Ecorestoration for Sustainability E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A transdisciplinary approach to investigating relationships between biomass burning and human health outcomes Environmental degradation is causing severe impacts on the various Earth ecosystems. Unsustainable development and anthropogenic pressure have altered the natural balance. From this perspective, sustainability has become a major issue to frame a greener and cleaner Earth for future generations. It can be argued that the worst example of unsustainable development is habitat degradation. Therefore, ecorestoration and other ecological practices are becoming increasingly important in our march toward sustainability. The present book covers all the aspects of ecorestoration and sustainability and how various areas intersect in this space. Environmental degradation is increasing all over the world at an unprecedented rate. This includes air, water, soil, and other natural resources resulting in the depletion of natural resources and an unsustainable planet. Therefore, it is incredibly important to restore the ecosystem's health and services to maintain homeostasis. In this context, ecorestoration approaches in the form of eco-friendly technologies need to be formulated to promote the protection and conservation of various ecosystems. These approaches include freshwater bodies, soil and mined-out wasteland, degraded forest, biodiversity, and other degraded ecosystems. This important new volume from Wiley-Scrivener tackles these problems from a practical perspective, offering solutions and new methods for restoring our suffering global ecosystem. Edited by a team of experts, this collaboration of papers on these issues is a further step in our march toward sustainability. Whether for the engineer, scientist, or student, it is a must-have for any library.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Ecorestoration for Environmental Sustainability—An Introductory Framework
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Global Scenario of Ecosystem Types and Their Degradation
1.3 Need of Ecorestoration
1.4 Ecological Restoration and Forestry
1.5 Ecological Restoration and Societal Development
1.6 Policies and Strategy Formulation for Ecological Restoration Toward Environmental Sustainability
1.7 Evidence of Success and Benefits of Ecological Restoration
1.8 Conclusion
References
2 Agricultural Soil Management and Ecorestoration Under Climate Change: Practices for Sustainable Soil Resource
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Agricultural Soil
2.3 Potential for Soil and Ecorestoration to Mitigate Climate Change
2.4 Soil Water Management Under Climate Change/ Variability
2.5 Recommendations for Sustainable Soil Management and Environmental Sustainability
2.6 Policy Framework for Ecorestoration and Management of Agricultural Soil
2.7 Future Roadmap for Ecorestoration Toward Sustainable Soil Resource
2.8 Conclusion
Funding
References
3 Integrated River Health Assessment System (IRHAS): A Promising Tool for Ecorestoration of Tropical Indian Rivers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Integrated River Health Assessment System (IRHAS)—A Promising Tool
3.3 Legal and Policy Framework for Effective Implementation of Integrated River Health Assessment System
3.4 Future Roadmap of Integrated River Health Assessment System
3.5 Concluding Remarks for the Implementation of IRHAS in Indian River Systems to Achieve Environmental Sustainability
References
4 Wetland Restoration Policies and the Sustainability of Agricultural Productions, Lessons Learnt from Zrebar Lake, Iran
4.1 Introduction
4.2 What is the Cause?
4.3 Integrated Sustainable Management
4.4 Zrebar Lake
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Strategies for Ecosystem Biomass Conservation: Review, Analysis, and Evaluation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Loss of Biospheric Integrity
5.3 Strategies for the Conservation/Restoration of Ecosystem Biomass
5.4 Case Study: Native Forests, Biomass, and Ecosystem Services
5.5 Effectiveness of Conservation Measures
5.6 Conclusions
5.7 Policy and Legal Framework for Ecosystem Biomass Conservation
5.8 Forest Ecosystem Biomass Conservation Toward Environmental Sustainability
5.9 Future Roadmap of Forest Biomass Conservation
5.10 Final Thoughts
References
6 Reclamation of Mined Soil in RCF Region—A Phytoremediation Approach
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Impact of Mining
6.3 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation
6.4 Material and Methods
6.5 Results and Discussion
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Ecological Restoration of Various Ecosystems: Implications for Biodiversity Conservation and Natural Resource Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ecosystem as a Natural Support System for Biodiversity
7.3 Pollution of the Natural Ecosystem
7.4 Deforestation
7.5 Consequences of Pollution of the Natural Ecosystem
7.6 Ecorestoration for Conservation of Biodiversity and Natural Resources
7.7 Various Approaches to Ecological Restoration— Natural Regeneration and Active Ecorestoration
7.8 Tools for Ecological Restoration of Various Ecosystems
7.9 Ecorestoration of Biodiversity in Terrestrial, Aquatic Ecosystems, Wetlands, Tropical Forests, Grasslands
7.10 Research and Development Activities in Ecorestoration for Conservation of Biodiversity and Natural Resources
7.11 Policy and Legal Framework for Ecorestoration, Conservation of Biodiversity and Natural Resources
7.12 Future Roadmap
7.13 Conclusion
References
8 Managing Forests for Offsetting Carbon Footprints
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Global Forests Scenario
8.3 Carbon Footprint: A Conceptual Framework
8.4 Carbon Footprint Calculator
8.5 Technology for Forest Cover and Carbon Assessment
8.6 Measuring Carbon Emissions from Deforestation
8.7 Carbon Sinks in Forests
8.8 Forest Management for Carbon Mitigation
8.9 Emerging Challenges and Constraint
8.10 Research and Development Toward Footprints
8.11 Policy and Legal Framework
References
9 Ecosystem Management of Polluted Forest and Its Implication on Biodiversity Conservation in the Niger Delta
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Profiles of Mangrove Biodiversity in the Niger Delta
9.3 Environmental Management and Restoration Ecology as Solutions
9.4 The Human Factor and the Practice of a Win-Win Ecology in Biodiversity Conservation
9.5 Regional Versus Local Site Management
9.6 Policy and Legal Framework and Eco-Restoration of Polluted Sites and Biodiversity Conservation of Niger Delta
9.7 Future Research and Development of Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystem in the Niger Delta
