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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
DRONE TECHNOLOGY This book provides a holistic and valuable insight into the revolutionary world of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The book elucidates the revolutionary and riveting research in the ultramodern domain of drone technologies, drone-enabled IoT applications, and artificial intelligence-based smart surveillance. The book explains the most recent developments in the field, challenges, and future scope of drone technologies. Beyond that, it discusses the importance of a wide range of design applications, drone/UAV development, and drone-enabled smart healthcare systems for smart cities. It describes pioneering work on mitigating cyber security threats by employing intelligent machine learning models in the designing of IoT-aided drones. The book also has a fascinating chapter on application intrusion detection by drones using recurrent neural networks. Other chapters address interdisciplinary fields like artificial intelligence, deep learning, the role of drones in healthcare in smart cities, and the importance of drone technology in agriculture. Audience The book will be read and consulted by a range of industry engineers involved with introducing drone technology to their daily operations.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Drone Technologies: State-of-the-Art, Challenges, and Future Scope
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Forces Acting on a Drone
1.3 Principal Axes
1.4 Broad Classification of Drones
1.5 Military Necessity of Drones
1.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
2 Introduction to Drone Flights—An Eye Witness for Flying Devices to the New Destinations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 How Drones Work and Their Anatomy
2.3 Salient Features and Important Codes with Public Awareness with Respect to Safety and Necessary Precautionary Points
2.4 Top 10 Stunning Applications of Drone Technology
2.5 Drones in Enterprises: What Value Do They Add? Work Place Safety and Industry Benchmarks
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Drones
2.7 Drone Technology as Career and Offered Jobs in the Current Industry
2.8 Societal Impact—Commercial Drones
2.9 Drones Research Challenges and Solutions
2.10 Conclusion
References
3 Drone/UAV Design Development is Important in a Wide Range of Applications: A Critical Review
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Various Categories of Air Drones
3.3 Drones Acting on Various Industries
3.4 Conclusions and Future Scope
References
4 A Comprehensive Study on Design and Control of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Drones
4.3 Flight Performance Analysis
4.4 Dynamics and Design Objectives of Drones
4.5 Design Methods and Challenges
4.6 Guidance, Navigation, and Control of Drones
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 Some Studies of the Latest Artificial Intelligence Applications of Dronesare Explored in Detail with Application Phenomena
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Evolution of the Drone
5.3 Drone Features
5.4 AI Meets Drones
5.5 Use Cases
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 Drone Technologies: Aviation Strategies, Challenges, and Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Drone Technology
6.3 India 2021: The Drone Policy and Rules
6.4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or Drone Application
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 AI Applications of Drones
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Review of Literature
7.3 AI in Drone Navigation
7.4 Companies that Use the AI Drone to Solve Big Problems
7.5 Drone Applications Using AI
7.6 Issues in the Integration of AI with Drones
7.7 Conclusion
References
8 Applications of Drones—A Review
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Drone Hardware
8.3 Components of UAV
8.4 Literature Survey
8.5 Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion
References
9 Drones Enable IoT Applications for Smart Cities
9.1 Introduction to Smart Cities
9.2 Components and Characteristics of Smart Cities
9.3 The Role of IoT in Smart Cities
9.4 General Approach to Implement IoT Solutions in Smart City Design
9.5 Challenges in IoT Solutions to Use in Smart City Design
9.6 Introduction to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
9.7 Opportunities and Challenges of UAV’s in Smart Cities
9.8 Drone-Enabled IoT
9.9 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
10 AI-Based Smart Surveillance for Drowning and Theft Detection on Beaches Using Drones
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Literature Survey
10.3 Proposed Model
10.4 Deep Learning Model Safeties
10.5 Performance Evaluation
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Conclusion and Future Work
Acknowledgements
References
11 Algorithms to Mitigate Cyber Security Threats by Employing Intelligent Machine Learning Models in the Design of IoT-Aided Drones
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Research Methodology
11.3 Motivation
11.4 Machine Learning for Drone Security
11.5 Use of AI in Cyber Security
11.6 Use of AI in System to Achieve Robustness, Resilience and Response
11.7 NIC Algorithms in Cyber Security
11.8 Example Systems for AI and ML Applications for Cyber Security Diagnose
11.9 Introduction of New Threats
11.10 Areas were Malicious Use of Deepfakes is Trending
11.11 Model-Aided Deep Reinforcement Learning for Sample-Efficient UAV Trajectory Design in IoT Networks
11.12 Model-Aided Deep Q-Learning
11.13 Algorithm Model-Aided Deep Q-Learning Trajectory Design
11.14 Machine Learning for Drone Security
11.15 Surveillance
11.16 Technologies Driving Drones’ Success
11.17 Related Work
11.18 Drones for Public Safety
11.19 Securing Drones
11.20 Future Work
11.21 Contributions
Conclusion
References
12 IoT-Enabled Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
12.1 Introduction to IoT Enabled UAV
12.2 Drones in Precision Farming
12.3 Challenges and Future Scope in IoT-Enabled Drone
12.4 Results and Discussion
Acknowledgement
References
13 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for Land Mine Detection and Illegal Migration Surveillance Support in Military Applications
13.1 Introduction to Military Drones
13.2 Literature Review
13.3 Methodology of UAV’s in Military Applications
13.4 Software Implementation
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Importance of Drone Technology in Agriculture
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Components of a Drone
14.3 Study of Natural Resources
14.4 Soil Fertility Management
14.5 Irrigation and Water Management
14.6 Crop Disease Identification
14.7 Pest Control Management
14.8 Agricultural Drones to Improve Crop Yield Management Efficiency
14.9 Issues and Challenges
14.10 Conclusion
References
15 Network Intrusion Detection of Drones Using Recurrent Neural Networks
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Related Works
15.3 Drone Intrusion Detection Methodology
15.4 Results and Discussion
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Drone-Enabled Smart Healthcare System for Smart Cities
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Related Works
16.3 Applications of Drones
Aerial Vehicle Applications in Healthcare
Communication Protocols and Technology
Communication Architecture
Components
16.4 Suggested Framework
16.5 Challenges
16.6 Conclusion
Future Scopes
References
17 Drone Delivery
17.1 Introduction
17.2 History of Drones
17.3 Drone Delivery in Healthcare
17.4 Drone Delivery of Food
17.5 Drone Delivery in Postal Service
17.6 Delivery of Goods
Acknowledgements
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Examples of A techniques for intrusion, prevention, detection, an...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Variables extracted from Image and its relevance to crop.
