to 100 MW. The very modular nature of PV panels as building blocks to a PV system gives the sizing of systems an important flexibility.
Solar thermal systems: Solar thermal systems use the sun’s power in terms of its thermal or heat energy for heating, drying, evaporation and cooling. Many developing countries have indigenous products such as solar water heaters, solar grain dryers, etc. These are usually local rather than international products, specific to a country or even to a region. The main solar thermal systems employed in developing countries are discussed briefly below.
Solar thermal power plants: Solar thermal engines use complex concentrating solar collectors to produce high temperatures. These temperatures are high enough to produce steam, which can be used to drive steam turbines generating electricity. There is a wide variety of different designs, some use central receivers (where the solar energy is concentrated to a tower) whilst others use parabolic concentrator systems. Although the first commercial thermal power plants have been in operation in California since the mid-1980s, many of the newer designs are still at the prototype stage being tested in pilot installations in the deserts of the United States and elsewhere. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has supported the first planning phase of a project that is developing a concentrating solar power plant in Egypt in 2004. There are also projects in India, Mexico and Morocco that have been supported by GEF as part of a strategy to accelerate cost reduction and commercial adoption of high temperature solar thermal energy technology.
Solar water heating: Solar water heating system may be used in rural clinics, hospitals or even schools. The principle of the system is to heat water, usually in a special collector and store it in a tank until required. Collectors are designed to collect the heat in the most efficient, but cost effective way, usually into a heat transfer fluid, which then transfers its heat to the water in the storage tank. The two main types of collector are: flat plate and evacuated tube. For example, to heat 100 L of water through a temperature rise of 40°C with a simple flat plate solar collector requires only approximately 2.5 m2 of collector area but saves approx. 10 kg of woodfuel that would normally be required to heat this quantity of water. The cheapest technology available and the simplest to install is a thermosiphon system, which uses the natural tendency of heated water to rise and cooler water to fall to perform the heat collection task, water inside the collector flow-tubes is heated. As it heats, this water expands slightly and becomes lighter than the cold water in the solar storage tank mounted above the collector. Gravity then pulls the heavier, cold water down from the tank and into the collector inlet. The cold water pushes the heated water through the collector outlet and into the top of the tank, thus heating the water in the tank.
Solar drying: Solar drying, in the open air, has been used for centuries. Drying may be required to preserve agricultural/food products or as a part of the production process, i.e. timber drying. Solar drying systems are those that use the sun’s energy more efficiently than simple open-air drying.
In general, solar drying is more appropriate when: The higher the value per ton of products dried; The higher the proportion of the product currently spoiled in the open air; The more often the drier will be used.
Solar cookers: Solar cookers can be important because of the increased scarcity of wood fuel and the problems of deforestation in many developing country regions. Solar cookers can also promote cleaner air where there is a problem with indoor cooking. There are basically two types of solar cooker: oven or stove type. As with conventional cooking stoves, solar stoves apply heat to the bottom of the cooking pot while solar ovens apply a general heat to the enclosed area which contains the cooking pot. However, there are important social issues related to the effective use of solar cookers. There will always be some change of habits required and readiness to change is an important factor that affects the potential impact of this technology.
Solar distillation: Solar distillation is a solar enhanced distillation process to produce potable water from a saline source. It can be used in areas where, for instance, drinking water is in short supply but brackish water, i.e. containing dissolved salts, is available. In general solar distillation equipment, or stills, is more economically attractive for smaller outputs. Costs increase significantly with increased output, in comparison to other technologies which have considerable economics of scale.
Solar cooling: Several forms of mature technologies are available today for solar-thermally assisted air-conditioning and cooling applications. In particular for centralized systems providing conditioned air and/or chilled water to buildings, all necessary components are commercially available. The great advantage of this solar application, especially in tropical and equatorial countries, is that the daily cooling load profile follows the solar radiation profile (i.e. office buildings).
Bioenergy: Bioenergy is a general term that covers energy derived from a wide variety of material of plant or animal origin. Strictly, this includes fossil fuels but, generally, the term is used to mean renewable energy sources such as wood and wood residues, agricultural crops and residues, animal fats, and animal and human wastes, all of which can yield useful fuels either directly or after some form of conversion. There are technologies for bioenergy using liquid and gaseous fuel, as well as traditional applications of direct combustion. The conversion process can be physical (for example, drying, size, reduction or densification), thermal (as in carbonization) or chemical (as in biogas production). The end result of the conversion process may be a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel and this flexibility of choice in the physical form of the fuel is one of the advantages of bioenergy over other renewable energy sources. The basis for all these applications is organic matter, in most cases plants and trees. There is a trend towards purposefully planted biomass energy crops, although biomass can also be collected as a by-product and residue from agricultural, forestry, industry and household waste. Bioenergy can be used for a great variety of energy needs, from heating and transport fuel to power generation. There are numerous commercially available technologies for the conversion processes and for utilization of the end-products. Although the different types of bioenergy have features in common, they exhibit considerable variation in physical and chemical characteristics which influence their use as fuels. There is such a wide range of bioenergy systems that this module does not aim to cover and describe each one.