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 Forest Biodiversity Conservation and Restoration: Policies, Plan, and Approaches
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Need for Forest Restoration Program
10.3 Value of Restoring Forests
10.4 Forest Landscape Restoration Vis-A-Vis Conservation Strategies
10.5 Forest Landscape Restoration for Ecological Integrity
10.6 Restoration of Degraded Tropical Forest
10.7 Ecosystem Approaches to Forest Restoration: Learning from the Past
10.8 Forest Restoration for Enhancing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
10.9 Forest Landscape Restoration: Indian Perspective
10.10 Forest Landscape Restoration for C Footprint and Climate Change Mitigation
10.11 Forest Landscape Restoration for Livelihood and Well-Being
10.12 Constraints and Challenges
10.13 Existing Policy and Its Reformation
10.14 Advances in Restoration: Plan and Execution
10.15 Recommendation and Future Research
10.16 Conclusion
References
11 Geospatial Techniques in Sustainable Forest Management for Ecorestoration and Different Environmental Protection Issues
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Assessment of Forest Resources and Its Sustainable Use
11.3 Aerial Mode of Remote Sensing
11.4 Satellite Mode of Remote Sensing
11.5 Assessment of Wildlife Habitat
11.6 Assessment of Biodiversity Networks
11.7 Productivity and Biomass Assessment in Terrestrial Regime
11.8 Land Cover and Land Use Analysis
11.9 Characterization of Wetland at Landscape Level
11.10 Assessment of Grassland Habitat
11.11 Evaluation of Carbon Sequestration
11.12 Detection of Air Pollution Intensities
11.13 Ecorestoration for Sustainable Development
11.14 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
12 Climate-Induced Conflicts Between Rural Farmers and Cattle Herders: Implications on Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in Nigeria
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Agroecological Zones and Climate Change in Nigeria—Drought Crisis in Sahel
12.3 Ethnic Conflicts, Origin, and Intensification of Violence and Impacts
12.4 Environmental Injustice and Herder/Farmer Conflict in Nigeria
12.5 Confronting the Challenges of Farmer/Herder Conflict in Nigeria
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 Sustainable Management of Natural Resources for Environmental Sustainability
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Insight on Management and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
13.3 Unequal Distribution of Natural Resources
13.4 Success Stories of Natural Resource Sustainable Management
13.5 Policy and Legal Framework for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources: A Review on United Nation (UN) 50 Years of Sustainable Development Policy
13.6 Future Outlook of Sustainable Management of Natural Resources
References
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Global scenario of ecosystem degradation and necessity of ecorestora...
Table 1.2 Ecorestoration at macroscale with integrated approaches.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Primary factors that affect soil erosion.
Table 2.2 Main climate change related factors that can have impact on soil sal...
Table 2.3 Soil management practices for increasing carbon storage in soil.
Table 2.4 Major problems, adopted strategies and leading institutes in Banglad...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Assessing tools and the information based on different indices.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Some innovative sustainable approaches.
Table 4.2 Summary of typical BMPs.
Table 4.3 Terrestrial specifications of main land-use land-cover (LULC) of the...
Table 4.4 Summary of animal species related to the Zrebar Lake [51].
Table 4.5 Summary of fish species related to the Zrebar Lake [51].
Table 4.6 Summary of aquatic plants in the Zrebar Lake [51].
Table 4.7 Different BMP scenarios in Zrebar Lake.
Table 4.8 Estimated LULC specifications and outcomes.
Table 4.8 An example of eutrophication-related indicators in a LCIA method [65...
Table 4.9 Endpoint characterization factor for freshwater eutrophication damag...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Similarity indices between pairs of sites. Diagonal up: Jaccard Inde...
Table 5.2 Aboveground biomass of adult plants and saplings (t/ha). Means follo...
Table 5.3 C stock per site (t/ha). Means followed by different letters (a and ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Inventorization of indigenous vegetation of selected study sites.
Table 6.2 Population count in various seasons of indigenous vegetation of sele...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Sources of pollution and their consequences on the natural ecosystem...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Carbon footprint positive impacts on forest attributes and its susta...
Table 8.2 Carbon footprint and its negative impacts on different tree species ...
Table 8.3 Carbon sink in forest and its estimating methods, benefits and limit...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Types of protection of degraded ecosystem.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Diversity of fauna species in tropical forest of the world.
Table 10.2 Various forest restoration projects in different country of the wor...
Table 10.3 Linking concept between different sectors/enterprises and various a...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Agroecological zones in Nigeria and their economic and environmenta...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Fundamental issues addressed through ecorestoration process.
Figure 1.2 Major policies and strategies of ecorestoration toward environmenta...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Successive processes of soil carbon sequestration.
Figure 2.2 Traditional practices of soil management versus sustainable ones.
Figure 2.3 The crop calendar of three season rice in Bangladesh.
Figure 2.4 Salt affected are under different districts and total cultivated ar...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Graphical representation of Integrated River Health Assessment Syst...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Causes and effects of eutrophication through water quality paramete...
Figure 4.2 Nitrogen cycle in water and soil.
Figure 4.3 Phosphorous cycle in water and soil.
Figure 4.4 Conditions of a sustainable BMP in farmlands.
Figure 4.5 Zrebar Lake basin with its land uses [45].
Figure 4.6 Annual inflow and outflow of Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.7 Annual variation of Zrebar Lake volume (2006–2013).
Figure 4.8 Minimum and maximum area of Zrebar Lake (2006–2013) calculated by s...
Figure 4.9 Calculated volume of precipitation and evaporation per month in Zre...