Table 12.2 Control variable and its source.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 UAV technical specifications based on modules.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Representation of forces on an aerial object [16].
Figure 1.2 Representation of principal axes [17].
Figure 1.3 Representation of a fixed-wing drone [16].
Figure 1.4 Representation of a lighter-than-air system [19].
Figure 1.5 Representation of multirotor platform [20].
Figure 1.6 Representation of a sixth-generation fighter plane [19].
Figure 1.7 Graphic representation of HAL pseudo satellite [21].
Figure 1.8 Capabilities of HAPS [21].
Figure 1.9 Air teaming system [21].
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Two general types of drones [11].
Figure 2.2 Multi-rotor drone [11].
Figure 2.3 Fixed wing drones [11].
Figure 2.4 Single-rotor helicopter drone [11].
Figure 2.5 Fixed-wing hybrid VTOL drones [11].
Figure 2.6 Mapping camera and mount [11].
Figure 2.7 Remote camera and trigger [11].
Figure 2.8 First person view equipment [11].
Figure 2.9 Sectional chart showing Cooperstown Westfield airport [10].
Figure 2.10 Applications of drone technology [14].
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A quadcopter with a smartphone as a flight controller [16].
Figure 3.2 Classification of various categories of air drones [18].
Figure 3.3 Drones to deliver medications [13].
Figure 3.4 Drone applications in various fields [17].
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Classification of various UAVs [2].
Figure 4.2 Free body diagram of airplane in flight.
Figure 4.3 Approximate trade-off efficiency and agility with vehicle linear ...
Figure 4.4 Various control system architectures [36].
Figure 4.5 A schematic view of the costs for design and fabrication of diffe...
Figure 4.6 Classification of GNC systems developed for drones based on Kendo...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Global drone market.
Figure 5.2 Evolution of the drone.
Figure 5.3 Drones and AI.
Figure 5.4 Examples of drone AI.
6
Figure 5.5 Agricultural drone.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Detailed structure of the drone.
Figure 6.2 Classification of UAVs.
Figure 6.3 Agriculture based in UAV.
Figure 6.4 Application based UAV in precision agriculture.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 AI-enabled flying drone with a camera attached to it.
Figure 7.2 Drones and artificial intelligence
Figure 7.3 Autonomous vehicle architecture [44].
Figure 7.4 Demonstration of various parts of AI components for a smart appro...
Figure 7.5 UAV putting out the fire [21].
Figure 7.6 UAV that evaluates the infrastructure [21].
Figure 7.7 UAV in agriculture using AI [21].
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Types of UAVs.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Components in smart healthcare.
Figure 9.2 Need of smart transportation at various locations.
Figure 9.3 The technologies needed for smart city design.
Figure 9.4 Applications of IoT in smart city design.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Proposed model.
Figure 10.2 YOLO v3 architecture:
Figure 10.3 Yolo v3 for drowning detection – NORMAL.
Figure 10.4 Yolo v3 for drowning detection – WARNING.
Figure 10.5 Flow chart of drowning detection using deep learning models.
Figure 10.6 Optical flow of persons on a beach – Method 1.
Figure 10.7 Optical flow of persons at a beach – Method 2.
Figure 10.8 Posture and swim pattern estimation above water.
Figure 10.9 Thermal image from a drone.
Figure 10.10 Flow chart of people alert system using BLE beacons.
Figure 10.11 MoveNet model with 17 key points.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Proposed architecture for drones.
Figure 11.2 Proposed architecture for smart drone security.
Figure 11.3 IoT gateway model.
Figure 11.4 AI cyber incidents detection and response.
Figure 11.5 Evolutionary algorithm.
Figure 11.6 Role of NIC algorithms in solving cyber security problems [60]....
Figure 11.7 Role of NIC algorithms in solving cyber security problems.
Figure 11.8 Intrusion detection and prevention system.
Figure 11.9 The functioning of a generative adversarial network.
Figure 11.10 Comparison of different algorithms [61].
Figure 11.11 Typical cyber security and data privacy threats to smart drones...
Figure 11.12 An illustration of devices connecting to a drone for the public...
Figure 11.13 Public safety DJI drone.
Figure 11.14 IoT-based disaster management classification.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Conceptual view of IoT-enabled drone.
Figure 12.2 Flowchart for canopy detection and spraying.
Figure 12.3 UAV to UGV communication.