4. Hydro: Hydropower is the extraction of energy from falling water (from a higher to a lower altitude) when it is made to pass through an energy conversion device, such as a water turbine or a water wheel. A water turbine converts the energy of water into mechanical energy, which in turn is often converted into electrical energy by means of a generator. Alternatively, hydropower can also be extracted from river currents when a suitable device is placed directly in a river. The devices employed in this case are generally known as river or water current turbines1 or a “zero head” turbine. This module will review only the former type of hydropower, as the latter has a limited potential and application. Hydropower systems can range from tens of Watts to hundreds of Megawatts. However, there is no internationally recognized standard definition for hydropower sizes, so definitions can vary from one country to another. On a smaller scale, used more often in rural and remote areas, micro-hydro schemes can have capacities up to 500 kW and are generally run-of-the-river developments for villages. On an even smaller scale pico-hydro systems tend to be between 50 W and 5 kW and are generally used for individual homes or clusters of households.
Hydropower, under the right circumstances, can be one of the most reliable and cost-effective renewable energy sources. The applications of small-hydro facilities include base, peak and stand-by power production or stand-alone applications. Hydroelectric plants typically generate power between 15% and 100% of the time. In base loading applications, units must be able to operate at least 85% of the time. SHP installations commonly last without the need for major replacement costs for 30+ years. Within the limits of water resources available, SHP installations are characterized by reliability and flexibility of operation, including fast start-up and shut-down in response to rapid demand changes. SHP electricity can be tailored to the needs of the end-use market, avoiding balance and power reliability concerns. Hydropower, under the right circumstances, can be one of the most reliable and cost-effective renewable energy sources. The applications of small-hydro facilities include base, peak and stand-by power production or stand-alone applications. Hydroelectric plants typically generate power between 15% and 100% of the time. In base loading applications, units must be able to operate at least 85% of the time. SHP installations commonly last without the need for major replacement costs for 30+ years. Within the limits of water resources available, SHP installations are characterized by reliability and flexibility of operation, including fast start-up and shut-down in response to rapid demand changes. SHP electricity can be tailored to the needs of the end-use market, avoiding balance and power reliability concerns.
SHP does not have the same kinds of adverse effects on the local environment as large hydro. Nevertheless, SHP has some adverse impacts on the environment. For example when water levels in reservoirs change abruptly to meet electricity demands or in times of low flow, the short stretch of by-passed river can run dry, which might dry out aquatic organisms. Power plants often obstruct the natural migration of fish through the river system. Such effects could result in the extinction of fish populations, a fundamental change of natural flow regimes, the loss of aquatic habitats, sinking groundwater levels and a deterioration of landscapes. In order for hydropower plants to be socially and environmentally sustainable, the local and regional impacts need to be evaluated, reduced and minimized. 3 Therefore, modern construction designs typically implement mitigation measures. The Eugene Standard4 provides a set of criteria that hydropower plants (regardless of their installed capacity, age or mode of operation) need to comply with in order to be an environmentally sound form of power supply.
Under the Standard, three basic conditions have to be met: 1. The basic requirements include (non-exhaustive list): (a) Hydropower utilization should not lastingly impair the ability of fish to migrate unimpeded through the affected river system. (b) Hydropower utilization should not result in long-term degradation in the natural diversity of plants and animals. (c) Power plant constructions should not irreversibly destroy protected habitats. (d) Power plant operation should not endanger fish or benthic organisms in affected river reaches. 2. Secondly the sustainable hydropower plant should invest money (for instance a fixed rate per kilowatt-hour produced or sold) to restore, protect or upgrade the environment surrounding the hydropower plant (so-called ecoinvestments). 3. Thirdly, to assess to which extent the basic requirements were met and what the eco-investments were used for, an audit and certification procedure should be carried out every year [2].
5. Geothermal: Geothermal is energy available as heat emitted from within the earth, usually in the form of hot water or steam. Geothermal heat has two sources: the original heat produced from the formation of the earth by gravitational collapse and the heat produced by the radioactive decay of various isotopes. It is very site dependent as the resource needs to be near surface and can be used for heating and power generation purposes. High temperature resources (150° C+) can be used for electricity generation, while low temperature resources (50-150° C) can be used for various direct uses such as district heating and industrial processing. Since the earth’s crust is continuously emitting heat towards its surface at a rate of 40 million megawatts, geothermal is in principle an inexhaustible energy source, with the centre of the earth having cooled down by only about 2% over the earth’s lifetime of about 4 billion years.