Figure 4.10 Aquatic plants on the verge of wetland area in Zrebar Lake [53].
Figure 4.11 Aquatic plants during winter in Zrebar Lake (mostly burnt by inhab...
Figure 4.12 Mountainous landscape of Zrebar Lake and Wetland.
Figure 4.13 Wetland expansion in summer (up) and burnt in winter (down) [53].
Figure 4.14 Algal bloom in wetland areas in Zrebar Lake [53].
Figure 4.15 The view of irrigated (left) and rainfed (right) farmlands as NPS ...
Figure 4.16 Domestic livestock grazing in the vicinity of lake [53].
Figure 4.17 Canals transporting domestic wastewater and rural runoff to the la...
Figure 4.18 Burnt aquatic plants in winter [53].
Figure 4.19 Estimated sediment inflow to the Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.20 Sediment concentration in the Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.21 Calculated BOD concentration in inflow and Zrebar Lake (2006–2013)...
Figure 4.22 Calculated DO concentration in inflow and Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.23 Estimated nitrogen pollution loads in the influent of Zrebar Lake ...
Figure 4.24 Estimated phosphorous pollution loads in the influent of Zrebar La...
Figure 4.25 TN concentration in Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.26 TP concentration in Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.27 Estimated ChLA concentration in Zrebar Lake (2006–2013).
Figure 4.28 Estimated production yields of two BMP scenarios of S5 and S12 res...
Figure 4.29 Average nitrogen loads (kg) reduced per crop production (ton) in e...
Figure 4.31 Integrated quantitative sustainability assessment of BMPs for eutr...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Distribution of biomass on Earth according to the kingdoms of livin...
Figure 5.2 AGB stock distribution (t dry matter/ha) in forest ecosystems aroun...
Figure 5.3 Soil carbon stock (SOC) in tC/ha in the world’s forest ecosystems, ...
Figure 5.4 Species richness (number of bubbles), relative abundance (bubble si...
Figure 5.5 Distribution of individuals registered according to diameter class ...
Figure 5.6 Share of each reservoir in the total carbon stock per site: carbon ...
Figure 5.7 Percentage of protected areas that are well connected within the di...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Approaches to ecological restoration and its implication for ecosys...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Forest distribution in different countries of the world [2].
Figure 8.2 Forest and other woodland in the world forest [21].
Figure 8.3 Forest covers status in India for managing C footprint [22, 23].
Figure 8.4 Carbon footprint promotion and reduction in forest ecosystem [55–57...
Figure 8.5 Land resources and its degradation percentage [64].
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The impact of crude oil on the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delt...
Figure 9.2 Conceptual diagram of mangrove growth after hydrocarbon pollution e...
Figure 9.3 Model of a reserved area with human activities proposed for pollute...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Forest distribution in different countries of the world [2].
Figure 10.2 Restoring forest for restoring biodiversity and ES [87–89].
Figure 10.3 Forest landscape restoration for C footprint and climate change mi...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The Global Positioning System (GARMIN,
etrex
) and its characterist...
Figure 11.2 The reflectances of functional bandwidth of sunlight (visible, inf...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Agroecological zones of Nigeria. Source: Department of Environment...
Plate 1: Showing armed Herdsmen and their cattle.
Figure 12.2 Map of Nigeria states with high incidence of herder-farmer causali...
Figure 12.3 Map of Nigeria States with High Incidence of Fulani Militia Attack...
Figure 12.4 Map of Nigeria showing local and international cattle migration ro...
Plate 2: Showing Corn farms destroyed by Herdsmen Cattles.
Plate 3: Showing Fulani Cattles degrading community farms.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Ecorestoration for Sustainability
Edited by
Arnab BanerjeeManoj Kumar JhariyaSurendra Singh Bargali
and
Debnath Palit
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119879718
Cover image: Pixabay.comCover design by Russell Richardson
List of Contributors
Arnab Banerjee Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Surendra Singh Bargali Department of Botany, Kumayun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
Debnath Palit Principal, Durgapur Government College, J.N. Avenue, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
Zied Haj-Amor Department of Agronomy, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X134, Alice 5700, South Africa
Tesfay Araya Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Tapos Kumar Acharjee Department of Irrigation and Water Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh
Salem Bouri Water, Energy, and Environment Laboratory, National Engineering School of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Ruediger Enlouf Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Landscape Architecture, Osnabrück, Germany
Parul Gurjar Department of Environmental Science and Limnology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
Kuldeep Lakhera Department of Environmental Science and Limnology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
Vipin Vyas Department of Bioscience, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
Rumeet Kour Raina Department of Zoology and Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (M.P.), India
Shervin Jamshidi Department of Civil Engineering, University of Isfahan, Iran
Anahita Naderi Department of Civil Engineering, University of Isfahan, Iran
Silvina M. Manrique Instituto de Investigaciones en Energía No Convencional, Universidad Nacional de Salta y Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Avenida Bolivia, Salta, Argentina
Debalina Kar State Aided College Teacher, Durgapur Women’s College, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
C.B. Ethis-Eriakha Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Edo State University Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria
S.E. Akemu Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Edo State University Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria
Abhishek Raj School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Bharat Lal College of Agriculture, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi (U.P.), India
Taher Mechergui Facultédes Sciences de Bizerte, Laboratoiredes Ressources Sylvo-Pastorales de Tabarka, Tabarka, Tunisie
Annpurna Devi Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Ghanshyam Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Aroloye O. Numbere Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Eberechukwu M. Maduike Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Bhimappa Honnappa Kittur Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Bhopal (M.P.), India
Kiran Bargali Department of Botany, Kumayun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
Sharad Nema SoS, Forestry & Wildlife, Bastar Vishwavidyalaya, Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh, India
Shiboram Banerjee PG Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Govt. College, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
Akanwa Angela Oyilieze Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Anambra, Nigeria
L.N. Muoghalu Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
A.U. Okonkwo Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
F.I. Ikegbunam Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, , Anambra State, Nigeria
I.C. Ezeomedo Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
S.O. Okeke Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
P.U. Igwe Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
V.C. Arah Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka, Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
C.C. Anukwonke Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka, Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
M.C. Obidiegwu Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka, Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
E.I. Madukasi Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka, Odumegwu Ojukwu, University, (COOU), Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria
Asmida Ismail Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia; Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Faezah Pardi Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia ; Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable, Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia, Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta, Nurul Aida Kamal Ikhsan & Faeiza Buyong
Khairul Adzfa Radzun Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Nurul Aida Kamal Ikhsan Centre of Foundation Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Dengkil, Selangor, Malaysia
Faeiza Buyong Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Preface
Environmental degradation is causing a severe impact to the Earth’s ecosystems. Unsustainable development and anthropogenic pressure has altered the natural balance. From this perspective, sustainability has become a major goal, namely, to frame a greener and cleaner earth for future generations. The worst hit of unsustainable development is habitat degradation. Therefore, ecorestoration and other ecological practices are extremely important for ecological sustainability. This exciting new book covers all the aspects of ecorestoration and sustainability issues, as well as an insight for future directives.