Figure 12.4 Wireless technologies with operating range and bandwidth (google...
Figure 12.5 Flight assignment for IoT-enabled drone for SOMA vineyard.
Figure 12.6 (a) Testing of IoT module for soil moisture. (b) Testing of LoRa...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 UAV role in battle field.
Figure 13.2 Block diagram of UAV.
Figure 13.3 Proposed UAV layout.
Figure 13.4 KK2.0 flight controller (6V).
Figure 13.5 Electronic speed control.
Figure 13.6 Drone transmitter.
Figure 13.7 Drone receiver (2.5 GHz).
Figure 13.8 Sample from the drone program.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Agricultural drone with sprayer.
Figure 14.2 Natural pastures
Figure 14.3 Drone monitoring water resources
Figure 14.4 Cloud seeding drone
Figure 14.5 Drones in soil sampling
Figure 14.6 Drone in variable-rate fertilizer spray
Figure 14.7 Drone in irrigation
Figure 14.8 Drones in water sampling
Figure 14.9 Sheath blight lesions on the sheaths. (a) Water soaked patches o...
Figure 14.10 Shows lesions of narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) on leaves and sh...
Figure 14.11 New pest management strategy
Figure 14.12 LiPo battery
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Structure of drone intrusion detection system.
Figure 15.2 Folded RNN.
Figure 15.3 Internal structure of LSTM.
Figure 15.4 Accuracy of LSTMRNN with sample size.
Figure 15.5 Performance comparison binary classification for of UNSW-NB15 da...
Figure 15.6 UNSW-NB15 multiclass classification performance contrast.
Figure 15.7 UNSW-NB15 multiclass classification exactness contrast.
Figure 15.8 CDD graph for average binary classification.
Figure 15.9 CDD graph for average multiclass classification.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Centralized aerial vehicle architecture.
Figure 16.2 Multigroup aerial vehicle network architecture.
Figure 16.3 Aerial vehicle ad hoc network architecture.
Figure 16.4 Multilayer aerial vehicle ad hoc network architecture.
Figure 16.5 Basic components of a drone.
Figure 16.6 A detailed flowchart of the suggested framework.
Figure 16.7 Proposed model.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Drone.
Figure 17.2 History of drones.
Figure 17.3 History of drones.
Figure 17.4 History of drones.
Figure 17.5 Delivery methods using drones.
Figure 17.6 Amazon delivery method.
Figure 17.7 Delivery of food.
Figure 17.8 Drone package delivery system market size.
Figure 17.9 Drones in the city.
Figure 17.10 Drone directions.
Figure 17.11 Drone package delivery.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Drone Technology
Future Trends and Practical Applications
Edited by
Sachi Nandan MohantyJ.V.R. RavindraG. Surya NarayanaChinmaya Ranjan Pattnaik
and
Y. Mohamed Sirajudeen
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-16653-4
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
This book provides a holistic and valuable insight into the revolutionary world of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The book reflects on the depen-dence on smart surveillance for drowning, theft detection, an emerging trend in precision farming, land mine detection, and illegal migration surveillance support in military applications. With the amalgamation of multiple chapters, this book elucidates the revolutionary and riveting research in the ultramodern domain of drone technologies, drone-enabled IoT applications, and artificial intelligence-based smart surveillance. Each chapter gives a concise introduction to the topic. The book explains the most recent developments in the field, challenges, and future scope of drone technologies. Beyond that, it discusses the importance of a wide range of design applications, drone/UAV development, and drone-enabled smart healthcare systems for smart cities. The book describes pioneering work on mitigating cyber security threats by employing intelligent machine learning models in the designing of IoT-aided drones. The book also has a fascinating chapter on application intrusion detection by drones using recurrent neural networks. Other chapters address interdisciplinary fields like artificial intelligence, deep learning, the role of drones in healthcare in smart cities, and the importance of drone technology in agriculture.
This book covers almost all applications of unmanned aerial vehicles and will provide you with an encompassing knowledge about this wide field and its potential offshoots in the digitalized era. It is an ideal book for newcomers in the field of drone technologies with simple and lucid language for better understanding. This book provides updated knowledge on different types of drone technologies that will leave you flabbergasted.