The extraction of energy from geothermal aquifers uses naturally occurring ground water from deep porous rocks. Water can be extracted via a production borehole and, generally be disposed of via an injection hole. Another method is the extraction of heat from hot dry rock (HDR) which uses reservoirs created artificially by hydraulic fracturing. Heat is extracted by circulating water under pressure via production wells. There are no problems of intermittency in the utilization of geothermal energy sources for direct heat applications or for electricity generation. A developed geothermal field provides what is essentially a distributed heat source, since the input to a power plant normally consists of the integrated outputs of several wells. Thus one or more wells may be shut for repairs or maintenance while others produce. Proper dimensioning of the generating plant ensures that there is always enough steam or hot water available for operation. This feature and the low operational costs are the reasons why geothermal power plants are normally used for base load power. Natural variations of geothermal resources occur over extremely long periods, millennia or even longer time scales. However, man-induced processes lead to variations with shorter time scales, typically in the range of decades. Unwanted effects of overexploitation and improper reinjection have been observed, especially in the early years of geothermal technology development. However, presentday geothermal technology for field characterization and modelling makes it possible to avoid improper practices, or at worst to detect their effects at an early stage before they become significant. Environmentally, geothermal schemes are relatively benign, but typically do produce a highly corrosive brine which may need special treatment and discharge consents. There is also a possibility of noxious gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, being emitted.
Bio-energy & Conversion Systems: Biomass conversion is a shared area between hydrogen production and biogas production. It is similar to coal gasification in terms of converting the original resource to a hydrogen-containing gas at high temperatures without combustion. The major options within thermochemical biomass conversion processes include combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and liquefaction. The most practiced thermochemical conversion of biomass industrially is combustion process, which is used for heat and electricity generation. The major commercial fuels used in the world today are natural gas, gasoline (petrol), aviation fuel, diesel, fuel oils, and solid fuels such as coal. These commercial fossil fuels could be replaced with biofuels and solid fuels derived from biomass by using conversion technologies. There are specific biomass resources that are well-suited to each conversion technology. For example, sugar crops (sugarcane and sweet sorghum) are good feedstock materials for the conversion of bioethanol; oil crops (soybean and canola oil) are ideal feedstock for biodiesel production; and lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., wood wastes, animal manure or grasses) is the prime substrate for making biogas. Thermal conversion systems convert all other biomass resources into valuable products.
Replacement of these primary fuels with bio-based alternatives is one way to address energy sustainability. Heat and electrical power, needed worldwide, can also be produced through the conversion of biomass through thermo-chemical conversion processes such as pyrolysis and gasification to produce synthesis gas (or also called syngas, a shorter version). Syngas can be combusted to generate heat and can be thoroughly cleaned of tar and used in an internal combustion engine to generate mechanical or electrical power. Future world requirements for other basic energy and power needs can be met using a wide range of biomass resources, including oil and sugar crops, animal manure, crop residues, municipal solid wastes (MSW), fuel wood, aquatic plants like micro-algae, and dedicated energy farming for energy production. The three primary products of thermal conversion are solid bio-char, liquid, and synthesis gas. Replacement of these primary fuels with bio-based alternatives is one way to address energy sustainability. Heat and electrical power, needed worldwide, can also be produced through the conversion of biomass through thermo-chemical conversion processes such as pyrolysis and gasification to produce synthesis gas (or also called syngas, a shorter version). Syngas can be combusted to generate heat and can be thoroughly cleaned of tar and used in an internal combustion engine to generate mechanical or electrical power. Future world requirements for other basic energy and power needs can be met using a wide range of biomass resources, including oil and sugar crops, animal manure, crop residues, municipal solid wastes (MSW), fuel wood, aquatic plants like micro-algae, and dedicated energy farming for energy production. The three primary products of thermal conversion are solid bio-char, liquid, and synthesis gas.
Biodiesel Production:
Refined vegetable oils and fats are converted into biodiesel, which is compatible with diesel fuel, by physicochemical conversion using a simple catalytic process using methanol (CH3OH) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a slightly elevated temperature. The process is called transesterification. Vegetable oils are also called triglycerides because their chemical structure is composed of a glycerol attached to three fatty acid molecules by ester bonds. When the ester bonds are broken by a catalyst, glycerin is produced and the fatty acid compound is converted into its methyl ester form, which is the technical term for biodiesel. The combination of methanol and sodium hydroxide results in a compound called sodium methoxide (CH3ONa), which is the most common commercial catalyst for biodiesel production. The basic mass balance for the process is:
100 kg vegetable oil + 10 kg catalysts → 100 kg biodiesel + 10 kg glycerin
The energy balance depends on the specific facility design. For the biodiesel product to be considered viable, the energy in the biodiesel must