In the context of the modern world, environmental degradation is increasing at an unprecedented rate. Degradation is taking place in various spheres of the environment, including air, water, soil, and other natural resources, resulting into depletion of natural resources all over the globe. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to restore the ecosystem. In this context, ecorestoration approaches in the form of eco-friendly technologies need to be formulated to promote protection and conservation of the various ecosystems. Ecorestoration approaches has wide dimension in the form of ecorestoration of freshwater bodies, soil and mined out wasteland, degraded forest, biodiversity, and other degraded ecosystems. In the present attempt, current trends and issues surrounding the various forms of degradation processes of the environment along with new innovative technology to restore or rehabilitate the various ecosystem of the Earth would be of prime focus to develop the importance of ecorestoration. Further, this would have a multidisciplinary approach that would address the various issues of the sustainability through ecorestoration and livelihood development. It includes research findings, review, new technology briefings, case studies, opinion and views, policy and legal frameworks, and others.
Arnab Banerjee
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Surendra Singh Bargali
Nanital, Uttarakhand, India
Debnath Palit
Durgapur, West Bengal, India
1Ecorestoration for Environmental Sustainability—An Introductory Framework
Arnab Banerjee1*, Manoj Kumar Jhariya2, Surendra Singh Bargali3 and Debnath Palit4
1Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
2Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
3Department of Botany, Kumayun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
4Durgapur Government College, J.N. Avenue, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
Abstract
Managing forests is a key strategy for offsetting C (carbon) footprints in the globe. Deforestation and other unsustainable land use practices promote C emissions into the atmosphere. Anthropogenic environment of the entire global earth ecosystem is showing an abrupt change. Such changes are evident from various forms of natural calamities and hazards that is leading toward an unsustainable environment for the mankind to live in the upcoming times. Ecorestoration is an approach that integrates various principles from diverse disciplines and applies them on diverse habitat types of the earth surface. Ecorestoration has become a key element and issue to address diverse and major environmental issues, such as food security, biodiversity conservation, regulation of the economic growth, water quality, health and safety issues, climate change mitigation, and adaptation. Therefore, ecorestoration should work for societal upliftment leading to overall environmental sustainability. Ecological restoration too some extent leads to generation of employment opportunities. In this connection, one report briefs that ecological restoration process in United States has generated more than one lakh twenty five thousand jobs directly along with creation of 95,000 jobs indirectly. Proper policy and planning is required for successful implementation of the ecorestoration approaches. Further, strategies such as developing climate resiliency of the novel ecosystems and agroecosystem, developing green infrastructure and nature-oriented solution practices needs to be focused for overall environmental sustainability.
Keywords: Ecorestoration, sustainability, environmental degradation
1.1 Introduction
Land degradation is a major environmental issue on global basis. It is estimated that the total cost associated with land degradation process includes up to 17% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Thus, ecorestoration approaches have become the need of the hour in order to avoid such economic loss across the globe. The term ecological restoration simply implies the ecosystem recovery process from a degraded situation [1]. The process is very much important when self-regeneration ability of the ecosystem gets impaired. Therefore, the focus of ecological restoration includes restoration of ecosystem services, functions, and processes. Some of the land uses, such as agricultural land use, undergo intensive modification due to higher production of food. Therefore, extensive modification of the land surface usually takes place through altered land use practices. According to one estimate, globally, the land degradation consists of more than 900 million hectare of degraded croplands, and overall up to 6 billion hectare land has degraded due to variable reasons, which are more than half of land surface at the global level [2, 3]. Significant amount of economic loss is associated with altered land use along with various forms of land use change [4]. Ecological restoration is an important process that helps to improve the quality of degraded land to promote crop yields and various other forms of benefits in the form of ecosystem services [4, 5].
Globally, various ecosystems are undergoing several process of ecosystem degeneration due to practices of modernized agricultural systems. Considering the fact of maximizing the yield minimum attention is being given to environmental aspects. Altered land use in the form of conversion forest land for agricultural production and animal husbandry practices has taken place due to benefits in terms of more economic gain. Further, no proper attention has been given to the soil and land resources for their contribution toward agricultural production. No proper sustainable approaches are available toward proper land management and conservation of stock of capital resources that is required for agricultural production. Therefore, various nations across has taken initiatives at global level to frame policies and regulatory framework to reduce the hazards over land surface. Overall, the process of degradation of land is considered to have huge social and economic costs, which can be mitigated through various ecological restoration processes. Restoration of degenerated lands is a key element toward the various approaches to inhibit the spreading of agricultural land use in place of forested land use. Subsequently, it would also help to fulfill growing energy demands and address the issue of food crisis [6, 7].