The EditorsFebruary 2023
1Drone Technologies: State-of-the-Art, Challenges, and Future Scope
Arun Agarwal1*, Chandan Mohanta1 and Saurabh Narendra Mehta2
1 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
2 Department of ECE, Vidyalankar Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India
Abstract
Drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have become increas-ingly vital in the recent times. They have managed to find their sweet spot in rigor-ous and sensitive arena of military, agro-based applications, logistics, and supply chain and in observation and security. This sophisticated equipment has found its fancy uses too. In areas like DIY hobby crafts, amateur and professional pho-tography, race tracks, drones sports etc. In recent times one of the best uses that the users could make out of drones was swarm drones show. Be it local festivals or national events swarm drones show are a delight to witness. Show like these are now on their nascent phase and have huge potential. Moreover, they are eco-friendly when compared to the fire crackers. Drones, due to their small size and high maneuverability provides a great wide coverage view of any large area. This enables the user to get a detailed holographic view of the entire space. The possi-bilities of integration of drones with the meta-verse are literally infinite and would definitely add so much of dimensions of usage. In order to harness these capa-bilities, the hobbyists and industry personnel alike are finding their own ways to accommodate drones in their own vicinity; altering dramatically many businesses and creating new avenues. By properly implementing the technology in UAVs, many emergency situations can be mitigated in both the civilian and military applications. The exploits of implementation of drones can find its capabilities in emergency medical supplies that could be made possible irrespective of transport feasibilities. Also military and enforcement agencies would have an upper hand in monitoring movements efficiently. In desperate times such as those following a natural disaster or a terrorist attack, the concept of surveillance drones allows for accurate tracking of people without putting more lives at risk. In order to briefly understand the military usage let us consider the following example. If we go back in time and look at the history of Japanese Kamikaze pilots; the brave pilots liter-ally amalgamated themselves with the aircraft in order to become a guided missile. At present, the modern day fighter pilots have guided weapons systems. However, with time the air defense systems have also substantially evolved. The air defense systems have longer range, highly maneuverable nearly hypersonic missile sys-tems which create an area-denial zone for any adverse aircraft/hostile missile sys-tem. In situation like these drones can be really useful. The operating bandwidth of ground based systems could be overwhelmed by use of cheap and disposable swarm drones. Meanwhile, another variety of drones known as loitering munitions could be made to sneak into the zone to clear lesser hostile targets. After this entire chaos has been created; the final attack from main assault party could be launched by both surface and air assault systems. This process puts no human life in danger while enabling the user complete control of the situation. Despite having immense possible benefits, there is hysteria of mass adoption of these systems due to the frequent security related incidents. UAVs could possibly be targeted by nefarious groups and if exploited, life-threatening compromising situation may arise. This has given rise in increasing number of regulations for drone applications.
Keywords: Drones, UAV, surveillance, applications, safety, protocols, guidance system
1.1 Introduction
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) commonly referred as Drone is a system of flight equipment that can fly and maneuver without a human pilot on board, and sometimes fully autonomous. The development of UAVs for many uses has advanced greatly. Self-controlled drones are enjoyable to fly, which has made them popular enough that they are available all over the world and are used by kids and teenagers. However, there are a lot of practical applications of it. By the known and accepted history, the mili-tary has first deployed UAV in 1849, when Austria attacked Venice with an unmanned air balloon. There has been continuing research into every facet of mobile security and the development of autonomous UAVs. Current research efforts target different UAV control issues as well as applications of AI research. They have recently attracted a lot of attention since they can be employed for both military and civilian purposes, such as remote sensing, agriculture, border security, state intelligence gathering, and mili-tary attacks. In addition, industries and amateurs are constantly coming up with innovative methods to employ UAVs, which is transforming numer-ous industries and opening up new opportunities.
1.2 Forces Acting on a Drone
This is presented in Figure 1.1.
Lift: Lift is the force on the aerial vehicle that gives it altitude. It can be generated through propulsion, body shape, inner materials etc. [16].
Gravity: Gravity is the pulling force of the earth exerted on the aerial vehicle [16].
Drag: Drag is the force that acts opposite to the indented motion of the aerial vehicle [16].
Thrust: Thrust is the net force provided by the propulsion unit of the aerial vehicle [16].
Figure 1.1 Representation of forces on an aerial object [16].
1.3 Principal Axes
This is presented in Figure 1.2.
Roll: The wings of the drone will turn to the right or left around the fuselage during this movement
[17]
.
Pitch: This enables the nose of the drone move upwards or down-wards
[17]
.
Yaw: This turns the nose of the drone left or right without tilting the entire body
[17]
.
1.4 Broad Classification of Drones
1.4.1 Fixed-Wing Drones
These are the most basic type of drones. A fixed-winged drone has a fixed rigid wing which generates lift. Here, main generator of lift is the wings instead of propellers [1]. This is presented in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.2 Representation of principal axes [17].
Figure 1.3 Representation of a fixed-wing drone [16].
1.4.1.1 Advantages [16]
They have a simpler structure and do not require much airframes and slots for avionics and other mechanical equipment.
The high-winged and mid-winged configuration is aerodynamically stable and has great gliding capabilities.
Since the parts involved are lesser and the body is less complicated they are easy to repair and maintain.
Better aerodynamics and stable body enables a better battery/fuel life.
By considering above points, we can safely conclude that they can remain air worthy for a longer duration of time.
1.4.1.2 Disadvantages
Majority of them are either propeller or jet driven and hence require a dedicated runway or launcher and recovery system to operate and recover.
Since wings are the primary driver of lift, they need to be in continu-ous motion to maintain altitude and hence cannot hover.
1.4.2 Lighter-Than-Air Systems
These refer to the aerial platform which could fly due to its buoyancy in air. This is achieved by encasing lifting gases (e.g., Helium) within a membrane and on that the entire structures and components are mounted [15]. This is presented in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Representation of a lighter-than-air system [19].
1.4.2.1 Advantages
Irrespective of their size and individual weight of the sub-systems, the overall weight is too less. This enables them to maneuver with minimal effort.
The net light weight of the entire system makes them capable of quickly changing direction both during motion and stationary.
The energy consumed to operate them is low.
This makes them ideal for stationary hovering (e.g.: sports, monitor-ing, agriculture, mining areas, etc.) [19].
1.4.2.2 Disadvantages
The net light weight makes them difficult to operate in bad weather or vulnerable to any external forces.
They are bigger in size. This makes them non ideal for military or civilian use if user wants to maintain a low profile
[19]
.