Ecorestoration approaches would also bring benefits in terms of improving various forms of ecosystem services along with natural resource conservation [8]. Overall they will bring various forms of tangible and non-tangible benefits (Figure 1.1). It includes conservation of natural resources, biodiversity conservation along with sociocultural and economic benefits to the people [8–10]. According to one research report, ecological restoration of grasslands reflects benefit-cost ratio of 35:1 along with addition benefits [11]. Ecological restoration, to some extent, leads to generation of employment opportunities. In this connection, one report briefs that ecological restoration process in United States has generated more than one lakh twenty five thousand jobs directly along with creation of 95,000 jobs indirectly [12]. Such type of benefits has lead to the promotion of ecorestoration process up to a hundredfold increase [9]. Globally, in various conventions, treaties have been organized as well as UN-Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasized the importance of ecorestoration for achieving sustainable development [13]. The target of LDN till 2030 can be achieved through massive ecorestoration processes [14]. As per the Paris agreement in 2015, UNFCCC has mentioned the importance of increasing forest cover and stock of soil carbon to combat changing climate. Various policy frameworks have been already implemented worldwide to promote the ecological restoration process [15]. Further promotion of ecorestoration process requires extensive activities, research and extension [15]. The present chapter would address the issue of ecological restoration on global basis along with recent approaches and advances across various ecosystem services.
Figure 1.1 Fundamental issues addressed through ecorestoration process.
1.2 Global Scenario of Ecosystem Types and Their Degradation
Under the changing environmental condition the various ecosystem and habitat types is undergoing severe changes and is under the forefront of rapid degeneration (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Global scenario of ecosystem degradation and necessity of ecorestoration approaches.
S. no.
Ecosystem type
Nature of degradation and associated problems
References
1.
Agroecosystem
Unsustainable agricultural practice is causing an economic loss of USD 270 Million on annual basis in Kenya.
[
16
]
12 million hectares of agriculture land undergo severe erosion leading to loss of EUR1.25 billion on annual basis.
[
17
]
In People’s Republic of China only 14% land area is available for cultivation purpose.
[
18
]
2.
Forest
Across the globe approximately 420 million ha of forest land has been transformed into other forms of land uses since last three or four decades.
[
19
]
3.
Fresh water
Shrinkage of Aral Sea in Central Asia has taken place at an alarming rate so that its area has been reduced to one tenth of its original area.
[
20
]
4.
Grassland habitat
29 million hectares of grassland In western Canada has been converted into agricultural unit causing 25% soil C loss and gradual degeneration of soil quality.
[
21
]
5.
Mountain ecosystem
Glacier volume of Hindukus Himalaya range has declined by 90% in the 21st century altering the hydrological regime of the South Asian Region.
[
22
]
6.
Coastal and marine ecosystems
Great barrier reef of Australia has undergone 50% of loss of its coral population due to ocean bleaching.
[
23
]
7.
Peatlands
Globally 50% of the peatlands has been degenerated due to altered hydrological regime.
[
24
]
In Germany 98% of peatland, 95% in Netherland, in Ireland 82%, in Denmark 93% has been drained.
[
25
]
1.2.1 Agroecosystem
Agroecosystem is the essence of life as it is the main production unit that supports the human consumption as well as provides various forms of tangible and non-tangible benefits [26]. Globally, approximately 2 billion people are directly dependent on the agriculture sector for maintenance of daily livelihood [27] as well as ninety percent of energy and protein input comes from the land surface [27, 28]. Degradation of the agroecosystem not only reduces the crop and livestock yield.
It was observed that degradation of agricultural land reduces the crop and livestock yield. The major impact of such degradation is reflected over the soil [29]; however, the impact spreads in the form of wild species extinction that has gotten its inherent advantage to provide various forms of ecological services [30]. Various forms of soil problems tend to cause three-fourth of the land problems across the globe. Within a span of 11 years, soil tends to affect 1/5 of the agriculture land over the earth surface and hence shows an increment of 2.5% of the erosion event. The major reason behind such event includes altered land use practices in the form of loss of forest cover and an increase in the agriculture area [31]. According to one estimate the productivity of land ecosystem would show more than 10% decline leading to hike in food prices more than 30% till 2040 [32]. Economic loss associated with such farmland degradation in European Union reflects EUR 1.25 billion associated with loss of 12 million hectares of eroded cropland [17]. Loss of fertility status in USA results in half a billion dollars economic burden on annual basis over the farmers community. The condition is very much worst in case of China reflecting only meagre 14% of land area available for cultivation practice and half of the farmland has already being degraded [18]. In Kenya, under African continent there is significant decline in the crop productivity, livelihoods, and well-being of the local community stakeholders. The loss of soil fertility, known as mining of soil nutrients is reducing the yield and economic loss up to USD 270 million dollars on annual basis. Further, it has got severe impact across various habitat and biodiversity [16].
1.2.2 Forests
Forest ecosystem has an inherent capability of regulating the climate [19] along with carbon absorption from the atmosphere [33] and provide habitat for diverse group of organisms [34]. Further, forest contributes regulating various processes under hydrological cycle [35], and therefore provides water for drinking purpose of 33% of the global cities [36]. Further, forest also helps to create job or employment opportunities in various forms [37, 38].
Within a span of 5 years (2015–2020) deforestation has lead to loss of 10 million hectares of forest [19]. If the current trends of the forest continue then there would be a global loss of 223 million hectares of land area till 2050 [39]. On annual basis 122 million hectares of forest land would be affected by several natural disaster events [40]. Depletion of forest may lead to affect the 1.75 billion people who have been directly and indirectly affected by deforestation. Degradation leads to high incidence of natural hazards, as well as increase human-wildlife conflict [36, 40] as well as epidemic diseases [41], such as animal borne diseases, Ebola virus and COVID-19 virus infection [42, 43]. Further, the combination of such processes within a span of 18 years has lead to emission of 8.1±2.5 GtCO2 e per year basis [33].
1.2.3 Freshwater
In the aquatic environment, it was reported that there is occurrence of 33% vertebrate species and one tenth of global species that occurs on the earth surface [44]. The species diversity tends to be higher in the areas of world’s wetlands. Further, inland fisheries are the potential source of food in the form of freshwater ecosystems, as well as sources of water for various other economic activities [45]. Inland fisheries ecosystem also tend maintain the water quality and undergoes climatic regulation along with protection from natural hazards. The nexus between forest and water acts as two-third of global water source from the area of forested watershed [35].
On global basis, 1.4 billion people are dependent upon the various forms of water resources and associated industrial activities [46]. However, such ecosystem services are under severe threat at present times. Such incidences has taken place due to overuse of water in last century [47] and according to one estimate this demand would rise further till 2050 [48]. Freshwater utilization for energy production and irrigation activity leads to negative consequences and socio-economic alterations [49]. The most important fact is that more than 90 percent of freshwater footprint accounts from agricultural activity and more than 25% of water resource is used in animal husbandry practices [50]. The scenario of wetland loss was alarming since 19th century onward. Although the developed world has arrested the rate of wetland loss quite a bit but in Asian subcontinent the rate has shown an unprecedented rise due to altered land use practices. Such degradation of freshwater resource has caused half a billion people to face the acute problem of water scarcity per annum globally [51]. The gradual shrinkage of Aral Sea of freshwater habitat is a clear cut example of depletion of freshwater resource worldwide [20]. The main reason behind such shrinkage of water resource includes the diversion of water for crop production and thus leaving the area dry, polluted and gradually salty. The problems such as food crisis, security, loss of employment opportunities become severe on this aspect [20, 52].
1.2.4 Grasslands, Shrub Lands, and Savannahs
Diverse habitats of grasslands and associated biomes are more prevalent in the Asia and African subcontinent [53] and are mostly dry land habitats. It also includes the hyper arid desert areas with low productive nature but still support a significant amount of global population [54, 55]. According to one report, 250 million people are very much dependent upon on this dry land ecosystem in East African region for maintaining their daily livelihood [56]. Such activities in dry land areas help in carbon sequestration process that helps to combat the changing climate [57]. Such dry land farming system also provides various forms of resource to mankind as well as they act as biodiversity hotspots [19]. Besides performing such valuable ecosystem services such ecosystems are under severe threat of degradation due to agricultural activity globally [58]. In Europe the condition of such grassland habitat is very much worse [59]. Such impacts also cause severe negative consequences over the local community population [60].
1.2.5 Mountains
Mountain ecosystems approximates 50% of the hotspot are in terms of species diversity across the globe [61]. Such ecosystems are pivotal in terms of maintaining daily livelihood of the local people as well as provide various forms of ecosystem services. Mountain ecosystem is also known as “water towers of the world,” and hence fulfills 50% of the fresh water demand of global population [62]. Mountain ecosystem tends to act as food source of 20 plant species that fulfill the food requirements of 80% of the world population [61]. Therefore, degradation of such important ecosystem reduces the productivity in terms of agricultural crop and animal husbandry production. At present times, 50% of people residing in the mountainous region is under the severe threat of land degradation. Also, the problem of food security and crisis has reflected an alarming threat [63].
Natural disturbances have caused several negative consequences over the earth surface and human life. For instance, in last two centuries, incidence of floods due to outbursts of glacial lake has caused several death consequences in Asia, South America, and European countries. This has caused alteration of the hydrological regime impacting the agricultural production and water resources [64].
1.2.6 Oceans and Coasts
Marine ecosystem is the major component of global earth ecosystem, which supports 90% of global life [65], as well as contributes up to 80% of oxygen of the atmosphere [66]. Apart from this ocean ecosystem also plays key role in regulating the climate of the global earth ecosystem as well as acts as potential source of medicine, food and other form of intrinsic values for many people across the globe. It holds a major share in the global trade [67]. Coastal ecosystems also provide various forms of benefits in terms of shoreline stabilization and protection of the coastal area from various forms of storm surges [68, 69]. In economic terms services of Mangrove ecosystem can bring USD 33–57 thousand dollars per hectare on annual basis [70]. According to the reports of FAO one third of fish resource has got depleted due to overfishing [71, 72]. This has lead to degradation of livelihood opportunities for sixty million people across the world [72]. Plastic pollution in the ocean or marine ecosystem can reduce the ecosystem service up to 5% causing annual loss of 500 to 2,500 billion dollars [73, 74]. Since the last five decades, the ocean ecosystem has caused depletion of 77 billion metric tonnes of oxygen and therefore has increased the dead zone up to 4.5 million km [75, 76]. Ocean acidification is a mega event that is reducing the productivity of the ocean ecosystem [72]. Therefore, proper restoration approach is the urgent need for proper management of the global ocean ecosystem.