1.4.3 Multi-Rotor Configuration
Multi-rotor drones are cheapest means to get an aerial view. They are eas-iest to operate and transport and hence are ideal for personal and indus-trial usage. The most common platforms are tricopters (three rotors), quad copters (four rotors), hex copters (six rotors) and octacopters (eight rotors) [20]. This is presented in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Representation of multirotor platform [20].
1.4.3.1 Advantages
The rotor configuration provides enough lift and control to accom-modate the ability of vertical takeoff and landing.
They can be built over a very compact airframe and can be accurately maneuvered. This enables the user to operate within smaller vicinity.
Since they have enough thrust to sustain by themselves they do not need a dedicated runway/helipad for takeoff and landing.
Although they have an unstable design, they are highly and precisely maneuverable in presence of a good on board flight controller
[20]
.
1.4.3.2 Disadvantages
The build and structure is sophisticated to make when compared to other models.
They are aerodynamically unstable and on-board flight controller is required to perform basic maneuvers.
They do have more number of propulsion units and other support-ing peripherals and hence require a bigger energy pack
[19]
.
1.5 Military Necessity of Drones
1.5.1 Features of Sixth-Generation Fighter Planes
This is presented in Figure 1.6.
1.5.1.1 Introduction
All other fighters will be obsolete as a result of the sixth generation fighters. There will be a future for stealth and beyond visual range missiles. Several of the six-generation concepts share many of the same features. Stealthy airframes and long-range missiles will remain major characteristics of fifth-generation fighters [9].
Figure 1.6 Representation of a sixth-generation fighter plane [19].
In order for stealth aircraft to penetrate deeper into an anti-access/ area-denial bubbles and neutralize the potential air defense batteries or regiments from a safer distance in light of economically low cost ground based air superiority systems such as the S-400 and Patriot Missile Systems, they must be capable of neutralizing anti-access and area-denial bubbles. Moreover, stealth jets perform better in aerial war games than non-stealth aircraft. The development of sixth-generation fighters will therefore require low radar cross-sections and radar-absorbing materials. As advanced sen-sor technology advances, stealthy airframes may become obsolete, and that stealthy airframes aren’t as easily upgradeable as avionics and weapons packages. The use of jamming, electronic warfare, and infrared obscuring defenses will also become increasingly important in this regard. There will remain a strong presence of beyond visual range (BVR) missiles like the AIM 120, Astra, Python, etc. in the future which can already hit targets over 100 km of distance, but realistically that needs to be fired from a much closer range to have a good probability of acquiring target against a fast moving and agile fighter-sized target [9, 19].
However, the future air warriors may mostly fight in great distances from their opponents with new ramjet-powered, high-speed air-to-air missiles like the British Meteor and Chinese PL-15. Using helmet-mounted dis-plays, the F-35 provides superior situational awareness by being able to see through the aircraft. Key instrument data and target missiles can be viewed through the cockpit and mounted on a helmet mounted display. Despite their teething issues, these helmets are expected to be adapted as standard part of future combat jets, perhaps superseding the cockpit or the entire instru-ment panel in some cases. As a result, fighter pilots might be able to operate more efficiently through voice-activated command interfaces. The larger airframes with better engines would allow combat jets to fly long endurance missions and lift heavier weapons as air bases and carriers become more vulnerable to any enemy attacks. When stealth jets are dependent solely on internal fuel tanks and weapons, it is difficult to do so as a stealth jet only has internal fuel-tanks and weapons bay. The obvious answer is a plane bigger in volume because the air forces anticipate that aerial dogfights within visual range will be uncommon and possibly fatal to both sides. As a result, there is a greater willingness to compromise on maneuverability in favor of higher sustained speeds and a heavier payload [9].
G-variable engines have become increasingly advanced with the devel-opment of advanced adaptive cycle engines, which could adapt to a required configuration mid-flight to operate better at higher speeds like a turbojet or with more fuel efficiency at lower speeds like a high-bypass turbo fan, these design requirements may work well together. Air power experts pre-dict the shift to unmanned combat jets, which won’t have to shoulder the additional responsibility and risk to life imposed due to a human pilot, after being optionally manned for several decades. The idea of an option-ally manned aircraft that may fly with or without a pilot on board is conse-quently being advanced by sixth generation designs. This has the drawback that it will take more design work to create an airplane that will still have the drawbacks and high training costs of a manned airplane [4, 9].
However, the optionally manned pilot might make the transition to an unmanned fighter plane more doable and, in the middle term, allow the military officials to send planes on dangerous missions without endanger-ing the lives of the pilots. Sensors fusion with allies on land, in the sea, and in space. The F-35’s capacity to take in sensor-data and transmit it via data links to friendly and allied forces, producing a comprehensive image, is one of its significant achievements. As friendly forces move into vantage positions and launch strikes from further behind without even enabling their radars, a stealth aircraft may ride point and drive away enemies.
It is certain that sixth-generation jets will incorporate fusion sensors and cooperative engagement because this tactic promises to be such a force multiplier. Integration of satellites and drones alongside jet fighters will likely deepen the fusion [7].
1.5.1.2 Cyber Warfare and Cyber Security
Although the F-35’s design promised a major increase in efficiency, sensors fusion and optional manned piloting suggest that sixth generation jets will rely significantly on data linkages and networks that could be jammed or even attacked through hacking. However, it also makes even landed air-planes vulnerable to future cyber-attacks. The sixth generation of avionics equipment may be able to launch such assaults on adversaries in addition to being intended for resilience against electronic and cyber warfare [3, 6].