1.2.7 Peat Lands Around
Peat lands are wetland areas which is a major source of soil C pool. Globally 10% of the land area is peat lands in Europe but nowadays majority of them has been dried up due to improper drainage. This has lead to use of the peat land for various purposes. As per the reports of European Union peat lands provide 0.2GtCOe greenhouse gas on annual basis as well 5% of GHG emissions from various sectors of European Union. Further, peat lands have been assessed to release 1 to 5 Mt of nutrients into the water bodies hampering the water resources and biodiversity [24]. The peat lands are the reservoir of one-third of soil carbon pool on global basis [77] besides sharing a very small amount of geographical land area across the globe [78]. Further, peat lands also acts a source of food resources and therefore maintains the livelihood [79]. According one report from Peru, peat land areas acts as habitat for various biota including Mauritia flexuosa (palm fruit) which 80% of the income of rural people of Peru and has inherent cultural value for Achuar people [80, 81]. The major concerned issue is the decline of peat volumes 0.2% on annual basis [78]. Various European countries have been reported to drain the peat lands [25]. Draining of peat lands leads to various forms of land degradation [79]. This also contributes toward 3% to 4% of GHG emission on annual basis [82, 83]. Drainage is such an event under tropical condition that is required for commodity plantation such as oil palm, Acacia [21]. Ecorestoration of peat lands would help to reduce GHG emissions and would help to reduce the rising of the global temperature below 2°C [84].
1.2.8 Urban Areas
Urbanization is the key process of development of a particular area at a particular time. It also contributes significantly to the economic system of the world, as well as it contributes to the development of the urban sector [85]. The urban cities across the world are the economic hub or centers that have a significant contribution to the global GDP and regulate the overall trade process [86]. Cities are centers that improve the living standards of the people, as well as provide good ambience in terms of food, shelter, clean water, air, etc. For moving toward sustainable cities, green designing and other ecofriendly approaches are very much important and also provide various forms of sustainable ecosystem services. Trees in cities help to reduce and regulate the temperature up to 2.0°C, which provide benefit for many millions of people [87]. Thus it also helps in regulation of climate change and water resources [88]. Urban biodiversity is also a center of attraction for the urban dwellers as it helps to mental and psychological well-being of people [89]. Lack of proper urban planning and infrastructure development, land use has deteriorated the quality of environment to a significant level. This has lead to events such as overcrowding and improper mode of urban population growth [86]. Besides having better sanitation facility, proper health infrastructure development in urban areas in comparison to rural areas inaccessibility to clean drinking water has increased up to more than 50% since last few decades [90]. Besides having many benefits, urban areas has got some major drawbacks in the form of high level of waste, producer of two-third of global carbon emission and also consumes two third of energy resources [86]. Most of the urban people is suffering the problem of air pollution due to deterioration of the air quality [91].
1.3 Need of Ecorestoration
The present scenario of various forms of environmental degradation has created the condition of global disbalance both in terms of ecosystem health and environmental condition. Therefore, restoration of this balance situation has become the need of the hour. It is, therefore, very much important to mitigate the changing climate, alleviate the poverty followed by addressing the issues of food security and reduce the loss of bioresources. Reducing GHG emission through decarbonation process is a step forward for doing the process but we also require nature based ecofriendly solution [92]. To achieve the sustainable development goals ecological restoration of the degraded ecosystem is one of the key process [93]. Further, ecosystem restoration has its own inherent value to the global economy and overall wellbeing of the mankind.
1.3.1 The Economy
Our economic system is bestowed upon the nature and natural resources. The economy is build up through the mechanism of production and consumption along with various forms of ecosystem services. As per the review of Dasgupta the economic valuation of the ecosystems is yet to be done properly. By human consumeric nature and anthropocentrism attitude humans have utilized the ecosystem or nature in an unsustainable manner. As we got the ecosystem services free of cost therefore we did not accounted the value in our economic system. Further the demand of ecosystem services have raised without considering its ability to supply or reserve. This becomes absolutely true for developing countries as there is more dependency on nature in terms of economic gain and well-being of the people. Therefore approaches such as the ecorestoration can be used as sustainable economic pathway to regain the nature and gradual development of the natural resources [94]. For example ecorestoration of the coral reef ecosystem in Indonesia and Mesoamerica could bring additional benefits up to 2.6 billion USD on annual basis in terms of providing sustainable ecosystem services [95]. Further, mangrove restoration practices can improve the productivity of aquaculture practice up to 3.0 billion USD on annual basis [96]. Approaches such as ecorestoration of agroecosystem, mangrove vegetation along with proper management of water resources would help to build a climate resilient ecosystem development and would bring positive net gain of about four times in comparison to their investment [97].
Ecological restoration often creates various forms of livelihood generation. Therefore, moving toward ecological restoration could be a suitable way of creating employment opportunity, gradual build up off natural resources [98]. Further, landscape restoration in US creates more job opportunity in comparison to other industrial sector [99]. In New Zealand investment of NZD 1.1 billion toward ecorestoration activities has created more than 10,000 jobs [100]. Further, plantation of seedlings in Ethiopia has promoted significant growth of forest cover till 2030 [101].
1.3.2 Food Security
Food security is a big issue for the world, which has been addressed under UN sustainability goals 2030 which requires a diverse landscape and healthy ecosystem. Therefore, sustainable agroecosystem becomes the key for sustainable production of food. Various ecofriendly practices such as restoration of the degraded habitat, agroecological principles, climate smart agriculture practices agroecological intensification can bring potential benefits in terms of ecosystem health and yield. Various climate smart practices can be implemented to promote the process of ecosystem restoration [102]. In this context, Agroforestry may increase the food production for 1.3 billion people [103], and may have major contribution in increasing soil macronutrient level and soil C. It is the urgent need to explore the potential of microorganisms in the form of natural bioremediation process that would help to restore the quality of degraded habitat. In this process, addition of nutrients and microorganisms could be highly beneficial [104]. For achieving the food security targets the ecorestoration of various coastal ecosystems are required on sustainable basis Management of ecorestoration of the coastal ecosystems requires transformation and adoption of ecofriendly technology that leads to lesser ecosystem damage and habitat degradation [105]. As per the reports of scientific work, ecorestoration of the mangrove habitat across the globe would provide additional 60 trillion aquaculture species in the coastal ecosystems on annual basis [106].