1.5.1.3 Artificial Intelligence
One issue is that the complexity of all these comprehensively packed sensors communication and weapon systems has grown to the point where they may be too much for the human brain to absorb, while some fourth-generation aircrafts had a weapons system officer in the backseat for assistance. At present, all the available fifth-generation stealth fighters have single-seater configuration, the capable air forces are turning towards artificial intelligence to control more routine and mundane fighter oper-ations and organize which information should be fed to the pilot. Drone coordination may also make use of artificial intelligence and machine learning [4, 6].
1.5.1.4 Drones and Drone Swarms
In a test over China Lake in October 2016, two FA-18 Super Hornets flew 103 Perdix Drones. Drones that have been activated by an artificial intelli-gence hive mind descend over a chosen target spot like a cloud of locusts. Although kamikaze drones have already been used in combat, it’s simple to understand how inexpensive, little drones may develop into a partic-ularly deadly weapon. Future warfare experts say that a few pricey and well-defended weapons systems and missiles may prove to be much harder to defend against than a cheap and disposable network of drones. But it’s also conceivable that sixth generation fighters will collaborate with bigger, faster drones to act as decoys, weapons platforms, and scouts with sensors [6, 9].
1.5.1.5 Directed Energy Weapons
Threatening to overwhelm and enhance the offensive and defensive capa-bilities of stealth jets are swarms drones, precision missiles, and even decommissioned decoy fighter jets. Directed energy weapons like lasers or microwaves, which could be launched immediately, precisely, and with a nighttime magazine capacity delivering enough electricity, are one fre-quently mentioned countermeasure. In order to disrupt or harm enemy sensors and seekers, the US air force envisions three different types of air-borne directed energy weapons: low-powered lasers; mid-level category that could neutralize an approaching air-to-air threat out of the sky; and high-powered lasers that can destroy aircraft and ground targets. Programs for sixth-generation fighters are still purely theoretical. Especially in light of the significant costs and time spent ironing out the issues in the fifth generation [9].
A few of the component technologies that are already well under devel-opment include lasers, cooperative interaction, and unmanned piloting. However, fitting them into the same airframe would be a critical job to address. Sixth generation fighters may appear at their earliest in the 2030s or 2040s, by that time the strategies and tactics of the air warfare would have become more and more sophisticated [6, 7].
1.5.2 Pseudo Satellite of HAL
The first flight of the Combat Air Teaming System (CATS) warrior drone, a low-observable, semi-stealthy unmanned wingman controlled from a CATS-max aircraft like LCA Tejas, is anticipated to take place in 2022, and it will be ready by 2024 or 25. CATS warrior has begun its made-in-wind-tunnel testing and is progressing well on schedule. There has been an update regarding a further CATS program component known as the High Altitude Pseudo Satellite (HAPS). As per the latest update the work on HAPS has started. Creating is not anticipated is working with private companies to improve the nation’s military strike capabilities through the development of a futuristic high-altitude pseudo satellite. This innovation is regarded as a significant technological advance [22]. This is presented in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Graphic representation of HAL pseudo satellite [21].
HAPS will be a false satellite fuelled by solar energy at extremely high alti-tudes. It will be close to 500 kg in weight, capable of sustained flight for more than two to three months, and able to cruise in the stratosphere at an altitude of more than 70,000 feet. It can power itself thanks to its array of solar cells. To power nocturnal flights, the secondary batteries will be charged through-out the day. Due to its extremely high altitude operation and lack of propul-sion it relies on solar cells to move—this allows soldiers to go over hostile area without worrying about being discovered. A manned aircraft will oper-ate within the perimeter while an unmanned aircraft enters the hostile zone and can launch an attack deep into the enemy territory. This is a first-of-its-kind initiative worldwide. The intelligent surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capability of the Indian armed forces will be significantly improved by this technology [10]. This is presented in Figure 1.8 below.
Figure 1.8 Capabilities of HAPS [21].
The concept of air teaming system is presented in Figure 1.9. It is intended to belong to the same class of unmanned aerial systems that are powered by fire, sunlight, and electricity. During operating, HAPS can also transmit photos and a live video feed to the ground station. Synthetic aperture radar would be added to the new drone to detect activity deep within enemy territory. The drone will be able to coordinate with other Indian prone systems like the Hunter missile, Alpha S Swan drone, and warrior-loyal Wingman drone using its superior sensor. The HAPS can be utilized for humanitarian aid and disaster relief efforts in addition to military purposes. Additionally, it can help 4G and 5G connection in isolated locations, particularly in difficult terrain and high altitudes [22].
Figure 1.9 Air teaming system [21].
1.5.3 Surface to Air Missile vs. Modern Fighter Aircraft
The Dassault Rafale’s Spectra self-protection technology, which defends against threats to the fire aircraft, is one of the characteristics of mod-ern fighter aircraft that make them such effective fighters. For the Rafale combat aircraft, Thales Group and MBDA jointly developed this technol-ogy. This is an extremely complicated system that combines a number of different sensors and radars, including a phased array radar jammer, a missile approach warning system, an infrared missile launch detector, a radar warning receiver, a laser warning, and a decoy dispenser. Based on the information obtained from its sensor and its sizable database, Spectra, which acts like a central processing unit, receives data from these sensors and feeds it. A spectrum provides exceptional situational awareness and even makes recommendations for the best course of action. In fact, spectra are as good as advanced sensor fusion using F-35 jet fighter [9].
The element that sets powerful air defense systems like the S-400 or Patriot air defense apart from other defense systems is their strong radar. Within a 600 km range, the S-400’s radar is capable of detecting and track-ing large aircraft, rotorcraft, cruise missiles, guided missiles, drones, and ballistic rockets. The declared anti-stealth targeting range of the 91N6E panoramic radar is 150 kilometers. The detection range of a ballistic target travelling at Mach 14 with a radio cross section (RCS) of 0.4 m2 is 230 km. And the distance is 390 kilometers for a target with an axis of 4 m2. Rafale has a RCS of 0.5 m2. Consequently, the S-400 system could readily track the aircraft from several hundred kilometers away [11].
How could Rafale carry out SEAD (suppression of enemy air defense) missions is then the question. First, we need to use Signal Intelligence platforms like Phalcon AWACS, reconnaissance and patrolling UAVs, and satellite networks to locate and identify Surface to Air (SAM) threats inside the enemy’s territory and proper planning of the flight path for the fighter aircraft should be calculated and measured to dodge active SAM site’s radar coverage. Second, the fighter aircraft has to fly low hugging the terrain functionality integrated with flight control system actually controls and maneuvers the aircraft closer to the ground or any other surface that would be acceptable for the crew members flying in a manual mode. Rafale would be tough for the S-400 radar to detect from such a distance away and at such a low altitude. Third, the fighter aircraft’s threat library sys-tem needs to be updated with S-400 radar systems wavelength frequen-cies. S-400 system consists of three different types of radars; therefore in a SEAD mission there must be three aircrafts, each carrying jamming equip-ment tuned to jam the frequency of three different radars of the S-400. Once the S-400 attacks are jammed, they can be destroyed because they are rendered absolutely blind. With the help of spectra’s active cancellation technology, the attacking aircraft could deceive the radars by counter echo returns. In active cancellation technology the mirror image of incoming wave received from adversary radar is produced and then both cancel each other out. A fighter jet can hover directly in front of the radar without being detected if the aircraft has a fast enough computer and a power-ful enough emitter. This strategy has been demonstrated in a Slovakian drill. Fourth, self-protection system should be improved on Rafale. The next generation jammers like Bright Cloud should be installed. Platforms can now be protected from these modern tracking technologies by using Bright Cloud. Fired from a standard 55 mm flare cartridge, bright clouds has been programmed to draw threads away from the host platform cre-ating room for large evasive distances. Fifth, aircrafts can also use Storm Shadow or Scalp missiles for attacking S-400 system from long standoff range. It won’t be simple to use the file with the set of S-400. It requires pre-cise planning and execution. The real world war scenario could be different and there are chances that profiles might get detected even after applying all the counter measures [11].
1.5.4 Drones as Weapons of Mass Destruction
In the context of weapons control, a “weapon of mass destruction” is a device that can cause widespread destruction and is governed by interna-tional agreements. Analyst Zach Kallenborn argues in a recent study for the US Air Force Center for Strategic Deterrent Studies that some drone swarm configurations could be treated as WMD. Modern drones, such as the MQ-9 Reaper, are operated remotely by a pilot who flies the air-craft while a payload operator fires warhead carrying missiles. Over their shoulders, a phalanx of additional specialists, such as military attorneys and image analysts, debate what constitutes a legitimate target. Drones in the future may operate autonomously and fight without much human supervision, especially when they are swarming. Kallenborn, an expert in unmanned systems and WMD describes one configuration of swarm that he refers as an Armed Fully Autonomous Drone Swarm (AFADS) [13].
Once released, aphads will locate, recognize, and attack all the targets without the need for human assistance. According to Kallenborn, an AFADS-type swarm does qualify as a weapon of mass destruction due to the amount of damage it is capable of causing and its inability to dis-tinguish between military and civilian targets. The Cluster Swarm proj-ect is working on creating a missile carried warhead that would release a swarm of tiny drones that will fan out and seek out and destroy vehicles equipped with explosively produced penetrators (EFP). An EFP strikes an armor-piercing metal slug moving at a high speed. The CBU 105 bomb, 1000 pounds category ammunition that drops 40 skeet sub-munitions over the target area, is analogous to this in concept. Each one parachutes down and uses the seeker to scan the terrain until it spots a tank and shoots an EFP. The strength of the cluster swarm would be enormous [20].
The army operating GMLRS rockets could deliver a 180 pound payload and over a range of 70 km, or tax missiles, which comprises of 350 pound payload and a range of over 270 km, were used in the cluster swarm. The first plan was for the missile to carry a payload of quad-copter drones that would be dispersed throughout the target area by an aerodynamic shell. However, the challenges related to the unfolding of quad-copters mid-air may have been significant. Avid is best known for its work with Honeywell on the T-hawk drone systems, a tactical VTOL capable airframe deployed in Iraq to help detect IEDs in 2007. The T-hawk was propelled by duct fans located inside the fuselage and lacked external rotors. Later on, Avid created the EDF 8, a smaller electrically driven duct fan drone with a one pound payload [14, 20].