1.3.3 Clean Water
Ecorestoration of wetland ecosystem and riparian areas helps to improve the water quality by arresting the movement of pollutants and sediments. According to one report, Itaipu hydroelectric dam in Brazil has brought potential benefits in the upstream areas through terraced field and reforested river banks [107]. Integrated approach of afforestation and agriculture practices is helpful in reducing nutrient and sediment pollution in water across various largest cities of the globe [108]. Thus such approaches would bring an additional benefit of USD 890 million on annual basis in various large cities across the globe [109]. Proper management of the irrigation facility may also reduce the water use which can be fruitful for 1.4 billion people [110]. Regeneration of tropical forest in Madagascar is helpful in developing water resources [111].
1.3.4 Health and Well-Being
Health is a big issue, which governs the physiological and mental health of human beings. Ecosystem is an integral part of human well-being and therefore well-being of ecosystem improves the quality of human health [112]. Researches on afforestation activities in the urban and peri-urban areas would help to reduce the ambient temperature along with ambient air pollution [113]. Further, it would help to reduce the load of air pollution and subsequently improve the health of the people. It is a big issue as it has been reported that over 9 million premature deaths across the globe has happened due to air pollution [114]. Fires utilized for converting peat lands in to cultivable land also imposes negative consequences causing more than 30,000 deaths on annual basis in various countries across the globe. In this regard peat land restoration would be a suitable strategy to combat the problem reducing 66% mortality [115]. Spreading of disease infections due to altered land use and greater exposure to wild life is taking place rapidly. Further, deforestation leads to outbreak of diseases like malaria. Thus maintaining the natural condition would not only improve the psychological health as well as it would also improve the human health and well-being [42, 116, 117]. Restoration activities of the green vegetal cover would add to the prosperity and well-being of human beings.
1.3.5 Climate Change Mitigation
Climate change is a mega event for today’s world and has got severe negative consequences in this regard. Therefore, combating global warming, followed by emission reduction has become more essential to fight against the mega event of climate change [118]. In this connection, proper land management through ecorestoration activities would be a fruitful option to reduce greenhouse effect [119]. From the emission reduction part, restoration often frames a key element through climate smart practices and nature oriented solutions. Such solutions include proper land management in terms of existing forest, farming and pasture land followed by restoring more than 200 million hectares of land area [92]. Under agroecosystem, restoration activities have the potential to reduce the net CO2 emission to the ambient atmosphere and can mitigate Changing climate up to 20% till 2030 [119]. Restoration of the degenerating wetlands could provide 14% contribution in terms of climate change mitigation [119]. Ecorestoration of the mangrove habitat has the capability of sequestration of 0.69 Gt C in the form of aboveground biomass and has the potential to arrest loss of 0.296 Gt C from top soil [106].
1.3.6 Climate Change Adaptation
Apart from combating climate change, coping or adapting with the changing climate reflects equal importance. In these connection ecorestoration activities in various ecosystem helps in climatic adaptation and thus increases the ecosystem resiliency and causes reduction of the vulnerability of extreme climatic events [120]. Management in terms of sustainability approaches; ecological resiliency, conservation and protection of the biodiversity are the key elements of climate change adaptation process [97]. Ecorestoration of the coastal ecosystems is also helpful in reducing coastal surges. Restoring the mangrove habitat has proved to be helpful for combating tsunamis [121]. This was evident in countries like Philippines, reduces climatic risks in gulf coast of United States , protection of oyster reefs in Mobile Bay, Alabama, USA and many more benefits [122–124]. Further it has been reported that ecorestoration of the wetland habitat, oyster reefs brings a significant level of economic gain in Florida [125]. Inland ecorestoration approaches also bring potential benefits that tend to reduce the hazards of extreme climatic events. A case study from Singapore reveals that ecorestoration of the various freshwater habitats tend to reduce the flood prone areas and their associated hazards [126]. Restoration of the upland areas tends to reduce the negative consequences of drought and rainfall [97]. Another case study from Mexico reveals that restoration approaches in watersheds helps to improve the hydrological regime and thus improve the availability of water [127]. Similar improvement in water supply was reported from city of Quito through ecorestoration of the peat land [128]. Further ecorestoration of the green cover in urban and periurban areas tend to regulate the temperature and provide natural cooling effect [129].
1.3.7 Security
From the overall sustainability and security perspective, there is urgent need to implement ecorestoration approaches across various habitats and ecosystem types across the globe. It could be an effective tool for conflict management and overall social well-being of the people. Ecorestoration would also be helpful in terms of creating employment opportunities and maintaining daily livelihood of people [130]. Recognizing the rights of local dwellers in ecorestoration approaches would be a key for successful implementation and well-being of human civilization. This was evident from Socio Bosque programme in Ecuador that helped to reduce deforestation and ecological invasion process [131]. Recognizing the rights of people in ecorestoration approaches helps to motivate them toward reverse direction of degradation and sustainable management of resources [132]. According to one report, up to 70 million people would be migrating till 2050 due to land degradation event. Therefore, addressing the issue of resource crisis would be very much important in the upcoming times to combat the human migration process [21].
1.3.8 Biodiversity
In order to combat loss of biodiversity habitat loss needs to be curbed and degraded ecosystems needs to be curbed [21]. Habitat loss and degradation seems to be the major threat for most of species as per IUCN Red List [133]. Therefore, habitat alteration process needs to be stopped in order to check the loss of biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystem [134]. According to scientific reports, inhibiting 15% of converted land followed by future conversion of productive lands could save more than half of species at global level [135]. Further, inhibition of 15% of the habitat was set as global target in Aichi Biodiversity Target 15 and SDG 15 (Life on land). Ecorestoration of biodiversity would also be helpful toward improved ecosystem services [136].