For two reasons, the cluster of swarm drones would be significantly more potent than the presently operating CBU 105 water canisters. Targets can only be hit by a CBU 105 in an area that is a few hundred meters broad. The cluster swarm may search for cars scattered across a large area. The other advantage is efficiency. A few warheads will not have locked onto a target, and where there could be an overlap, two or more may hit the same target while ignoring others. In the search zone for each warhead, CBU 105 offers just a small amount of overlap. An actual swarm that cooperates will engage in conflict, therefore 40 drones will always launch 40 separate attacks. Each MLRS missile unit would release roughly 10 cluster swarm drones if they were equipped with EFP warheads identical to current weap-ons. 12 missiles are fired by each M-270 MLRS vehicle in a salvo for 120 drones. Therefore, a battery of nine such launch vehicles might theoreti-cally be able to engage an entire armored column in its tracks by dropping thousands of smaller sized killer drones over the target region [18].
Would a swarm like that qualify as a WMD?? It is conceivable that the weapon qualifies as a weapon of mass destruction. The quantity and pay-load of armed UAVs in the swarm would determine this, though. A swarm carrying the same amount of ammunition as a thousand M-67 hand gre-nades would probably fall under the WMD category. If the swarm reaches this mark, international arms control law may apply to it. Uncontrolled drones would undoubtedly have the ability to cause serious harm if they mistakenly believed that military vehicles were civilian ones. It is simple to understand how an attack on a column of armored vehicles could wind up misfiring on a neighboring refugee caravan with disastrous repercus-sions. This ought to be unacceptable and the DoDD 3000.09 aims to pre-vent unintended engagements caused by malfunctions in autonomous or semi-autonomous weapon systems. Errors do, however, occur in war. It might be challenging to demonstrate whether or not it is a WMD. How to identify if we are dealing with a single swarm of WMD-scale? If swarms can behave as WMD, it may be necessary to determine if a group of drones constitutes a single swarm or numerous swarms. It would be difficult to determine whether the swarm is entirely autonomous. Any swarm with this kind of potential raises question about how much autonomy is accept-able even if it is not classified as a WMD. The weapon serves as an example of the necessity to carefully evaluate the risks that the US is prepared to take. The phase 2 development was finished in March and comprised a different type of demonstration of the efficacy of the EFP warheads as well as deployment, powered flight, neutralizing the target, autonomous nav system and gliding on the target [15].
The armed forces may be able to deploy the drones quickly if Phase 3 is completed and the drones are integrated into missile warheads. Unlike other WMDs drone swarms can be acquired at low cost and require rela-tively far less technical skills if there is a military. If other parties use them and they begin resulting in a lot of casualties, the scenario might change [4].
1.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
This chapter discussed all aspects of Drones like components, architecture, classification, network layers etc. Future is UAV in different fields like civil, farming, surveillance etc. Coming to the usage of civilian drones, there exist a vital risk with respect to the rights and privacy of citizens. But bat-tery issue remains a focus point for future research. Work on Autopilot system including GPS module for better position data remains a potential field of research along with data speed as well.
Drones were traditionally used to for surveillance and gain real-time imagery and sensor data from a designated area. During the subsequent years of development and further iterations they were instilled with pay-load carrying capacity and then got attack and strike capability. The current scenario of air conflict is very tricky and risky. Nations have allocated and spent huge budgets to protect themselves from any aerial threat. There is a constant tussle going on between air defense systems and electronic war-fare suite installed on-board an aircraft. This tussle has put risk on life of personnel operating both the ground stations as well as the pilot flying the aircraft. Drones have traditionally played a supportive role and now they are being developed to play more and more offensive roles. Additionally, a smart fully autonomous drone capable of controlling multiple decoy drones would be game changing. Whether at the times of conflict or at peace, drones are useful in every scenario. Be it providing assistance in moving logistics over short ranges or providing aerial surveillance capabil-ity for more than 20 hours per day, drone technological development has come long way. Future of drones looks promising and they are capable of delivering capabilities that are not even though of at the moment.
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Note
*
Corresponding author
:
2Introduction to Drone Flights—An Eye Witness for Flying Devices to the New Destinations
S. Venkata Achuta Rao1, P. Srilatha2, G.V.R.K. Acharyulu3 and G. Suryanarayana4*
1 Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sree Datta Institute of Engineering and Science, Hyderabad, India
2 Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sreyas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India
3 Master of Business Administration, SCM Studies, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
4 Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Vardhaman College of Engineering, Hyderabad, India
Abstract
An unmanned aircraft is called a drone. Significantly known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) without a pilot or also called a Flying Robot (FR), which can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously using embedded software-controlled in conjunction with onboard sensors, sig-nals, a global positioning system (GPS), including IoT and a much larger number of electronic components based on their type and its functionality. The first pilot-less Vehicles developed in Britain were tested in March 1917 and the American aerial torpedo first flew in October 1918. From then onwards to till date there is a rapid evolutionary development in this technology, especially the two decades of 1990-2010 a pivotal significant time period for military and civilian drone development, and also during 2010 till today is the Golden Age of drones. The description of the introductory chapter provides about drone technology evolves drastically day by day using different types of drones, the working principles of drones, how these are advantageous harmful to the society and their anatomy, dif-ferent career options, safety, and security are discussed. Drones play a significant role in collecting waste under the sea and on the earth across the globe surpris-ingly, knew that every year the world generates around 2.01 billion tons of munici-pal solid waste; it may be projected to rise by 70% to reach 3.4 billion tons by 2050. In this chapter the important applications and significant uses and scope of drones and explained that like a cell phone, it turned it as the handheld device in every hand. The researchers and engineers are having a significant responsibility to see that drones and their disruptive technology should not harm the mankind and it should not be an aid for terrorists and vulnerabilities.
Keywords: Unmanned aircraft systems, global positioning system, autonomous, sustainability, drone identification system
